Red Line indicates the Temperature of that particular region

Introduction
Line-of-sight propagation refers to electro-magnetic radiation or acoustic wave

propagation. Electromagnetic transmission includes light emissions traveling in a straight line. The rays or waves may be diffracted, refracted, reflected, or absorbed by atmosphere and obstructions with material and generally cannot travel over the horizon or behind obstacles. Especially radio signals, like all electromagnetic radiation including light emissions, travel in straight lines. At low frequencies (below approximately 2 MHz or so) these signals travel as ground waves, which follow the Earth's curvature due to diffraction with the layers of atmosphere. This enables AM radio signals in low-noise environments to be received well after the transmitting antenna has dropped below the horizon. This is known as Ground Wave Propagation. Additionally, frequencies between approximately 1 and 30 MHz can be reflected by the F1/F2 Layer, thus giving radio transmissions in this range a potentially global reach, again along multiply deflected straight lines. The effects of multiple diffraction or reflection lead to macroscopically "quasi-curved paths". This is known as Sky-Wave Propagation.

However, at higher frequencies and in lower levels of the atmosphere, neither of these effects apply. Thus any obstruction between the transmitting antenna and the receiving antenna will block the signal, just like the light that the eye may sense. Therefore, since the ability to visually see a transmitting antenna (disregarding the

limitations of the eye's resolution) roughly corresponds to the ability to receive a radio signal from it, the propagation characteristic of high-frequency radio is called "line-ofsight". The farthest possible point of propagation is referred to as the "radio horizon".

Line of sight radio communications

Base on the above, it might be thought that most radio communications links at VHF and above follow a line of sight path. This is not strictly true and it is found that even under normal conditions radio signals are able to travel or propagate over distances that are greater than the line of sight. The reason for the increase in distance travelled by the radio signals is that they are refracted by small changes that exist in the Earth's atmosphere close to the ground. It is found that the refractive index of the air close to the ground is very slightly higher than that higher up. As a result the radio signals are bent towards the area of higher refractive index, which is closer to the ground. It thereby extends the range of the radio signals. The refractive index of the atmosphere varies according to a variety of factors. Temperature, atmospheric pressure and water vapour pressure all influence the value. Even small changes in these variables can make a significant difference because radio signals can be refracted over whole of the signal path and this may extend for many kilometers.

Tropo
Tropospheric (a.k.a. "Tropo") DX("D" stands for distance and "X" for unknown) modes are defined by the mechanics behind them. A Tropo DX mode is any condition that scatters, reflects or refracts signals in the Troposphere allowing long distance reception (and hence interference) to occur in the VHF, UHF and/or microwave radio bands. Refraction occurs when the normal Index of Refraction has been altered. Vertical boundaries between different types of air masses usually cause this where a temperature inversion (warm air over cooler air) exists. This causes signal enhancement. When the vertical boundary becomes especially sharp, the amount of refraction becomes so severe that signals extend a great distance as though caught in a duct, thus the reference to tropospheric ducting. Although, temperature inversion is the key, the most important influencing factor is water vapour (humidity). Thus, a warm dry airmass on top of a cooler humid airmass produces the best conditions. Dry Mexican air flowing across the Gulf of Mexico or Dry Saharan air flowing across the Meditteranean, are two examples of prime tropoproducing conditions. High pressure subsidence (the sinking and drying out of air), if it occurs over the oceans, can produce reception across several thousands of km! Hawaii to California reception, both on UHF and VHF, is not as uncommon as one might think. On the other hand, high mountains can physically block tropo DX and deserts are generally too dry for tropo. Thus, tropo is rare in the very mountainous or dry regions of the world.

As far as classifying tropo, there is no sharp line between enhancement and ducting. Rather than classify the type using the actual physics involved, the heights of the inversions can be used as a general rule of thumb. So typically "enhancement" is caused by inversions below 450 m (1500 ft) above ground, and "ducting" is caused by inversions above 450 m. (The layer of the troposphere below 450 m is called the "boundary layer" in meteorology).

