Chapter1 Relativity

1
Modern Physics
by
Yao-Hwa Wu
Chapter 1
Relativity
Textbook: Arthur Beiser, Concepts of Modern Physics,
Sixth Edition, 2003
2
Outline
Albert Einstein showed in 1905 how measurements of time
and space are affected by motion between an observer and
what is being observed
Relativity connects space and time, matter and energy,
electricity and magnetism
1. Special Relativity
2. Time Dilation
3. Doppler Effect
4. Length Contraction
5. Electricity and Magnetism
6. Relativistic Momentum
7. Mass and Energy
8. Energy and Momentum
3
1.1 Special Relativity
All motion is relative; the speed of light in free space is the same
for all observers.
Fundamental quantities in physics length (L), time interval (t),
and mass (m)
Process of measurement when motion is involved
(I) Frames of Reference part of the description of the motion
Inertial frame of reference: one in which Newtons first law of
motion holds
any frame moving at constant velocity (constant speed and
direction) relative to an inertial frame
no universal frame of reference, no absolute motion
Special relativity treats problems that involve inertial frames
of reference
General relativity describes the relationship between gravity
and the geometrical structure of space and
time in accelerated frames of reference
( ) ( ) motion in rest at L L >
4
(II) Postulates of Special Relativity
(1) Principle of relativity The laws of physics are the same
in all inertial frames of reference. The basic laws have the same
mathematical form in all inertial frames of reference.
(2) The speed of light in free space has the same value in all
inertial frames of reference,
Michelson-Morley interferometer experiment two consequences
(a) All motion is relative to a specified frame of reference, not to
a universal one.
(b) The speed of light is the same for all observers and the
measurement of the speed of light was achieved.
(III) Consequences of Special Relativity
Time interval and length are relative quantities
Time dilation: clock ticks more slowly in a moving frames
Length contraction: meter stick is shorter in the direction of
motion
dt
p d
F
=
s m 10 998 . 2
8
= c
5 Figure 1.1 The speed of light is the same to all observers.
6
Figure 1.2 Michelson-Morley interferometer experiment
Parallel light
from single source
Mirror A
Glass plate
Half-silvered mirror
Viewing screen
Mirror B
7
Outline
2. Time Dilation
3. Doppler Effect
7. Mass and Energy
8
1.2 Time Dilation
All processes including life occur more slowly in a moving inertial
reference frame or time interval is longer.
Proper time of the interval between the events : events occur
at the same place in an observers frame of reference
Time dilation: when witnessed from the ground, the events that
mark the beginning and end of the time interval occur at different
places, and in consequence the duration of the interval t appears
longer than the proper time.
e proper tim
2
2
0
0
0 0
= =
c
L
t
c
L t
0
t
0
t t >
spacecraft the on t measuremen s pilot' the
0
t
ground the on measured clock moving of interval time t
( )
( )
|
.
|
\
|

=
= =
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
2
2
2
2
0
2 2
2
0
2
2
0
2 2
2
2
2
0
2
1
2 4
4 2 2
c
v
c
L
v c
L
t L v c
t vt
L
ct
9
Figure 1.3 A simple clock. Each tick corresponds to a round trip
of the light pulse from the lower mirror to the upper one and back
Mirror
Recording device
ticks
Mirror
Photosensitive surface
Light pulse
Meter stick
10
Figure 1.4 A light-pulse clock at rest on the ground as seen by an
observer on the ground. The dial represents a conventional clock on
the ground.
11
Figure 1.5 A light-pulse clock in a spacecraft as seen by an
observer on the ground. The mirrors are parallel to the direction
of motion of the spacecraft.
12
dilation time
1 1
2
2
2
0
2
2
0
=
c
v
t
c
v
c L
t
in clocks that finds observer every reciprocal is effect The -
rest at clocks n slowly tha more tick him to relative motion
him. to relative
s 3600second clock earth on Observer 1.1 Example = -
s 3601second earth on observer by seen spacecraft on clock =
earth. to relative speed s ' spacecraft the Find
2
2
2
2
0
1
3600
3601
1
c
v
c
v
t
t
=
s m 10 1 . 7 0236 . 0
6
= = c v
moon to that went spacecraft II Apollo of speed highest The
v << = s m 10,840
13
finite is because observer, any to backward run not does Time c -
order same the in appear will events of sequence , , ,
3 2 1
- t t t
everywhere observers all to
on depends that one but concept, absolute an not is ty Simultanei -
observer the of motion of state the
not general in are frame one in us simultaneo are that events Two -
first the respect to with moving frame second a in us simultaneo
involved is medium no Light -
14
1.6
(a)
(b)
()
15
Outline
2. Time Dilation
3. Doppler Effect
7. Mass and Energy
16
1.3 Doppler Effect
: sound in effect Doppler -
| - sound of pitch approach listener and Source
+ - sound of pitch recede listener and Source
frequency observed frequency source
0

