Universitt Konstanz Fachbereich Literaturwissenschaft WS 2009/10 PS: Texts imitating music Dozentin: dr.

Emily Petermann

An Introduction to Ezra Pounds Theory of Musical Aspects in Poetry

Referentin: Anamaria Blanaru Field of study: Literay studies MA. Third semester Postal address: Jacob-Burckhardt-Str. 35, 78464 Konstanz Email-address: Anamaria.Blanaru@uni-konstanz.de

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction 1.1 1.2 Why Should We Discuss Pounds Theory? Which Elements make it Innovative? 3 3

2. Pounds Theoretical Statements on Poetry Related to Music 2.1 The Congruence of Word and Tune 4 5 6 6 7 8

2.1.1 Poetical Tone-Leading and the Metrical Form 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 Time and Space and their Interpretation According to Musical Theory The Sense of Movement between Words and Sounds The Inside and the Outside of the Metrical Technique The Inner Form as the Manifestation of Virt

3. The Theory of Melopoeia, Phanopoeia and Logopoeia 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.3.1 Phanopoeia Logopoeia Melopoeia The Representation of Malopoeia in Pounds Poems 8 9 10 10 10 11 11 12 13

3.3.1.1 The Poem Salvationists, the Poem (the song) which Speaks of Perfection 3.3.1.2 The Poem Balatteta, from Verbal Texture to Sound 3.3.1.3 The Poems Cino and The river song, the Polyphony of the Voices 3.3.1.4 The Poem Commission, the Song as the Voice of Society 4. Conclusion

1. Introduction

1.1 Why Should We Discuss Pounds Theory? E. Pound believes that there is one art and many media. This statement leads us to various questions according to the sense of intermediality in his theory. One can wonder whether there is a borderline between music and poetry, or accept the fact underlined by Pound, that is: the poet and the musician use the same techniques. In this case, we eliminate from the very beginning the idea that the rhythm of poetry imitates the rhythm of music. The main aspect of Pounds theory is that the poets create verses to some sort of a tune as musicians compose melodies to be sung: To set words to a tune one has but to let the musical accents fall upon words strong enough to bear them (Pound 1973, 37). The technique involved in the musicalization of poetry is related to the way one can alternate long syllables with short ones, and to the musical accents corresponding to the use of the refrain. However, this matter envisages only the external form of the poetry. Consequently, Pound underlines that the most important part is the inner form, namely the silence of the poetry which makes the reader hear the music beneath the words. Accordingly, one can realize that the contradiction between the melody of a song and the rhythm of poetry is to disappear. But, one must know how to hear the rhythm of silence in poetry, how to search for musical tones. If a song directly provides the audience with the physical sound, the poem implies the idea of understanding and perceiving the rhythm beyond words. In the essay Pound and music, Michael Ingham considers that is impossible to understand Pounds poetry without considering his relationship to music. He also shares the belief that all of Pounds verses, from the Malatesta cantos to the Chinese history Cantos are composed to a singers imperative. Pound explains his deep relations to music by saying that poetry begins to atrophy when it gets too far from music (Pound 1963) and by underline the fact that only the tones and the rhythm can help the reader to reach the true meaning of a poem.

1.2 Which Elements make it Innovative? Pound is considered a modern and innovative artist in his poetry not only because of the themes he approaches, but due to his writing style. The musical tones in his work do not depend on external symmetry, as in the symbolist vision. One can easily see how Pound draws a clear cut distinction between his technique and the symbolists. The author is
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interested especially in the internal form; that is way the rhyme, as the external form, is eliminated from his vision of musical poetry: it tends to draw away the artists attention from forty to ninety per cent of his syllables (Pound 1973, 42) Pound rejects both Baudelaires and Mallarms conception of poetry, denying the usefulness of

correspondences, synaesthesia, alliteration and assonance as far as poetry is concerned. He is modern as a result of his own method to write long poems where the coherence of thoughts is related to the incoherence of the external form. What really makes him innovative is the use of non-linguistic signs in his poems such as the Chinese characters, the ideograms, the Egyptian hieroglyphs. In addition to these, the most important part would be the way he employs them so as to lead us to a musical perception. The elements of the poetry, in part visual, in part metrical, are related like the notes of a symphony. The innovation in this case is related to the word fugue that Pound resorts to when talking about the relation between his themes and the technique used. In this case, the themes are presented simultaneously by various voices, by counterpoints. These voices are subordinated in Pounds poetry to a kind of silence. Not until the reader truly understands the meaning of a poem is he able to perceive it by heart, and not by intellect. Michael Ingham highlights the fact that the sounds are formed only to make us aware of the silence they frame (245). The critic asks the reader if the real message of Pound is silence as a form of music in poetry or the music exists only as part of a silent form.