Tropospheric DX Modes:
Line-of-Sight (GW)
It is normal continuous reception where the receiving and transmitting antennas can see each other, taking into account the 4/3 Earth curvature of radio waves. Note: Radio waves tend to refract or bend as they follow the curvature of the earth. This extends the radio horizon beyond the optical horizon. This bending is caused by the tendency of a radio wave to travel slower as the density of the air increases. Since part of the radio wave travels near the earth where the air is denser, this bending occurs. When studying the behavior of radio waves in space, it is more convenient to use a path that is a straight line instead of a curve. This requires that the radius of earth curvature be simultaneously readjusted to preserve the correct relationship. For the standard atmosphere, the equivalent radius is 4/3 or 1.3 times the actual radius of the earth as shown by experience.

Optical line of sight

d 3.57 h

Effective, or radio, line of sight

d 3.57 h

d = distance between antenna and horizon (km) h = antenna height (m) K = adjustment factor to account for refraction, rule of thumb K = 4/3

Tropospheric Scatter (TrS)

It is ever-present under normal conditions. That's the mode that produces the distant fluttery signals that randomly fade in and out. These are your most distant regular stations that barely make it in. Depending on your location and equipment, tropo scatter

can extend to 300, 500 or even 700 km. The theoretical maximum limit for most TV/radio DXers is 800 km (500 mi) (Some semi-professional setups can extend furthur). Scatter is caused by small particles/droplets in the air such as haze, dust, volcanic ash, clouds, etc.

Tropospheric Enhancement (TrE)

(a.k.a. Tropospheric Refraction) It is common under normal conditions. On most clear nights with calm or light winds, the ground radiates and the air near the ground cools. Eventually an inversion is formed and signals begin to refract off the inversion. Stations that normally fade in and out via tropo scatter come in continuously with increasing strength. Also, weaker tropo scatter stations that are normally not heard (because their signal strengths never cross the background noise threshold signal level) also begin to appear. When the sun comes up, the ground & air heats up, the inversion breaks down and the enhancement disappears. The enhancement is subtle on some nights and very obvious on other nights. Distances are no different than with tropo scatter it's just that the signals are stronger and interference is more intense. Tropo enhancement is greatly influenced by terrain, with valley and coastal paths favoured. ("Fog-prone" areas are also "tropo-prone" areas.). From any one receiving location, multiple directions usually are enhanced at the same time.

Tropospheric Ducting (TrD)

It is an abnormal condition. An inversion gets formed at a much higher level above the ground, the vast majority of duct-producing inversions lie between 450 and 1500 m (1500 to 5000 ft), with a few even between 1500 and 3000 m (5000 to 10,000 ft). These inversions are not formed due to nighttime radiation/cooling but rather because of some other weather phenomenon (high pressure subsidence aloft, warm frontal boundary, cold frontal boundary, oceanic or lake inversion, Chinooks, etc.). Because of this, ducting can occur day or night (though it strengthens at night), is not usually influenced by terrain (the exception being large mountain chains like the Rockies) and from a DXers point of view is usually either uni- or bi-directional. In fact, typical ducts are sharply directional. Signals refract off and also travel along the inversion, thus the analogy of a duct. Strong ducting can result in super-refraction where signals are bent so far in a downwards direction that they actually hit the ground and reflect off it, only to bounce of the top of the inversion again and so on. Distances are theoretically unlimited. One large area can have multiple ducts going on simultaneously, but they are usually parallel paths. It is possible in a very strong high pressure system to have large areas of ducting creating multi-directional openings. These are the rare "blockbuster" openings that bring signals great distances and cause havoc with interference. They are most common over the oceanic areas in the tropics and sub-tropics. This can disrupt many radio communications links (including two way radio communications links) because interference may be encountered that is not normally there. As a result when designing a radio communications link or network, this form of interference must be recognized so that steps can be taken to minimise its effects.

