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Sustainable Building and Construction
International Environmental Technology Centre UNEP DTIE IETC 2-110, Ryokuchi Koen, Tsurumi-ku, Osaka 538-0036, Japan
Basic Principles and Guidelines in Design and Construction to Reduce Greenhouse Gases in Buildings
Content
CONTENT .......................................................................................................2
1
1.1 1.2 1.3
BACKGROUND .......................................................................................4
Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) overview......................................................................................4 Population and climate change ...............................................................................................7 The building and construction sector .....................................................................................8
2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE MEASUREMENTS TO REDUCE GREENHOUSE GASES IN BUILDINGS.......................................10
3. APPROACHES FOR THE REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GASES IN BUILDINGS ...................................................................................................14

3.1 General Approaches...............................................................................................................14 Renewable Materials.....................................................................................................................17 Building Size and Shape ...............................................................................................................18 Climate Responsive Design.................................................................................................18
3.2 Design Approaches.................................................................................................................19 3.2.1 Structural Design and Building Materials ......................................................................20 3.2.1.1 Interaction between building materials and spatial structures...................................20 3.2.1.2 Materials for specific spatial structures.....................................................................21 3.2.1.3 Conventional building materials and related GHG Emissions..................................25 3.2.1.4 Alternative building materials and related GHG Emissions.................................27 3.2.1.5 Combination of Alternative and Common building materials ..................................33 3.2.1.6 Local Materials .........................................................................................................33 3.2.1.7 Proportion of a buildings life phases on the total GHG emissions ..........................34 3.2.1.8 Multifunctional Design .............................................................................................35 3.2.1.9 Durability ..................................................................................................................38 3.2.1.10 Maintenance...............................................................................................................40 3.2.1.11 Lifespan Reuse and Recycling................................................................................40 3.2.1.11.1 Reuse of components..........................................................................................42 3.2.1.11.2 Recycling of building materials...........................................................................43 3.2.1.11.2.1 Recycling materials made of residual building materials ............................43 3.2.1.11.2.2 Recycling materials made of industrial by-products....................................44 3.2.1.11.2.3 Recycling materials made of other products, e.g. consumer goods .............44 3.2.2 Climate Responsive Building Design ..............................................................................45 3.2.2.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................45 3.2.2.2 Basic principles of Climate responsive building.......................................................46 3.2.2.3 Climate Factors .........................................................................................................48 3.2.2.4 Climate zones and structural requirements ...............................................................48 3.2.2.4.1 Hot and Humid Climate Zones..............................................................................50

3.2.2.4.2 Arid Climate Zones ...............................................................................................55 3.2.2.4.3 The Temperate Climate Zones ..............................................................................60 3.2.2.4.4 The Cold Climate Zones .......................................................................................65 3.2.2.5 Data and Planning Tools ...........................................................................................69 3.2.2.5 .1 Collation of Information....................................................................................69 3.2.2.5 .2 Analysis of collated information and building design.......................................71 3.2.3 Energy efficient building conditioning measures and building services engineering ..72 3.2.3.1 Natural Lighting........................................................................................................72 3.2.3.2 Artificial Lighting .....................................................................................................80 3.2.3.3 Natural Ventilation....................................................................................................81 3.2.3.4 Mechanical Ventilation:............................................................................................83 3.2.3.5 Cooling, Heating and Air Conditioning ....................................................................84 3.2.3.5 .1 Cooling