c
c
v
V
1
1
+
=
0

source he whether t on depending varied sound in effect Doppler -
moving are both or observer, or the
( ) source the toward motion for observer of speed + = v
( ) source the toward motion for
( ) observer the toward motion for source of speed V + =
( ) observer the toward motion for
17
or water, air as such medium material a in only occur waves Sound -
motion which w.r.t. reference of frame a itself is medium this and
measurable are observer and source of
source of motion relative only and involved is medium no Light -
meaningful is observer and
sound in that from differ must light in effect Doppler -
: light in effect Doppler -
a wave emits and sec times ticks clock that a as source light
0

tick each light with of
1.7 Fig. see : situations three Examine -
( ) and him between line a lar to perpendicu moving Observer 1
source light the
0
=
1
ticks between e Proper tim
0
t
18
Figure 1.7 The frequency of the light seen by an observer depends on
the direction and speed of the observers motion relative to its source
Observer
Source
19
2
2
0
1
observer of reference of frame the in
c
v
t
t
=
( )
2
2
0
2
2
1
1
1
transverse
c
v
t
c
v
t
=
= =
0

0 0
< =
2
2
1 light in effect doppler transverse
c
v
( ) source light the from receding Observer 2
ticks between source the from away distance the ravels Observer t vt -
c
vt
t T + = waves successive of arrival the between time Total
c
v
c
v
t
c
v
c
v
t
c
v
t
c
vt
t T
+
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + =
1
1
1
1
1
0
2
2
0
20
( )
0 0
<
+
=
+
= =
c
v
c
v
c
v
c
v
t T
1
1
1
1
1 1
receding
0
( ) source light the g approachin Observer 3
c
v
c
v
t
c
v
c
v
t
c
v
t
c
vt
t T
+
=
|
.
|
\
|

=
|
.
|
\
|
= =
1
1
1
1
1
0
2
2
0
( )
0 0
>
+
=
+
= =
c
v
c
v
c
v
c
v
t T
1
1
1
1
1 1
g approachin
0
21
light in effect doppler al Longitudin -
c
v
c
v
+
=
0
1
1

other each g approachin observer and source for 0 > v
other each from receding observer and source for 0 < v
light. red a through going caught is driver The 1.2 Example -
( ) ( ) ? Hz 10 80 . 4 red Hz, 10 60 . 5 green
14 14
= = =
c
v
c
v
c
v
c
v
+
=
+
=
0
1
1
10 8 . 4 10 6 . 5
1
1
14 14