Additional Characteristics of Ducting Ducting may or may not occur simultaneously with enhancement (caused by nighttime cooling). Often there is both a low-level radiational inversion caused by nighttime cooling (producing enhancement) and a mid-level "system-produced" inversion above that (producing ducting). However, just as often there is only the higher duct-producing inversion, especially if the skies are cloudy or if it is windy. So do not use your regular scatter/enhancement stations as propagation beacons for longer-distance DX acheived via ducting! Sometimes ducting can even display a "skip-like" character where distant stations on the same frequency and bearing can be received while closer-by stations are nowhere to be seen. Ducting is also very height selective, with maximum signal transmissions at and just below the altitude of the inversion. Normally ducting DX is received via ground-based inversions. Occasionally inversions can be based above ground, in which case a receiver beneath the duct could completely miss out on the DX opening. Meanwhile, receivers at a higher elevation could, at the same time, be in the midst of a strong opening. It is also possible that a receiver at too high an elevation (above the top of the duct) could also miss out. Ducting conditions usually vary over short time periods as opposed to enhancement which is more stable. Ducts located behind cold fronts ("post-frontal ducts") are

notoriously unstable as paths can even be interrupted by things such as heavy rain showers associated with the cold front itself. Expect the unexpected from these types of ducts with sudden and rapid changes in signal strengths quite common (some postfrontal ducts last only 15 to 30 minutes). High-pressure and oceanic ducts are a bit more stable and can last for days but again expect the unexpected as changes can occur quickly. Frequencies affected by ducting are determined by the vertical thickness of an inversion. Individual ducts will have a LUF (Lowest Usable Frequency) associated with them. Thin inversions (i.e.-thin ducts) will only propagate Microwaves. Thicker inversions will propagate UHF signals as well while the thickest inversions will also propagate VHF signals. Unfortunately there is no reliable method known for forecasting inversion thicknesses. Also, in real-life tests, it has been found that reception at frequencies below the theoretical LUF is usually possible, although there is usually a sharp drop-off in signal strength at the LUF.

Special Cases (Exotic Modes)

Rain Scatter (RS)
It is a rare mode that sometimes occurs on the higher UHF-TV & microwave bands. A band of very heavy rain (or rain and hail) at a distance can scatter or even reflect signals. The effect is the one used for microwave weather radars. Distances are typically around 160 km, though up to 650 km (400 mi) is theoretically possible. (Note that heavy snow is not an useful reflector).

Ice Pellet Scatter (SS)

(called Sleet Scatter in the USA) It is similar to Rain Scatter but is caused by bands of Ice Pellets in the wintertime.

Lightning Scatter (LS)

The theory is that lightning strikes produce ionized trails. Reception is similar to other forms of scatter except that the DX is more burst-like similar to Meteor Scatter (MS). LS is a mode that is very hard to distinguish and rarely reported.

Aircraft Scatter (AS)(a.k.a. Tropospheric Reflection)

It is simply reflection off of aircraft although reflections off of flocks of birds are also possible. A rare form of reflection is "Chaf Scatter". Chaf is strips of metal foil sent out by the military during training exercises. Chaf helps to confuse enemy radars but also helps to produce DX. Maximum distances for all reflection modes are again up to 800 km (500 mi). Reflections off of hills and mountains and Knife-Edge Diffraction are not considered true DX modes since they are omni-present though they can help to extend DX via the other modes. So these are the conditions in the troposphere that allow reception of VHF, UHF and microwave signals beyond their normal range. Basically, these are DX modes that are affected by the weather.

Below is a diagram of the earths upper atmosphere. The ionosphere is divided into several distinct layers as you can see.

Above 50 km to about 600 km (370 mi) is the ionosphere, notable for its effects on radio propagation. At these altitudes, atomic oxygen and nitrogen predominate under very low pressure. High-energy solar UV and X-ray radiation ionize these gases, creating a broad region where ions are created in relative abundance. The ionosphere is subdivided into distinctive D, E and F regions.