techniques............................................................................................86 3.2.3.5 .1.1 Evaporative Cooling .....................................................................................87 3.2.3.5 .1.2 Ground Cooling ............................................................................................89 3.2.3.5 .1.3 Radiative Cooling .........................................................................................90 3.2.3.5 .1.4 Refrigerative Cooling ...................................................................................91 3.2.3.6 Technologies for heating and electricity production.................................................92 3.2.3.6 .1 Passive Solar Heating........................................................................................93 3.2.3.6 .2 Components for active thermal utilisation of solar energy................................94 3.2.3.7 Sanitation Systems and Water Consumption ............................................................96 3.3 The challenge of Guidelines, Regulations and Building Codes ..........................................97
APPENDIXES.........................................................................................98
4.1 Planning Tools for Climate Responsive Building and Construction in the hot and humid climate zone of Pondicherry, India ...................................................................................................99 4.2 4.3 Life Cycle Assessment Tools................................................................................................ 104 Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction............................................. 108
4.4 International Case Studies................................................................................................... 122 Promotion of Cost-Efficient Housing in Ethiopia............................................................................ 124 Chumbe Island Coral Park project Tanzania ................................................................................... 126 Housing Development Villa Hermosa in Diriamba, Nicaragua....................................................... 128 Resettlement in Peru ........................................................................................................................ 130 Changzhou demonstration project ................................................................................................... 132 MECM Low Energy Office (LEO) building in Putrajaya Malaysia ................................................ 134 Buenavista Homes Jugan Consolacion Cebu City, Philippines ....................................................... 136 Bio-Solar House in Thailand ........................................................................................................... 138 60L Green Building, Carlton, Victoria ............................................................................................ 140 Production Hall Huebner.............................................................................................................. 142 4.5 4.6 4.7 Physical Data ........................................................................................................................ 144 References Illustrations .......................................................................................................150 References Literature .......................................................................................................... 162
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1.1
Background
Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) overview
Greenhouse Gases are gases in the atmosphere which allow the solar radiation to pass through but are trapping the infrared radiation reflected from the earth surface and therefore causing a greenhouse climate. On the one hand life would not be possible on earth without natural greenhouse gases because the average temperature would be about 33C lower than it is (according to Schneider 1998), on the other hand the concentration of green house gases has risen significantly since the industrial revolution by human activities. The following graphs show the accumulation of the main green house gases carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous in the earths atmosphere during the last decades:
Illustrations 1: nitrous concentration
Illustrations 2: carbondioxide concentration
Illustrations 3: methane concentration
Naturally occurring GHGs include water vapour, ozone, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). The following table shows the global warming potential (GWP*) of different GHGs. The global warming potential of synthetic, men made substances like Fluorocarbons and especially Sulphur Hexafluoride has been alarming.
Illustration 4: Table Global Warming Potentials (GWP) of different Greenhouse Gases (GHGs):
GHG Carbon Dioxide Methane Nitrous Oxide Sulphur Hexafluoride Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) HFC-23 HFC-32 HFC-41 HFC-43-10mee HFC-125 HFC-134 HFC-134a (common for airconditioning systems) HFC-143 HFC-143a HFC-152a HFC-227ea HFC-236fa HFC-245ca Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) Perfluoromethane Perfluoroethane Perfluoropropane Perfluorobutane Perfluorocyclobutane Perfluoropentane Perfluorohexane
Formula CO2 CH4 N2O SF6 CHF3 CH2F2 CH3F C5H2F10 C2HF5 C2H2F4 (CHF2CHF2) C2H2F2 (CH2FCF3) C2H3F3 (CHF2CH2F) C2H3F3 (CF3CH3) C2H4F2 (CH3CHF2) C3HF7 C3H2F6 C3H3F5 CF4 C2F6 C3F8 C4F10 c-C4F8 C5F12 C6F14
100-year GWP 1 21 310 23 900 11 700 650 150 1 300 2 800 1 000 1 300 300 3 800 140 2 900 6 300 560 6 500 9 200 7 000 7 000 8 700 7 500 7 400
Source: IPCC (1996a), 1995 Summary for Policy Makers - A Report of Working Group I of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Note: The CH4 GWP included the direct effect and those indirect effects due to the production of tropospheric ozone and stratospheric water vapour. Not included is the indirect effect due to the production of CO2.