h km 10 65 . 1 1525 . 0 36 . 1 36 . 2 1 36 . 1 1
8
= = =
|
.
|
\
|
= + v
c
v
c
v
c
v
c
v
22
measure to police by used are s radar wave in shift Doppler -
speeds vehicle
( ) Universe Expanding I
astronomy in tool important an is light in effect Doppler -
toward shifted all are stars of galaxies distant of lines Spectral -
shifts red frequency low
us from receding are Galaxies -
distance to al proportion are recession of speeds The -
expanding is universe entire The
law s Hubble' called is ality proportion This
ago years billion 13 theory Bang Big -
exploded mass hot intensely small, a very
protons, electrons, into ned matter tur the
neutrons and
23
Figure 1.8 (a) Graph of recession speed versus distance for distant
galaxies. The speed of recession averages about 21 km/s per
million light years.
Approximate distance, light years
R
e
c
e
s
s
i
o
n
s
p
e
e
d
s
,
k
m
/
s
24
at earth the from receding is galaxy distant A 1.3 Example -
( ) ? = A = = nm 500 green . s m 10 12 . 6
7
v
c
v
c
v
c
v
c
v
+
+
=
0 0
1
1
1
1

other each from receding observer and source for 0 < v
nm 615
10 3
10 12 . 6
1
10 3
10 12 . 6
1
nm 500
1
1
8
7
8
7
=
+
=
+
=
0
c
v
c
v

nm 115 500 615 = = = A
0

25
Outline
2. Time Dilation
3. Doppler Effect
7. Mass and Energy
26
1.4 Length Contraction
shorter means Faster -
the of direction the in only occurs n contractio Length -
motion relative
frame rest the in object an of length the length proper
0
= - L
another star to one from speed a with traveling spaceship A v -
spaceship the in one and Earth on one : observers two
stars the between distance the : Earth on observer
0
= L
v
L
t
0
voyage the complete to time = A =
e proper tim : spaceship the in observer
0
= = A
v
L
t
2
2
0
2
2
0
1
dilation time
1
c
v
v
L
v
L
c
v
t
t
= =
A
= A
2
2
0
1
c
v
L L =
27
Figure 1.9 Muon decay as seen by different observers.
As found by observer
on the ground, the
muon altitude is
0
L
As found by observer
moving with the muon,
the ground is L below
it, which is a shorter
distance than
0
L
28
and dilation on time based derived is n contractio Length -
relativity of principle the
( ) 10.4km altitudes high at created particles unstable muon -
( ) when they protons largely particles ray - cosmic fast by
atmosphere s earth' in the nuclei atomic with collide
( ) lifetime average s 2 . 2 207
0 muon
= = = t e q m m
e
s 2 . 2 after positron or electron to decays muon
0
= - t
0.998c s m 10 994 . 2 with level sea reaches muon
8
= = - v
e proper tim frame reference muon rest in observer
0
- t
t - frame reference ground on the observer
dilation time having
s 8 . 34
998 . 0 1
10 2 . 2
1
2
6
2
2
0
=
=

c
v
t
t
0
frame reference muon rest in observer vt h = -
29
length proper frame reference ground on the observer
0
- h
km 41 . 10 10 8 . 34 10 994 . 2
6 8
0
= = =