2. Pounds Theoretical Statements on Poetry Related to Music

2.1 The Congruence of Word and Tune The discussion could begin from Pounds distinction between spoken language and written language in his book ABC of Reading. Even if spoken language is related to the physical sound, to the voice, to the direct emotion in the interlocutors perception, written language seems more important to Pound. As for the latter category, the writer operates a distinction between written language based on sound and on sight. The written language based on sound makes the reader more conscious of the meanings and feelings related to the poem, setting forward open-mindedness to receive them. The words charged with musical property form what Pound calls Melopoeia, that is the most important of his statements regarding poetry related to music. The congruence between words and tunes is in fact the one that involves the poets resemblance to the musician. Pound asks himself if in the
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interpreting of the hidden melody of poetry into the more manifest of music, are there in the words themselves tone-leading? (1973, 42). Pound answers this question by envisaging poetry directly connected to music, the sound of the word being thus more important than the meaning. An appropriate example would be his translations that are considered quite different from other translations, because of Pounds intent to translate not only the sense of these poems, but some of the import of their sounds, as well. For example, the author wanted all of his Cavalcanti translations to appear in a dual-language version, with the original text on the same page, so that the reader could notice the changes and similarities from each language. Pounds definition of poetry regards the word and the tune too, as the poem would be a composition or an organization of words set to music. (1973, 375). Music transcends in this case the vocabulary to an emotional perception of the poem. In How to write Pound considers that the verses musicality depends on the use of constants and variants. The rhythm is created by using words with a specific purpose, by making use of rhetorical devices, by prosody and syntax. In this case, his technique could be similar to that of the symbolists, even though he had denied it. Besides words, Pound uses visual musical notation, as in Canto LXX. Furthermore, in Canto LXXXI there is a passage marked Libretto.

2.1.1 Poetical Tone-Leading and the Metrical Form In Pounds vision, the tone-leading is related to the accentuation of words, to the pitch and intensity of the verse. The tone-leading must enrich and illuminate words. The use of metrical form emerges as a contradiction between the strict technique and the latent music born through silence. In the poem Balatetta, he uses the words for the consonant harmony, like wild-wood, fawn-fallow. This kind of word associations underline what he means by tone-leading and how one could obtain it. When one considers the metrical form he easily recognizes the free verse, the modern long phrases which generate an external incoherence. The tone-leading consists in intensification, repetition, like in the poem Jone, Dead the Long Jone: Empty are the ways/Empty are the ways of this land. Michael Ingham includes Pound in the category of poets with an ear, poets who never separates word from sounding tone and the percussive rhythm of consonants. (236) The toneleading, in conclusion, is subordinated to the metrical form and none of them can exist by itself.

2.2 Time and Space and their Interpretation According to Musical Theory 2.2.1 The Sense of Movement Between Words and Sounds

Brad Bucknell compares Pounds poems to Wagners music in order to underline the idea that sound and meaning must be so balanced, as to establish a precise rendering of emotion. (54) The critic continues his idea by considering Pounds notion of music related to the attempt to make poetic language both concrete and spatial. (54) As far as Pounds conception of place in poetry is concerned, one should discuss the process of linear representation and its consequence for the poem. As we could see in the authors statements, he writes his poetry using a modern technique, where the external incoherence (the long verse, the polyphony of voices) is explained by the internal coherence of ideas. The sense of movement between words and sounds takes into account the time and duration of the sounds. The intensification of some sounds, the accent and repetition of others, involve a deep relation between the word and the sound standing beyond it. For Pound, rhythm is directly related to time, is a part of it. The syllables used by an author in his poem have different weights and duration. Pound questions the author who reduces or denies the importance of time in the poetical process: If he hasnt a sense of time and of the different qualities of sound, this design will be clumsy and uninteresting. (1963, 199). The music in poetry, as an art of tonal or temporal intervals, becomes a part of the word chosen by the poet for different reasons according to his ideal of reaching the pure music: the sound of some letters, the articulation of some sounds and especially for the tone-leadings. The space in poetry can be related to the discontinuity of the themes, to the ellipsis, both being part of the external form and creating the fugue and the symphony of voices. John S. Childs mentions various species of time: historic time, personal time and the most important the divine time (74). The latter stage can be achieved through music, which the reader can perceive by his feelings and not by his intellect. The idea of silence in Pounds theory involves the meaning and the influence of time and space in order to transform written language in music. The spaces amongst words generate a visible silence, as the missing punctuation shows that it depends on the reader to decide the precise moment suitable for a pause. The personal time of the reader interacts with the divine time of music, moment when one should forget about himself and enjoy the purity of sounds. The music of the poetry becomes liberation from time and space limits.