Sustainable Building and Construction (* further explanation and source: Greenhouse Gas Division Environment Canada, June 2002, available at: http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/ghg/1990_00_report/sec1_e.cfm) According to the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2001, available at the world-wide-web: http://www.ipcc.ch/) some of the expected impacts of the increased concentrations of GHGs on the climate system include: Increasing extremes of drying and heavy rainfall and increases in the risk of droughts and floods that occur with El Nio events in many different regions; Sea level rise, through thermal expansion of seawater and widespread loss of land ice. Global mean sea level is projected to rise by 0.09-0.88 m between 1990 and 2100, for the full range of scenarios examined. This is due primarily to thermal expansion and loss of mass from glaciers and ice caps; ice sheets will continue to react to climate warming and contribute to sea level rise for thousands of years after climate has been stabilized; Weakening of the ocean thermohaline circulation (THC, Large-scale densitydriven circulation in the ocean, caused by differences in temperature and salinity. In the North Atlantic, the thermohaline circulation consists of warm surface water flowing northward and cold deepwater flowing southward, resulting in a net pole ward transport of heat. The surface water sinks in highly restricted sinking regions located in high latitudes which leads to a reduction of the heat transfer into high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere; and more rapid warming of land areas than the global average, particularly those at northern high latitudes in the cold season. Most notable of these is the warming in the northern regions of North America. (Summary from Greenhouse Gas Division Environment Canada, June 2002, available at: http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/ghg/1990_00_report/sec1_e.cfm)
Examples of impacts resulting from projected changes in extreme climate events are available at the website Climate Change 2001: Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability; 2.6. The Potential for Large-Scale and Possibly Irreversible Impacts Poses Risks that have yet to be Reliably Quantified (http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/009.htm#tabspm1)
Illustration 5: The Earths annual and global mean energy balance. Of the incoming solar radiation, 49% (168 Wm-2) is absorbed by the surface. That heat is returned to the atmosphere as sensible heat, as evapotranspiration (latent heat) and as thermal infrared radiation. Most of this radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere, which in turn emits radiation both up and down. The radiation lost to space comes from cloud tops and atmospheric regions much colder than the surface. This causes a greenhouse effect.
Illustration 5a: Principle of the greenhouse effect.
1.2
Population and climate change
The world is facing explosive growth of urban population, mainly in the developing world. For the first time in human history a majority of the worlds population will live in cities while many of those face problems to meet the basic needs of their citizens, like adequate housing, sanitation, water supply and infrastructure. All cities have increasing levels of impact on the environment, caused by un-sustainable development. For example the Ecological Footprint of the greater Tokyo area is 3.5 times the land area of Japan as a whole and Londons footprint is equal to the land area of the UK while the air quality in the city is the worst in Europe and is responsible for the death of several thousand people each year. By the year 2025 the Worlds population will have increased by at least 50%, from ~ 6 billion in the year 2000 to 9 billion, and approximately 50% of the increase (equals a growth of ~ 1.5 billion people) will occur in Asia-Pacific Region.
Illustration 6: Urban population
Illustration 7: World population
Upon current development patterns (2002) the energy consumption and waste production will increase by at least 30%. The Global Carbon Dioxide increase until 2025 will be the fastest ever recorded and at least 25% above current levels. If this scenario manifests, a sustainable future will not only be more difficult to achieve but increasingly less likely to be achieved at all. Therefore the reduction of energy demand and GHG emissions, which are maybe critical for the survival of mankind, are high on the global environmental agenda. According to the report Poverty and Climate Change: Reducing The Vulnerability of the Poor Through Adaptation, which was released by 10 governments and institutions, including the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, the Asian Development Bank, the African Development Bank, the U.N. Development Program and the U.N. Environment Program on 10th of June 2003 at the annual meetings of the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change in Bonn, climate change could jeopardize the Millennium Development Goals of halving global poverty by 2015. It is reportedly the first joint statement of development agencies on the risks of climate variability and change for development. According to the report, rising temperatures will "reduce access to drinking water, and negatively affect the health and food security of poor people in many countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America." "Unless remedial measures are taken, the livelihoods of poor people and the development prospects of many developing countries are threatened," the report says, urging developed countries to be leaders in "combating climate change and its adverse effects." (Available at: http://www.unfoundation.org/unwire/util/display_stories.asp?objid=34174) 1.3 The building and construction sector
About 40% of the raw materials and energy produced worldwide are used in the building sector (ASMI, "The Environmental Challenge in the Building Sector, 1999). In 1999, construction activities contributed over 35% of total CO2 emissions, which is more than any other industrial activity. In average the construction industry accounts for 37% of Global CO2 emissions. Of those, building and business operation accounts for 52.4% (19.4 % of global emissions) materials production for 29.5% (10.9% of global e.), transport for 13.5% (5% of global e.) and construction work for 3.5% (1.3% of global e.). Hence there is an urgent need for sustainable and energy efficient urban planning, architectural design and building construction. 8