vt h
km 66 . 0 998 . 0 1 km 4 . 10 1
2
2
2
0
0
0
= = = =
c
v
h
t
t
h h
shorter is length relativity of principle the From -
n contractio length motion of direction the in
2
2
0
1
c
v
L L =
30
Figure 1.10 Relativistic length contraction. Only lengths in the
direction of motion are affected
31
1.11 ()
()(0.8c)
32
Outline
2. Time Dilation
3. Doppler Effect
7. Mass and Energy
33
1.6 Electricity and Magnetism
is Q charge invariant ically relativist is charge Electric -
frames reference inertial all in same the
single a from result both forces electric and forces Magnetic -
particles charged between occurs n that interactio EM
bridge the is Relativity -
34
Figure 1.12 How the magnetic attraction between parallel currents
arises.
35
( ) 0 0 a 1.12 Fig.
II I
= = = - f i i
( ) direction same in the are and b 1.12 Fig.
II I
i i -
II and I between force Coulomb no neutral
II and I between force attractive magnetic
ic relativist a undergoes charges moving their of spacing the
laboratory the from seen as n contractio
( ) negative the I, in charge negative a by seen as c 1.12 Fig. -
motion. in are charges positive the as rest where at are II in charges
net a to leads charges positive the of spacing contracted The
I. in charge negative the attracts that II in charge positive
( ) positive the I, in charge positive a by seen as d 1.12 Fig. -
motion. in are charges negative the as rest where at are II in charges
net a to leads charges negative the of spacing contracted The
I. in charge positve the attracts that II in charge negative
36
37
Outline
2. Time Dilation
3. Doppler Effect
7. Mass and Energy
38
1.7 Relativistic Momentum
B of that as same e exactly th is S from seen as A of behavior The -
. from seen as S
'
S and S, in conserved is K.E. collision Elastic ' -
S in rest at is B and S, in rest at is A collision Before
'
-
at instant th same at the speed at direction in thrown was B
B
v y ' ' -
A
v y speed at direction in thrown A was +
B A
v v ' =
occurs collision apart, Y positions from thrown are particles the If -
S in seen as
2
at and S, from seen as
2
at
'
= =
'
=
Y
y y
Y
y
e proper tim S in A for time trip - Round
0
= -
A
v
Y
T
e proper tim S in B for time trip - Round
0

'
=
'
-
B
v
Y
T
39
Figure 1.13 An elastic collision as observed in two different frames
of reference. The balls are initially Y apart, which is the same
distance in both frames since moves only in the x direction.
S
'
Collision as seen
from frame S:
Collision as seen from
frame :
S
'
40
B B A A
v m v m = - S in conserved is momentum Linear
S in are , , , -
B B A A
v m v m
S in seen as B for time trip - round
1
2
2
0
=
= =
c
v
T
T
T
Y
v
B
0
2
2
1
T
c
v
Y
v
B
=
2
2
0
2
2
0
1
1
c
v
m m
T
c
v
Y
m
T
Y
m
B A B A
=
=
speed relative the upon depend mass of ts Measuremen -
2
2
1
c
v
m
m
A
B
=
41
mass rest or mass proper S in rest at is
0
= = - m m m
A A
2
2
0
1
mass ic relativist
c
v
m
m m m
B
= = -
( ) v m
c
v
v m
v v m p

= = -
2
2
0
1
momentum ic relativist
2
2
1
1
c
v
=
( )
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= = = -
2
2
1
law second ic relativist
c
v
v m
dt
d
v m
dt
d
dt
p d
F
dt
v d
m a m
= =
and mass of particle a of on accelerati the Find 1.5 Example m -
F F v

where , force constant by upon acted is it when velocity

v
to parallel is
42
Figure 1.14 The momentum of an object moving at the velocity v relative to an
observer. The relativistic momentum mv is always correct; the classical
momentum mv is valid for velocities much smaller than c.
L
i
n
e
a
r
m
o
m
e
n
t
u
m
p
Relativistic momentum
mv
Classical
Momentum
mv
43
( )
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= = = =
2
2
1
c
v
v m
dt
d
v m
dt
d
dt
p d
F
dt
v d
a
: solution
a m
c
v
a m
dt
dv
c
v
c
v
c
v
m F

3
=
|
.
|
\
|

=
(
(
(
(
(
|
.
|
\
|

+
=
2
3
2
2
2
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
1 1
1
1
2
3
2
2
1
|
.
|
\
|
=
c
v
m
F
a
44
Outline
2. Time Dilation
3. Doppler Effect
7. Mass and Energy
45
1.8 Mass and Energy
2
mc E = -
( )
( )
} } } }
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= = = =
mv mv S S
c
v
mv
vd mv vd ds
dt
mv d
Fds E K
0
2
2
0 0 0
1
. .
v
v
v
c
v
mc
c
v
mv
c
v
vdv
m
c
v
mv
0
2
2
2
2
2
2
0
2
2
0
2
2
2
1
1 1 1
+
= }
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
mc
c
v
mc
mc
c
v
mc
c
v
mv
= +
=
2 2
. . mc mc E K =
2
0
2
. . . . energy Total mc E K E E K mc E + = + = = =
2
0
energy Rest mc E = =
46
each fragments, two into explodes body stationary A 1.6 Example -
to relative 0.6 of speeds at apart move that Kg 1.0 mass rest of c
body. original the of mass rest the Find body. original the
: solution
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
2 2
2
1
2
0
1 1
energy Total
c
v
c m
c
v
c m
c m c m mc E
= + = = =
1