2.2.2

The Inside and the Outside of the Metrical Technique

Pounds theory of the metrical technique in poetry underlines the conflict existing between the inner and the outer part of the poem. He develops this idea in his theory of Imagism. Rhythm must be an element freed from mechanical and metrical form. Imagism implies a species of poetry which is not constrained by an imposed metrical form. Pound values in a great manner the Japanese tradition of Imagism which he uses in many poems, through the Japanese characters as visual elements of his texts. The external form leads up to musical effects too, as Pound is so interested in the Greek hexameter rhythm, in which the quantity of the syllables becomes an important part of the poems technique. The author appreciates the Sapphic rhythm which he considers biological and organic (1996, 94) a rhythm that is not artificially constructed, but part of the inner form of the poems. Pounds poetry sets apart from the regular metrics of the nineteenth-century poetry, time when the authors used a peculiar technique so as to create the rhythm (the sonnet for instance is characterized by a precise number of stanzas and verses and by a reiterated structure). Hugh Witemyer observes in the aesthetic of Imagism a minimalist technique. He underlines the traditional meter and rhyme and the artificial diction, superfluous verbiage, rhetoric (48). Nevertheless, Pound uses Imagism in a modern way; he stops using diction and rhetorical devices. Pound specifies that Imagism is not a part of Symbolism, as the Imagistic author does not use allusion, allegory or symbols. He is interested only in the harmony of the poem created by absolute rhythm. In the second part of his work, the author will abandon Imagism, for a new way of creating poetry, the so-called Vorticism, based on abstract formalism. Pounds theory could be related to Saussures distinction between signifier, the physical part, and signified, the mental concept (66). By using hieroglyphs and Chinese signs Pound could refer to the psychological character of our sound-image (Saussure 66) which involves the readers mental perception of the poetry. Pound underlines the fact that the reader must combine his visual perception with the mental perception in order to reach the true sense of the poem. The importance of the signifier in Pounds work distinguishes his art from the simple theory of Imagism, which is based on the importance of the word as symbol, as abstract image. In Antheil and the Treatise on Harmony, Pound defines the ways one could his way of creating poetry; these ways implies both the inner and the outer metrical form: men write to be read, or spoken, or declaimed, or rhapsodized; and quite differently to be sung. () When

skilled men write for music then music can both render their movementtone by tone, and quantity by quantity (1999, 48). 2.2.3 The Inner form as the Manifestation of Virt

The inner form is the special rhythm of the poetry to which both musicians and poets must attend. Brad Bucknell considers the inner form a part of the poem which does not involve metrical systems, since it is in itself the manifestation of the virt. The same critic detects various forms of manifestation of the inner form through rhythm. He talks about the rhythm enacting violence, a rhythm enacting serenity, a rhythm of elegy or a demotic speech. In the poem A dawn song, Pound specifies the poets duty, namely that he must write joyful verses about the beauty and the serenity of nature: God hath put me here/In earth goodly sphere/To sing the joy of the day. The rhythm of the poem comes from both the inner and the outer form. The reader can notice the rhyme of the verse: here/sphere, song/long, the presence of many vowels like a, o, then the short verse, which induce to an outer rhythm of the poem. The serenity of the rhythm, as Bucknell revealed, arises from the significance of words such as joy, glad, good, too. Another poem, Epilogue, as the title indicates, represents the poets vision of the past, and its consequences on the present. The poem is based on the alternation of the past and present verbal tenses, went, returned/are, return. Among these examples, the repetition of certain words at the beginning of the verse, as hero, behold, underlines not only the authors intention to emphasize certain ideas, but the existence of a technical form which shapes a rhythm of elegy.

