Name: Number10211657 Course: Second Language Acquisition (Mid-term)

The key issues in individual learner differences and SLA

The key issues in individual learner differences and SLA that the author aims to address to are: First, identification and classification of learner factors that may affect SLA; Second, descriptions and explanations of different learner factors and their effects on SLA; Third, characteristics of good language learner based on the study of learner factors.

Before looking into the individual learner factors, attentions should be paid to the two different aspects of SLA that are possibly affected by those factors, namely the route of SLA which learners pass through, and the rate and ultimate success of SLA which concern the efficiency and level of proficiency of learners. There is controversy about whether learner factors will influence to route of acquisition whereas the claim of individual vary in the rate and ultimate success is not controversial.

1. Identification and classification of learner factors The identification and classification of learner factors has been problematic because of the main difficulty of the impossibility of observing directly factors, such as aptitude or anxiety. Nevertheless, since each factor is a complex of features which could be overlapping, different researchers employ different approach to classify them and therefore in different terms. The author proposes a classification known as personal factors and general

factors: 1) Personal factors: group dynamics, attitudes to the teacher and course materials, individual learning techniques, etc. 2) General factors: age, intelligence and aptitude, cognitive style, attitude and motivation, personality, etc. Personal factors are highly idiosyncratic features of each learners way of L2 learning, while the general factors are variables that all learners more or less have and they differ in the extent of how they are realized. Both personal and general factors have social (external), cognitive and affective (internal) aspects and therefore each factor involves these three factors in different degree.

2.

Descriptions and explanations of different learner factors and their effects on SLA

1) Personal factors The research methodology of observing personal factors are in two ways first, studies of dairies kept by learners; second, questionnaires and interviews with individual learners. Group dynamics It seems to be important of group dynamics in classroom SLA. Researchers have found that group dynamics, such as comparison with other learners and competitiveness, can serve as a stimulus for learning, whereas collective rejection of pressure and acceptance of failure depress performance. Bailey (1983) proposes a model of the relationship between self-image and learning. Unsuccessful self-image will result in debilitating anxiety, which impairs learning, or in facilitating anxiety, which therefore enhances L2. When learners have successful self-images, they tend to continue displaying efforts and then L2 will be improved.

Attitudes to the teacher and course materials Students may hold different view about what kind of teacher and teaching

materials. Some prefer teachers to have strict teaching style and tight learning task, while some tend to believe democratic ones who give them more space for a personal agenda are better. As for the course material, adult learners are inclined to have a variety of books which they can choose for themselves.

Individual learning techniques There are mainly two types of learner: those involved in studying L2, and those in

obtaining L2 input. The first group of learners is reported to use some techniques when dealing with vocabulary. For example, they will prepare and memorize word list, learn words in context, practice vocabulary, etc. The second type prefers getting contact with L2, such as communicating with native speakers, watching TV, or travelling to a country where L2 is used.

2) General factors Age There is a general belief that children are better learners than adults. However, a noticeable disagreement exists in the conclusions of researchers. As the effects of age is concern, it is necessary to observe from two aspects: the route of SLA and the rate and ultimate success of SLA. First, a consensus has been reached that age does not affect the route of acquisition by both longitudinal and cross-sectional studies conducted by scholars. They find that a similar order of morpheme and grammatical items is followed by subject of different ages. Second, the rate and success of SLA appear to be significantly influenced by the age factor. When it comes to the rate, some evidences are demonstrated that older learners perform better. However, it should be modified: first, a study shows that adolescents progress more rapid than children and adults; second, age factor is more likely to affect morphology and syntax instead of pronunciation. Moreover, the success of SLA is related to the exposure length and starting age of L2. The number of years exposure tend to have a greater effect on overall communicative fluency, while the starting age influence is strongly felt in native-like pronunciation

achievement. Three theories which attempt to explain the effects of age are discussed in the book. First, the critical period hypothesis (CPH) proposes that there is a period of natural and effortless language acquisition. During this period, the brain remains plasticity. Then with the beginning of puberty, this plasticity will disappear because of the lateralization of language function concentrates in the left hemisphere. However, the CPH is based on the false assumption that children out-perform adults in language acquisition, which some studies prove to be inadequate. And it is possible that there might be multiple critical period accounting for different language functions. Second, the cognitive explanations suggest that younger children perceive language as a tool of communication while the older learners comprehend it as a formal system. Children lack flexible thinking and social attitude due to an absence of meta-awareness, which leads to automatic and open language acquisition. In contrast, adults, who possess strong meta-awareness, have developed abstract thinking and hold stronger attitude towards the L2 which serve as a block to natural acquisition. The cognitive explanations can explain adolescents being the best learners, for they can both pick up language like children and supplement it with conscious learning. But the problem with them is still the same of the CPH. Third, the affective explanations also explore the possibilities of age difference. Brown (1980a) states that SLA is related to four stages of acculturation: (1) initial excitement; (2) cultural shock; (3) cultural stress with a gradual recovery; and (4) assimilation or adaptation. Stage 3 is the crucial one. Younger learners are less culture bounded and therefore are more likely to go through the stages. However, this is also based on the false assumption. A more convincing explanation offered by Neufield (1978) distinguishes the primary and secondary levels of language. Primary levels consist of basic lexicon and grammar as well as pronunciation. Second levels include complex grammatical structures and language styles. Adults acquire the primary levels more rapidly while children are more likely to achieve the secondary levels because of the need to be accepted by their peer groups.