c v v m m 6 . 0 Kg 0 . 1
2 1 2 1
= = = =
Kg 5 . 2
6 . 0 1
Kg 0 . 1 2
2 2
0
=
= =
c
E
m
different are energy and mass energy mass of on Conservati -
thing same the of aspects
E energy total quantity Conserved -
same the remains energy total the frame, reference given a in E E
frame reference another in measured different be may E
47
m mass proper quantity Invariant -
frames inertial all in same the
2
m KW 1.4 of rate at the earth the reaches energy Solar 1.7 Example -
mass the does much how By Sun. of direction the lar to perpendicu
loss? energy this to owing second per decrease sun the of
: solution
Solar radiation
2
4 . 1 m KW
A
P
=
48
: sun by radiated power Total
( ) W 10 0 . 4 10 5 . 1 4 10 4 . 1 4
26
2
11 3
= = =
E
R
A
P
P
s J 10 4.0 second per energy rest loses Sun
26 2
0
= = mc E
( )
s Kg 10 4 . 4
10 3
10 0 . 4
9
2
8
26
2
0
=
= =
c
E
m
Kg 10 0 . 2
30
sun
= M
day Kg 10 8 . 3 24 60 60 10 4 . 4 M day One
14 9
= =
days 10 26 . 5
10 8 . 3
10 0 . 2
Need
15
14
30
sun
=
=
M
M
49
( ) Speeds at Low Energy Kinetic I
2
2
1
energy kinetic Classical mv KE = -
2
2
2
2
2 2
1
energy kinetic ic Relativist mc
c
v
mc
mc mc KE
= = -
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
c
v
c
v c
v
c v + ~
<< <<
2 2 2
2
2
2
1
2
1
1 mv mc mc
c
v
KE =
|
.
|
\
|
+ ~
50
Figure 1.16 A comparison between the classical and relativistic
formulas for the ratio between KE of a moving body and its rest
energy
2
mc
51
Outline
2. Time Dilation
3. Doppler Effect
7. Mass and Energy
52
1.9 Energy and Momentum
system isolated an in conserved momentum and energy Total -
invariant energy Rest -
2
2
4 2
2
2
2
2
1
1
energy Total
c
v
c m
E
c
v
mc
E
=
2
2
2 2 2
2 2
2
2
1
1
Momemtum
c
v
c v m
c p
c
v
mv
p
=
( )
2
2 4 2
2
2
2
2
4 2
2
2
2 2 2 4 2
2 2 2
1
1
1
mc c m
c
v
c
v
c m
c
v
c v m c m
c p E = =
|
.
|
\
|

=
=
( )
2 2
2
2 2
c p mc E + =
( )
2 2 2
2
2
c p E mc =
reference of frames all in value same the has which invariant
53
( ) Particles Massless I
( )
2 2
2
0
2 2
2
2
particles all For c p E c p mc E + = + =
0 if 0 If = = << = p E c v m
pc E c v m = = = particle massless 0 If
provided momentum and energy possess exist that particles Massless -
light of speed the with travel that they
( ) 0 with particle uncharged neutrino and photon = m
( ) ( ) eV energy binding and ionization olts Electronv II
eV 10 GeV 1 eV 10 MeV 1 J 10 1.6 eV 1
9 6 19
= = =

physics particle - elementary and Neclear -
2
c GeV 0.938 mass rest s proton' =
54
2
c Mev 0.511 mass rest electron =
c GeV 251 . 1
8 . 0 1
8 . 0 938 . 0
1
8 . 0 if
2
2
2
=
= =
c
c
v
mv
p c v
Kg 10 1 . 9 1836 1836 proton
31
= = m m
p
0.9385GeV
10 10 6 . 1
10 1 . 9 1836
9 19
2 31
2
0
=