3. The Theory of Melopoeia, Phanopoeia and Logopoeia. 3.1 Phanopoeia Phanopoeia belongs to Pounds theoretical statements about the relation between music and poetry, besides Logopoeia and Melopoeia. The author defines it as the casting of images upon the visual imagination (1968, 25). In other words, Phanopoeia is directly related to his theory of Imagism and to the possibility of creating rhythm through the outer form of the poem. The impressions of the text are, in this case, especially of the visual type, but the use of metrical form transforms the images in notes of a symphony. The Chinese characters which Pounds uses in his poems work by images, rather than by concepts. They
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do not represent the expression of direct emotion, and the reader must be able to read their significance. John S. Childs considers that one could analyze the analogy between the juxtaposition of film shots and Pounds images in his poems. The quick overview of images reproduces the impression of natural movement, as the images of the poem are turned into rhythm. The Phanopoeia and the Melopoeia are in a direct relation, and in most of the poems they coexist and help the author in his intent to create music through poetry. Hugh Witemyer detects the transformation of Melopoeia in Phanopoeia in Canto XXV, poem in which the music seems to freeze before the poets eyes into visible wave (84). In this case, the readers visual imagination takes part in the poetical process: as the sculptor sees the form in the air/as glass seen under water,/King Otreus, my father/and saw the waves taking form as crystal,/notes as facets of air,/and the mind there, before them, moving,/so that notes needed not move. (Canto XXV). Is quite obvious that the author uses a couple of words with the intention to create the sense of waves moving, such as the clear denomination waves, the ideas of movement from a space to another: under, there, before, and the word related to music, notes. This way, the reader can easily grasp not only the image, but the music of the waves, too.

3.2. Logopoeia According to Pounds theory, the Logopoeia is the dance of the intellect among words (1968, 25). The poet must employ words not only for their meaning, but for the habits of usage. G. S. Frazer emphasizes the idea that Logopoeia, as diction, never becomes a conversational diction, because this would be the product of highly conscious art, but the art is directed towards making a highly artificial and drastically concentrated construction sound like (1968, 28). Pounds desire would be not to imitate the natural talking, not to create an artificial structure, but to originate a natural conversational style. Logopoeia depends on the progression of ideas creating rhythmical sequences. Most of the time, Logopoeia is completed and fulfilled by Melopoeia in order to reach the perfect musical tones. In the poem The Tree, for example, the voice within the text gives the reader the impression that it does not speak beyond words, but as a part of the reality mentioned in the title; the human being transforms himself through words. Pound repeats sounds and whole words to indicate the gravity of the voice and a sense of immobility: I stood still and was

tree amid the wood/Knowing the truth of things unseen before/()Nathless I have been a tree amid the wood/And many new things understood/That were rank folly to my head before. 3.3 Melopoeia When an author endows his words with musical properties, the tone leading becomes more obvious than the meaning itself. The Melopoeia can undermine the importance of language, given the fact that the pure music created eliminates the boundary between intellect and heart, between individual time and divine time. Another important aspect would be the issue referring to the impossibility of translating the poems based on Melopoeia. Music is a state of spirit, since it cannot be translated or interpreted. It is beyond words. Pound divides the Melopoeia in three categories (1968, 28), considering the authors intention while writing a poem. The first type is the Melopoeia created to be sung to a tune; the words have a direct purpose and they do not provide the reader/singer with many opportunities, but to respect the rhythm imposed by the poem. The second category is the Melopoeia made to be intoned or sung to a sort of chant; in this case, the author offers the reader the liberty to sing the words according to his own purpose. The last type is the Melopoeia made to be spoken. In this respect, one should discuss the distinction between voice, speech, conversation. M. Ingham differentiates the voice from the speaker, because the voice within the text represents a category, not something particular; the voice of happiness, of love or of fear for example. The voice is for Ingham not the primary significance as sound or timbre, but the quality of accentuation, pitch, tempo, intensity (237). Pounds theory of rhythm is based on the poets ability to use the right accentuation and tempo in order to transform his words into music.