Ionospheric Refraction The refractive index of an ionospheric layer increases with the density of free-moving electrons. In the most dense regions of the F layer, that density can reach a trillion electrons per cubic meter (1012 e/m3). Even at this high level, radio waves are refracted gradually over a considerable vertical distance, usually amounting to tens of km. Radio waves become useful for terrestrial propagation only when they are refracted enough to bring them back to Earth. See diagram below.

Gradual refraction in the ionosphere allows radio signals to be propagated long distances. It is often convenient to imagine the process as a reflection with an imaginary reflection point at some virtual height above the actual refracting region. The virtual height of an ionospheric layer is the equivalent altitude of a reflection that would produce the same effect as the actual refraction. The virtual height of any ionospheric layer can be determined using an ionospheric sounder, or ionosonde, a sort of vertically oriented radar. The ionosonde sends pulses that sweep over a wide frequency range, generally from 2 MHz to 6 MHz or higher, straight up into the ionosphere. The frequencies of any echoes are recorded against time and then plotted as distance on an ionogram. The highest frequency that returns echoes at vertical incidence is known as the vertical incidence or critical frequency. The critical frequency is almost totally a function of ion density. The higher the ionization at a particular altitude, the higher becomes the critical frequency. Physicists are more apt to call this the plasma frequency, because technically gases in the ionosphere are in a plasma, or partially

ionized state. F-layer critical frequencies commonly range from about 1 MHz to as high as 15 MHz. Back to 10m Repeater page Basics and early findings The ionosphere plays a basic role in long-distance communication. Ionospheric effects are less apparent in the very high frequencies (30-300 MHz), but they persist at least through 432 MHz. As early as 1902, Oliver Heaviside and Arthur E. Kennelly independently suggested the existence of a layer in the upper atmosphere that could account for the long-distance radio transmissions made the previous year by Guglielmo Marconi and others. Edward Appleton confirmed the existence of the Kennelly-Heaviside layer during the early 1920s and used the letter E on his diagrams to designate the electric waves that were apparently reflected from it. In 1924, Appleton discovered two additional layers in the ionosphere, as he and Robert Watson-Watt named this atmospheric region, and noted them with the letters D and F. Appleton was reluctant to alter this arbitrary nomenclature for fear of discovering yet other layers, so it has stuck to the present day. The basic physics of ionospheric propagation was largely worked out by the 1920s, yet both amateur and professional experimenters made further discoveries through the 1930s and 1940s. Sporadic E, aurora, meteor scatter and several types of field-aligned scattering were among additional ionospheric phenomena that required explanation. 10m and the Ionosphere The 10-m band is well known for extreme variations in characteristics and variety of propagation modes. During solar maxima, long-distance F2 propagation is so efficient that very low power can produce strong signals halfway around the globe. DX is abundant with modest equipment. Under these conditions, the band is usually open from sunrise to a few hours past sunset. During periods of moderate solar activity, 10 m usually opens only to low and transequatorial latitudes around noon. During the solar minimum, there may be no F2 propagation at any time during the day or night. Sporadic E is fairly common on 10 m, especially May through August, although it may appear at any time. Short skip, as it is sometimes called on the HF bands, has little relation to the solar cycle and occurs regardless of F-layer conditions. It provides singlehop communication from 300 to 2300 km (190 to 1400 mi) and multiple-hop opportunities of 4500 km (2800 mi) and farther. Ten meters is a transitional band in that it also shares some of the propagation modes more characteristic of VHF. Meteor scatter, aurora,

auroral E and transequatorial spread-F provide the means of making contacts out to 2300 km (1400 mi) and farther, but these modes often go unnoticed at 28 MHz. Techniques similar to those used at VHF can be very effective on 10 m, as signals are usually stronger and more persistent. These exotic modes can be more fully exploited, especially during the solar minimum when F2 DXing has waned.

Refrences:
http://www.bsu.edu/web/ebleech/ppt/wk11_Antennas.ppt http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line-of-sight_propagation http://www.dxinfocentre.com/propagation/tr-modes.htm