= =

c
c m E
p
2
c GeV 0.9385 =
p
m
( ) ( ) 0 photon a and c MeV 511 . 0 electron An 1.8 Example
2
= = - m m
each. of energy total the Find . c MeV 2.000 of momenta have both
( ) ( ) MeV 064 . 2 000 . 2 511 . 0 Electron
2
2
4
2
2 2 4 2
= + = + = c c c p c m E
MeV 000 . 2 000 . 2 photon = = = c pc E
55
Appendix I to Chapter 1 The Lorentz Transformation
( ) t z y x , , , S reference of frame inertial an in occurs event An -
v
at S w.r.t. moving S reference of frame inertial an in observer An ' -

( ) t z y x ' ' ' ' , , , event same the seeing
( ) tion Transforma Galilean I
S and S of origins the when started are systems both in Clocks ' -
ed synchroniz coincide
vt x x = '
y y = '
z z = '
t t = '
ation transform Galilean
tion transforma velocity Galilean
v v
t d
x d
v
x x
=
'
'
= '
y y
v
t d
y d
v =
'
'
= '
z z
v
t d
z d
v =
'
'
= '
56
Figure 1.22 Frame S moves in the +x direction with the speed v
relative to frame S.
57
special of postulates the of both violates ation transform Galilean -
: relativity
( ) frames inertial S and S both in physics of equations same The 1 '
very become magnetism and y electricit of equations The
ation transform Galilean using different
( ) in determined whether c light of speed the of value same The 2
S or S '
v c c = '
( ) tion Transforma Lorentz II
ip relationsh correct the of nature about the guess reasonable A -
is and between x x '
( ) vt x k x = '
v t x k of function a be may but or either upon depend not does -
58
( ) : ions considerat several from follows of choice The vt x k x = ' -
( ) ( ) ( ) of y possibilit the has It 3 Simple 2 and in linear 1 x x'
vt x x = ' to reducing
S and S both in form same the have must physics of Equations ' -
v v
( ) t v x k x ' + ' =
y y = '
z z = '
t t = '
( ) | | ( ) t kv vt x k t v vt x k k x ' + = ' + =
2
x
kv
k
kt t
|
.
|
\
|

+ = '
2
1
first the satisfies that ation transform coordinate a Constitute
relativity special of postulate
k of evaluation postulate second The -
59
1.23 (a) S+x
SS
ccS
(b)
S(a) (b)
60
( ) origin common at off set is light flare a , 0 and 0 At = ' = - t t
S and S of '
t c x ct x ' = ' =
( )
|
.
|
\
|

+ = ' = = ' x
kv
k
kt c t c vt x k x
2
1
ct
v
c
k
c
v
ct
c
kv
k
k
c
v
k
ct
c
kv
k
k
kvt ckt
x =
|
.
|
\
|

+
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
+
=
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2 2
2
2
2 2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
c
v
k v
c
k c
v
v
c
k
c
v
=
|
.
|
\
|
= =
|
.
|
\
|

+
2
2
1
1
c
v
k
=
61
2
2
1
c
v
vt x
x
= '
tion Transforma Lorentz -
y y = ' z z = '
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1 1
c
v
c
vx
t
v
x
k
t k x
kv
k
kt t
=
(
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
.
|
\
|