3.3.1 The representation of Malopoeia in Pounds poems 3.3.1.1 The poem Salvationists, the poem (the song) which speaks of perfection In this poem, Pound underlines the idea that the music is the true perfection, and all art should desire to arise to the purity of songs: Come, my song, let us speak of perfection. The distinction between the ephemeral character of human being and the immortality of the divine disappears when one can escape death through the beauty of music: You may decline to make them immortal. The song played by the author does not concern only the classical themes of the world, such as love, death, immortality, but the social matters, too: Come, my song,/Let us take arms against this sea of stupidities. The poet must sing the negative parts
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of the world, as well, the sea of vulgarities, the sea of imbeciles, in order to metamorphose the evil in light and to create a better world. According to his theory, one can easily distinguish the tone-leadings as a result of several repetitions: beginning with, or of the invocation: Come, my song. There is the written language related with sound and creating the readers emotion. Playing with the significance of the words, Pound distinguishes between song and speak and makes the reader not to talk about the poem, but to listen the musical tonality. There is an interrelation between the first person plural: us and the first person singular: my, that demonstrates a total identification of the poet to his art. The significance of the term silence reminds the reader of one of Pounds statements according to which pure music can be heard only through a moment of silence. The title in Latin, Salvationists, contains the idea that music can help us escape from mortality and oblivion. 3.3.1.2 The poem Balatteta, from verbal texture to sound Balatteta is a poem that speaks about silence. Pound correlates the significance of the silence to the morning light, time when nature still maintains its silence. The blind eyes and the shadows create a calm atmosphere, by the absence of the visual and disturbing effects. Balatteta is based on Pounds Phanopoeia, as the reader must use his visual imagination in order to hear the song of the poem. The repetition of similar sounds in words from the same verse, such as wild-wood, fawn nor fallow, so silent create an reiterated sound, which could be similar to an incantation. The adjectives used by the poet (silent, swiftly) participate to the bright atmosphere. The personification silent light describes an image correlated to heaven, place where one could hear the divine voices of angels. The external form of the poem, the long verse, the rhyme (among/song, grasses/passes), the pause created in the middle of the verse (so silent light; no gossamer is spun) indicate a certain reading of the poem, diminishing the readers liberty to translate it through his personal reading.

3.3.1.3 The poems Cino and The river song,the polyphony of the voices The poem Cino is one of the most known poems of Pound in which the reader can easily discover the poets technique used so as to transform simple words in tone-leadings and verses in parts of a tune. The very beginning of the poem is an exclamation that specifies the intensive rhythm of the poem. The noun song and the verb sing appear in every stanza to
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underline the fact that the voice within the poem is a singer rather than a writer. The word to sing has different meanings in the poem, such as to write, to express, to speak. The music of the poem is created by many exclamations and interrogations which express the intensity of the themes and the poets intention to make the reader understand his feelings: Cino? Oh, eh, Cino Polnesi the singer, ist you mean/() My Lord! Gods pity! eh?. The examples cited above become various voices in the poem and demonstrate Pounds theory of the symphony which a poet can easily reach in his work. The verses I will sing of the sun and I have sung women in three cities are iterant structures, which manage to stop for a moment the intensity of the rhythm created by the voices and show the reader that pure rhythm can be felt only through a pause, only thorough silence. As for the external technique, Pound uses again the Phanopoeia in order to give the song a certain density. The significances of eyes, lips, birds, heaven, voices are directly related to various ways of expression; from the indirect silence of the eyes (the soul reflected in ones eyes and revealing the truth of his heart) to the direct music of the birds songs or to the tonality of musical instruments. Cino could be considered the true expression of the poem that transforms itself in song during its reading. It only depends on the readers capacity to penetrate the words and feel the divine music. The river song enriches the significance of the previous poem with the idea, expressed in the title too. Accordingly, the reader is supposed to have a different perception related to the poem, he must not read, but listen. The musical tones are visible in words like musicians, song, singing or they can be found through the interpretation of words such as flutes, birds, wind. The symphony of different voices becomes in this poem the symphony of nature, as the birds songs and those of the wind and people mix their tunes. The long verse participates to the same musical effect. The distinction between prose and poetry consists in the possibility of the poetry to depart from the simple enunciation of ideas.