Sustainable Building and Construction In developing countries the proportion of the construction industry on the total energy consumption and GHG emissions is supposably much higher than in developed countries because they have a relatively low degree of industrialisation, making the construction-industry the main industrial sector and emission source of CO2. While the level of underdevelopment in developing countries may be cause for despair, it also provides an opportunity for development in these countries to avoid the problems currently experienced in the developed countries. Developing countries need not go through the same process of development as that followed by developed countries. Instead these countries can choose to base all future development on the principles of sustainability. (Agenda 21 for Sustainable Construction in Developing Countries) The construction industry with 111 Million employees is the largest industrial employer worldwide. Around of these are in low income countries, which produce less than of the global construction output. The employment intensity of construction activities in low-income countries is much higher (~9 times) than in high-income countries (according to: International Labour Organisation 2001). It is an indicator for a much less industrialised building and construction practice than in industrialised countries. The construction industry in developing countries is powered mainly by human resources and plays an important role for the regional economic and ecological development as well as sustainability and the improvement of lifequality. 90% of workers are employed in small companies with less than 10 people (Confederation of International Contractors Associations (CICA) and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP); Industry as a Partner for Sustainable Development: Construction. UK 2002).Therefore the development in the building and construction sector in developing countries towards sustainability can be achieved relatively easy and in a non-technical way. Sustainable construction practices, especially in the developing world have to be achieved as soon as possible, because the building and construction sector in these countries is still under construction and growing very fast, additionally the shift towards sustainability in the construction sector may play an important role to shift the economic structure towards sustainability and to optimise the life of the poor. To change the business as usual attitude in the building and construction sector towards sustainable action, programmes for education and awareness building, research and assessment as well as action and practise have to be implemented. This paper is one important element of these programmes and will describe the basic principles and guidelines in design and construction to reduce greenhouse gases in buildings in general as well as the utilisation of appropriate technologies for specific climate zones. Therefore it is an important tool for the awareness and know how building of professionals, administrators and decision makers in the building and construction sector and should support a sustainability orientated interdisciplinary planning process between all participating parties and stakeholders. The problems we have created cannot be solved at the level of thinking that created them. (Albert Einstein)
Basic Principles of Sustainable Measurements to Reduce Greenhouse Gases in Buildings
I do not want to live in a cold chunk out of concrete, glass and steel (Albert Einstein 1926) The International Union of Architects (UIA), Declaration of Interdependence for a Sustainable Future, Chicago 1993: Sustainable design integrates consideration of resource and energy efficiency, healthy buildings and materials, ecologically and socially sensitive land use and an aesthetic sensitivity that inspires, affirms and enables. We commit ourselves, as members of the world's architectural and building-design professions, individually and through our professional organizations, to: 1) Place environmental and social sustainability at the core of our practices and professional responsibilities. 2) Develop and continually improve practices, procedures, products, curricula, services and standards that will enable the implementation of sustainable design. 3) Educate our fellow professionals, the building industry, clients, students, and the general public about the critical importance and substantial opportunities of sustainable design. 4) Establish policies, regulations, and practices in government and business that ensure sustainable design becomes normal practice. 5) Bring all existing and future elements of the built environment - in their design, production, use, and eventual reuse - up to sustainable design standards. A sustainable building is a building that can maintain or improve - the quality of life and harmonize within the local climate, tradition and culture, - the environment in the region - conserve energy, resources and recycling materials - reduce the amount of hazardous substances to which human and other organisms are (or may be) exposed and - the local and global ecosystem throughout the entire building lifecycle. (Background Note for experts meeting on Sustainable Building and Construction; Cities are not Cities: Need for a radical change in our attitudes and approaches to manage the environment in cities; France 2002) The building construction sector comprises: - Residential buildings, - Private and commercial used buildings (industrial and service buildings), - Public buildings (e.g. hospitals and schools). The concept of sustainability in building construction is based on resource flow management as well as the reduced consumption of energy and resources, during all phases of the entire lifecycle of a building, which includes planning, construction, utilisation, renovation, reconstruction and deconstruction. Furthermore interferences with the natural environment have to be minimized and any damage of it has to be avoided. Therefore the use of fossil fuels, land, materials and water has to be
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Sustainable Building and Construction minimized, as well as the production of noise, waste (including sewage) and hazardous chemicals as well as the atmospheric emissions related to global warming and acidification. The reduction of greenhouse gases in the building construction sector is based on principles, which have to be appreciated during all activities concerning the entire building process. Compared with the widely accepted building technologies these are in general: Minimization of the energy demand for the production, transport, reuse or recycling of building materials, Utilization of renewable energies for production, transport and performance, Fabrication of products with an extended lifetime, Utilisation of building products and materials, which can be reused or recycled, Utilization of nature, space and material saving construction methods Design of multifunctional buildings with an extended lifetime, Design of climate responsive buildings with a minimal consumption of energy.