Intelligence and aptitude Intelligence is the general academic or reasoning ability which is often referred to

as the g factor. It seems to be not essential to L1 acquisition according to the fact that all children except those who are extremely retarded can acquire their L1 grammar competence. Cummins (1979) suggested that there are two independent sets of language ability cognitive/academic language ability (CALA) and basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS). This distinction explains many research findings of the effects of intelligence. CALA is more likely to influence the classroom formal study whereas BICS may be a more powerful predicator of naturalist SLA emphasizing communication. Furthermore, there is no evidence that intelligence affects the route of SLA and it limits to the rate of SLA. Aptitude, on the other hand, involves the specific cognitive qualities that are important for language study. Linguists use some tests to measure aptitude through the way of discrimination of meaningful sounds, association of sounds and written symbols and identification of grammatical rules. However, aptitude here is defined as the CALA rather than involving BICS. The effects are measured in terms of proficiency levels or achievement scores. And some researches find a strong relationship between aptitude and proficiency. Yet two sets of doubts remain. It is not clear that whether aptitude exist and if so, what cognitive processes are subsumed under it. Another set of doubt is about what aspect is affected acquisition or learning. Krashen (1981a) argues that aptitude only relate to formal learning, which indicates that aptitude does not play a major role in communication skills. Again, like other factors, aptitude may also have effects on the rate and success of SLA rather than on the route, especially in the case of classroom SLA.

Cognitive style Cognitive style refers to the manner in which people perceive, conceptualize,

organize, and recall information. It is usually presented as two poles of a continuum: field dependence and field independence. Field dependents tend to recognize the field as a whole and have greater social skills, while field independents are able to perceive

particular items and are less skilled in interpersonal relationships. Besides, it is suggested that the former type facilitates naturalistic SLA and the latter leads to success in classroom SLA. Nonetheless, scholars reach in different conclusion of the effects of cognitive style. Some finds field dependence/independence has little effects on language learning, while others demonstrate a relationship between cognitive style and certain language function such as imitation and listening and it is presented in certain age groups. Some possible explanations are that cognitive style may be age-related, and also not a significant factor in SLA. Moreover, some researchers find that field dependents produce different errors from field independents; and cognitive style may interact with other learner factors. It is once again worth noticing that the influence of cognitive style also limits to the rate of SLA.

Attitudes and motivation Different linguists provide different definitions and classifications of attitude and

motivation. Schumann (1978) lists attitude as a social factor and motivation as an affective factor. Brown (1981) refers to attitude as a set of beliefs towards L2 group and towards learners own culture. He also identifies three types of motivation: global motivation, situational motivation, and task motivation. The most extensive research is conducted by Gardner and Lambert. Where motivation, the overall goal/orientation, is concerned, two types of orientation are distinguished: integrative motivation and instrumental motivation. Learners with the integrative motivation wish to be identified with the L2 culture; and this type is associated with additive bilingualism, which learners want to maintain their mother tongue. On the contrary, instrumental motivation occurs when learners possess functional goals for L2, such as finding jobs or passing an examination; and this kind of orientation is linked to subtractive bilingualism, because learners of this type are likely to lose their mother tongue or fail to acquire certain linguistic functions. Attitudes are investigated as well, which are further classified into three kinds:(1) attitude towards L2 community; (2) attitude towards the L2; and (3) attitude towards language learning in general.

The empirical studies of the effects of attitudes and motivation by Gardner and Lambert can be concluded in four points: first, attitudes/motivation help to determine the proficiency levels; second, the most successful learners may display both great aptitude and a high level of motivation; third, integrative motivation facilitates foreign language learning which is important in classroom, while instrumental motivation is more effective in second language learning, which learners use outside classroom; fourth, the level and type of motivation is significantly affected by the learning context. To state it again, there is little doubt that motivation is a powerful factor affecting the rate and success in SLA instead of the acquisition route.

Personality The author mainly presents three groups of personality which individual

researchers have considered to be influential to SLA. Extroversion/introversion are intuitively hypothesized as an important factor that extroverted learner are inclined to learn more rapidly and more successful than introverted ones owing to an intendancy to make contact with other users and receive more inputs. However, there is no agreement in the effects of extroversion/ introversion. Some find this pair of personality has something to do with classroom study and oral fluency whereas others find no relationship with proficiency. Social skill is also involved in the investigation of the personality factor. Some studies show that social skills control the amount of L2 exposure and then learners with affluent interaction skills progress more rapidly. And with the passage of time, the gap between skilled learners and unskilled ones grows greater. As the same time, other researches suggest that these personality traits control the quality of interaction in L2 rather than quantity of input. Inhibition is associated with defensiveness which discourages the risk-taking progress in L2. As Krashen (1981a) points out, with the onset of Formal Operation, learners tend to increase self-consciousness and therefore lead to greater inhibition. In general, the role of personality is not clear. It might be a factor only in the acquisition of communication competence and affects simply the rate and success.

3. The good language learner Basing on studies of personal and general factors, Ellis draws a list of the characteristics which a good language learner will possess: (1) respond positively to group dynamics; (2) seek all opportunity to use L2; (3) use all opportunities to practice L2 and attend to meaning; (4) employ study techniques and attend to form; (5) be an adolescent; (6) have analytic skill for linguistic features and monitor errors; (7) possess strong motivations; (8) be prepared to take risks; (9) adapt to different learning conditions.

To conclude, the key issues in individual learner differences and SLA are: first, identification and classification of learner factors that may affect SLA; second, descriptions and explanations; and third, characteristics of good language learner. The study of individual variables, however, has been difficult as the result of the vague concepts and complex interrelations of the factors. The main purpose of this study is what the effects of individual factors are and how they relate to SLA. Generally speaking, the route of SLA is unlikely to be affected by learners differences, whereas they contribute to the rate and success of SLA. Another issue that needs to be notice is the relationship between the two types of factors and the then relationship with L2 proficiency. A reasonable model is provided as the personal and general factors are mutually influential to each other, and furthermore, they both relate to the L2 proficiency in a two-way manner.