3.3.1.4 The poem Commission, the song as the voice of society

In many of his poems, Pounds points out that the poetry as a song is not an abstract concept, and the ideas developed in these works of art do not speak only about feelings and humans reaction to the external environment. The image of the society and the way the human is affected by its alterations and its cruelties is a central image in poems such as Commission. The poetry is being metamorphosed into a beautiful and strong voice which has the power to change the negative parts of the world and to enrich the beautiful ones. The
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imperative go as an anaphor at the beginning of each verse gives the poem a certain effect of movement, the image of a song that goes from the singers to the listeners: Go to the bourgeoise who is dying of her ennuis/Go to the woman in suburbs/Go to the hideously wedded.. The vocative my song underlines the fact that the author considers the poets as humans who can modify the integrity of the world through their poems; the poetry doesnt concern only the upper class, but the middle class too, because the song speaks about universal feelings, no matter the part of society one belongs. The musical effect is realised by Pounds technique of repetition among the short verses which accelerate the rhythm of the poem. The word go is substituted by speak in three verses, in order to underline the authors intent to contrast the internal silence of a poem to its external possible sound. The poem must speak against tyranny or unconscious oppression as an entity capable to determine the dichotomy of the world: what is wrong and what must be punished. The rhythm of the poem accelerates when the poem repeats the same verb. The way in which the reader could sing this poem is being revealed by many adverbs used in the poem: the poem must be sung in a friendly manner, in an open speech. The last stanza represents the authors belief that a poem could concern the human rights and that it can be considered an intent for a social order: Go out and defy opinion,/ Go against the vegetable bondage of the blood./ Be against all sorts of mortamain. This poem is representative for Pounds art and for his literary thoughts about the utility of art. The reader could identify himself with such a view over the importance of poetry in social life. One should not misunderstand this relation between art and society; the poem is not a copy of images from life, but could be a voice which speaks about the perfection and the imperfection of our world. And as long as the external metrical form transforms the voice into a song, the image into a mental perception the poem should be chanted, and not read. The poems interpreted emphasize the idea that one can discover Pounds conception of musical tones in poetry much more clear in his poems, than through his theoretical essays 4. Conclusion Reading Pounds essays one can easily asks himself whether they are too abstract and whether they can be valid for the poetical process. The interpretation of only some of his poems demonstrates that we can create musical effects according to his theory. My question would be if there can be a recipe that one should follow while writing his poems? Or the poem must be beyond abstract theory and come from the heart?
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Pounds theory involving the Logopoeia and Phanopoeia are not quite explicit and sometimes it seems that they have similar theoretical aspects. Although the poet draws a clear line between his view of poetry and the Symbolists, the reader can discover similarities between them, such as the use of assonance, alliteration and sometimes metrical forms. As for me, the musical tones in poetry must be something natural; they cannot be reached through an abstract scheme. The poem similar to a song must be pure, bright and joyful. But, what about the poems which speak about poverty, death and solitude? Could they be transformed into divine music?

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Works cited Bucknell, Brad. The Musical Aesthetics of Ezra Pound: its Sorts and Sonditions from Imagism and Vorticism to the Cantos. Literary Modernism and Musical Aesthetics, Pater, Pound, Joyce and Stein. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2001, p.51-120. Childs, John Stevens, Condensation and Spatial Form, Pounds Style in the Early Cantos. London and Toronto : Susquehanna University Press, 1986, p.71-90. Hamilton , Scott, Introduction, Ezra Pound and the Symbolist Inheritance. New Jersey : Princeton University Press, 1992, p.3-30. Ingham, Michael, Pound and Music, The Cambridge Companion to Ezra Pound. Ed. Ira B. Nodel. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1999, p.236-249. Pound, Ezra. Collected Shorter Poems. London : Faber and Faber, 1952. Pound, Ezra. The Cantos. A Draft of XXX Cantos. London , Faber and Faber, 1955. Pound, Ezra. On Music. Selected Prose. Ed. William Cookson. New York : Directions Publishing Corporation, 1973, p.35-40. Pound, Ezra, How to Read. Literary Essays of Ezra Pound. Ed. T.S. Eliot. London : Faber and Faber, 1968, p.15-41. Pound, Ezra, How to Write, Machine Art and Other Writings. Durham and London : Duke University Press, 1996, p. 87-109. Pound, Ezra. ABC of reading. London : Faber and Faber, 1963. Pound, Ezra. Antheil and the Treatise on Harmony. New York : Da Capo Press, 1968. Saussure, Ferdinand. Course in General Linguistic. Ed. Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye. Translated by Wade Baskin. New York: Philosophical Library, 1959. 65-70. Witemeyer, Hugh, Early Poetry 1908-1920, The Cambridge Companion to Ezra Pound. Ed. Ira B. Nodel. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1999, p.43-59.

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