FUELS AND COMBUSTION ORIGIN OF FUELS The fuels used today as energy sources fall into two general

categories: those which are photosynthetic in origin and those which make use of atomic nuclei. The process of photosynthesis harnesses solar energy to produce the chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates. Initially, photosynthesis leads to the growth of plants, which can be burned directly as fuel; wood, straw, and other dry vegetable remains are still used as fuel throughout the world. Alternatively, the plants may be eaten by animals, which in turn produce waste products that can be burned directly or processed in digesters to produce gas (largely methane). This gas can then be burned in the same way as any other gaseous fuel. The important feature of these fuels is that they are renewable, because the plant life will generate a new crop after some determinable period of time. Fuel derived from photosynthesis is also produced through the accumulation of decaying animal and vegetable matter over long periods of time. Peat, for example, accumulates in suitable boggy areas, where the conditions are such that the normal processes of decay are arrested, and the cellulose that makes up the fibrous structure of plants is converted into humus. In certain areas of the world, notably Russia, Sweden, Germany, and Ireland, peat is an important fuel used not only for domestic purposes but also on a large scale in electricity generation. CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS: a. b. c. Solid Fuels (Principal component: Carbon, C) Coal, coke, wood, charcoal, wood bagasse, coconut shells and husks, briquetted fuels Liquid Fuels (Principal component: Hydrocarbon, CnHm) Gasoline, alcohol, kerosene, diesel, bunker, other fuel oils Gaseous Fuels (Principal component: Hydrocarbon, CnHm) Natural gas, producer gas, blast furnace gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), methane ethane, propane

SOLID FUELS Three methods of classifying coals adopted in US since 1927): 1. Classification by Rank - degree of metamorphism, progressive alteration, in the natural series fron lignite to anthracite - probably the most universally applicable method of classification, in which coals are arranged according to fixed carbon content and calorific value, in BTU, calculated on the mineral-matter-free basis. Classification of coals by rank:

I. II. III. IV.

Anthracite Bituminous Sub-bituminous Lignite

2. Classification by Grade] - quality determined by size designation, calorific value, ash, ashsoftening temperature, and sulfur. 3. Classification by Type or Variety - determined by the nature of the original plant material and subsequent alteration thereof. Three 1. 2. 3. varieties of coal in the high-volatile C bituminous group: agglomerating and nonweathering agglomerating and weathering nonagglomerating and nonweathering

Moist BTU refers to coal containing its natural bud moisture but not including visible water on the surface of the coal. Burners for Pulverized Coal: 1. Vertical firing although an early method, still s used extensively, but with all the secondary air admitted around the burner nozzle so that it mixes quickly with the coal primarily air mixture from the burner nozzle. 2. Impact firing a form of vertical firing, consists of burners located in an arch low in the furnace or in the side walls and directed toward the furnace door, with high velocities of both primary and secondary air. This type firing is used extensively in wet-bottom or slagging-type furnace. 3. Horizontal firing nozzle within a located in front capacity and dry employs a turbulent burner, which consists of a circular housing provided with adjustable valves, the unit being or rear wall. This type of burner is beat suited to high bottom furnaces.

4. Corner or Tangential firing is characterized by burners located in each corner of the furnace and directed tangent to a horizontal, imaginary circle in the middle of the furnace. This type firing is suited to either wet or dry bottom furnace operation and medium or high-volatile coals, and it is capable of extremely high capacities. Note : Wet-bottom construction generally is chose for low grad coals that have low fusion characteristics, whereas dry bottom construction often is selected for highfusion coals. Coke is the solid, infusible, cellular residue left after fusible bituminous coals are heated, in the absence of air, above temperatures at which active thermal

decomposition of the coals occurs. High temperature ranges from 815 to 10930C formed at temperatures below 7040C. The residue if made from a noncooking oil, is known as char. Wood Fuel mat come to boiler plant in the form of cordwood, slabs, edging, bark, sawdust, or shavings. The major variable in wood is moisture content; air-dried wood seldom contains less than 12% water, whereas kiln dried usually contains from 1 to 7%. There are three general methods in burning wood fuels (1.) in moving on an inclined grate, (2.) in suspension, as in spreader stokers, or (3.) in piles on flat grates. Charcoal the only carbon for steel making and other metal smelting from prehistoric times up to eighteenth century. Charcoal is produced by partial combustion of wood at about 4000C and with limited air. Hardwood charcoal weighs about 31 kgs. per m3 and softwood charcoal about 28 kgs. per m3. The maximum of 14% volatile and 2% moisture is customarily established. The heating value of charcoal ranges from 25, 531 to 32, 495 kJ/kg. Straw, Paper, and Miscellaneous Waste Fuels also classified as solid fuels. LIQUID FUELS Fuel Oils any liquid or liquefiable petroleum products burned for the generation of heat in a furnace firebox, or for the generation of power in an engine, exclusive of oils with a flash point below 37.70C by the Tag closed tester. Fuel oils in common use fall into four classes: (1). Residual oils, which are topped crude petroleums or viscous residuums obtained in refinery operations; (2). Distillate fuel oils, which are distillates derived directly or indirectly from crude petroleum; (3). Crude petroleums and weathered crude petroleums of relatively low commercial value; and (4)> blended fuels, which are mixture of two or more of the preceding classes. Gasoline as a refined petroleum naptha which by its composition is suitable for use as a carburetant in internal combustion engines. Motor gasoline for automotive use, is mixture of hydrocarbons distilling in the range of 37.70C to 204.40C by the standard method of test. The hydrocarbons belong chemically to four principal classes: paraffins, olefins, naphtenes, and aromatics. Gasoline ordinarily graded by volatility and antiknock value, or octane number. Kerosene a petroleum distillate having flash point not below 22.80C as determined by the Abel tester. Alcohol the alcohol most frequently used considered as fuel for internal combustion engines is ethyl alcohol, sometimes called grain alcohol. Its modern chemical name is ethanol (C2H5OH). Two other alcohols that have been used as fuel are methanol and isopropanol, which are also called methyl alcohol and isopropyl alcohol. Coal Tar and Tar Oil is a product of the destructive distillation of bituminous coal carried out at high temperature.

Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG) - are mixtures of hydrocarbons liquefied under pressure for efficient transportation, storage and use. Diesel fuel oils refiners grade fuels broadly according to methods of production: (1). Distillate fuels are produced by distillation of crudes, (2). Residual fuels, are those left after the distillation process, (3). Blended fuels, are mixtures of straight distillate fuels with cracked fuel stacks. GASEOUS FUELS gaseous fuels commonly used in industry, whether distributed by public utilities or produced in isolated plants, are composed of one or more simple gases in varying proportios. Diesel Lubricating Oils crude oils are frequently described as paraffinic, naphthenic, or mixed based. Two broad types of oils are in use: Straight oils are produced entirely from the crudes chosen through elimination of undesired constituents by suitable refining processes. Additive oils are produced by adding to straight mineral oils certain oil-soluble compounds that enhance the lubricating oil properties for use in a diesel engine. SAE three types of lubricating oils; Regular type suitable for moderate operating conditions. Premium type having oxidation stability and bearing corrosive-preventive properties making it generally suitable for more severe service than regular-duty type. Heavy duty type has oxidation stability, bearing corrosive-preventive properties, and detergent-dispersant characteristics for use under heavy-duty service conditions.