+ = '
2
2
2
1
c
v
c
vx
t
t
= '
of formulas basic that the showed Lorentz A. H. physicist Dutch -
frames inertial all in same the are netism electromag
the using n contractio length ic relativist the Derive 1.9 Example -
ation transform Lorentz
S frame moving the in axis the along lying rod A ' ' x
length proper
1 2 0
' ' = x x L
t x x L at time frame stationary in measured length
1 2
=
62
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1 1
c
v
vt x
x
c
v
vt x
x
= '
= '
2
2
0
2
2
2
2
1 2
1 2 0
1
1 1
c
v
L L
c
v
L
c
v
x x
x x L =
= ' ' =
( ) tion Transforma Lorentz Inverse III
their to S frame moving in made ts measuremen Converts ' -
S in s equivalent v v
2
2
1
c
v
t v x
x
' + '
=
y y ' = z z ' =
2
2
2
1
c
v
c
x v
t
t
'
+ '
=
the using dilation for time formula the Derive 1.10 Example -
ation transform Lorentz inverse
63
frame moving S at S in Clock ' ' ' - x
2 1 2 1
, S , S t t t t ' ' '
1 2 1 2 0
S In e proper tim S In t t t t t t = ' ' = '
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2 1
1
1 1
c
v
c
x v
t
t
c
v
c
x v
t
t
'
+ '
=
'
+ '
=
2
2
0
2
2
1 2
1 2
1 1
c
v
t
c
v
t t
t t t
' '
= =
( ) Addition Velocity IV
dt
dz
dt
dy
dt
dx
z y x
= = = V V V : S In
t d
z d
t d
y d
t d
x d
z y x
'
'
= '
'
'
= '
'
'
= ' ' V V V : S In
64
2
2
1
c
v
t vd x d
dx
' + '
=
y d dy ' = z d dz ' =
2
2
2
1
c
v
c
x vd
t d
dt
'
+ '
=
tion transforma velocity ic Relativist -
2
2
2
V
1
V
1
V
c
v
v
c
t d
x d
v
v
t d
x d
c
x vd
t d
t vd x d
dt
dx
x
x
x
'
+
+ '
=
'
'
+
+
'
'
=
'
+ '
' + '
= =
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
V
1
1 V
1
1 1
V
c
v
c
v
c
t d
x d
v
c
v
t d
y d
c
x vd
t d
c
v
y d
dt
dy
x
y
y
'
+
'
=
'
'
+
'
'
=
'
+ '
'
= =
65
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
V
1
1 V
1
1 1
V
c
v
c
v
c
t d
x d
v
c
v
t d
z d
c
x vd
t d
c
v
z d
dt
dz
x
z
z
'
+
'
=
'
'
+
'
'
=
'
+ '
'
= =
direction its in S frame moving in emitted is light V if ' = ' - c
x
S. to relative motion of
c
c
vc
v c
c
v
v
x
x
x
=
+
+
=
'
+
+ '
=
2 2
1
V
1
V
V
If earth. the w.r.t. 0.90 at moving is Spacecraft 1.11 Example c -
same the in 0.50 of speed relative a at pass to is spacecraft c
earth? the w.r.t. have must speed what direction,
c
c
c c
c c
c
v
v
x
x
x
97 . 0
9 . 0 5 . 0
1
9 . 0 5 . 0
V
1
V
V
2 2
=
+
+
=
'
+
+ '
=
66
( ) ty Simultanei V
may observer one usly to simultaneo place take to seem that Events -
motion. relative in observer another to us simultaneo be not
0
time same at the flares of pair a of off setting the events Two t -
earth on , locations different at but
2 1
x x
v h flight wit in spacecraft a of pilot -
2
2
2
2
0
2 2 0
2
2
2
1
0
1 1 0
1
,
1
,
c
v
c
vx
t
t x t
c
v
c
vx
t
t x t
= '
= '
events us simultaneo , , earth On
2 1 0
- x x t
( )
us simultaneo not
1
spacecraft On
2
2
2
1 2
1 2

= ' ' -
c
v
c
x x v
t t
concept relative a ty Simultanei -

Chapter1 Relativity

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Chapter1 Relativity

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1

where , force constant by upon acted is it when velocity

at S w.r.t. moving S reference of frame inertial an in observer An ' -

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