The early implementation of concepts, which are based on above mentioned, sustainable measures, can improve significantly the overall ecological and economic efficiency of buildings. The influence on the sustainability of buildings and the related monetary and non-monetary costs is increasingly high during the early planning phases, while it is constantly decreasing during the further planning and construction process. Regarding the relatively long lifetime of buildings, compared with other products, and the high proportion on greenhouse gas emissions, caused by the production of building materials and the building performance, decision makers and planners bear a very heavy responsibility for the implementation of sustainability in their specific society as well as the world community.
Illustration 8: The impacts and cost blocks during the planning, construction and utilisation phases and the opportunity to influence these.
The main indicators for sustainability can be assigned to ecological, economic and social-cultural dimensions, which can be estimated either qualitative then quantitative. They are used because there are no absolute measures available, which could be applied to express the specific causalities. However sustainable building and construction is a very complex process, which is related to many specific regional basic conditions, concerning e.g. infrastructure, natural resources, climate and culture. Therefore an interdisciplinary planning process during the definition of the 11
Sustainable Building and Construction programme and the initial concept phase is indispensable. This should involve officials and professionals from all scopes, users and could even include discussions with residents or neighbours.
Resources Social Equity and Cultural Issues Economic Constraints
Illustration 9: The Sustainability Triangle, connecting ecological, economic and social dimensions.
Emissions Environmental Quality
Biodiversity
Another leading point for sustainable building is also the indoor air quality of buildings. Buildings can be called the human beings third skin (clothes can be named as the second skin). The indoor conditions of buildings play a significant role for the heath and well being of their users, because people do spend generally a lot of their lifetime in buildings for residential or working purpose, especially in urban areas and in regions where the outdoor climate is out of the comfort zone for human beings. Thus the building envelope is generally closed and the conditioning of a building required. The building design and the selected technology for heating, cooling, ventilation and lighting are interacting and directly linked to the health and wellbeing of the users as well as the energy consumption of the building. The use of healthy materials and appropriate technologies can avoid the so called Sick Building Syndrome and therefore reduce monetary and non-monetary costs. Ventilation and air infiltration into buildings represent a substantial energy demand which can account for between 25% to over 50% of a building's total space heating (or cooling) needs. Unnecessary or excessive air change can therefore have an important impact on global energy use. On the other hand insufficient ventilation may result in poor indoor air quality and consequential health problems. (AIVC, Air Infiltration and Ventilation Centre, available at : http://www.aivc.org/About_Aivc/about.html The estimated loss of productivity through health costs and absence of work in the European Union amounts between 5 and 15%. (According to Carrie, Fr., Andersson, P., Wouters, P.; Improving Ductwork A time for tighter air distribution systems; AIVC publication 1999) All aspects of sustainability including questions such as urban planning, city infrastructure (energy and water supply, transport, waste and sewage management), Site development (decentralised measures for sewage and water management), planning law, building regulations (stability and fire safety) and architecture as well as
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Sustainable Building and Construction the building process (operational safety, rationalisation, environmental impacts), the utilization of the building, the reuse or demolition and the reuse of components as well as the recycling of building material must be fully assessed during the early design, architecture and engineering stages. For each individual project specific concepts must be developed, which should include alternatives, different methods and measures. Meetings and discussions hosted by an integrated design team, before starting the planning process itself and including above mentioned external groups, are the key methods to find most ideal solutions for specific tasks, to develop performance targets and to realize them in an economic, ecological and socially acceptable way. Experts of the Task 23 (Optimization of Solar Energy Use in Large Buildings) group of the Solar Heating and Cooling Programme (SHC) of the International Energy Agency (IEA) developed a wide range of products to support the Integrated Design Process (IDP). Relations to the Subtasks are available at the World Wide Web: http://www.iea-shc.org/task23/introduction.htm#Subtasks. The Subtask B led by Switzerland, mainly developed design process guidelines. The cutting edge products, designed for international application are categorized as following: Methods and Tools support actors to handle complex interrelations of daily design tasks. Documentations describe possible solutions for technical and processual solutions in practice. Publications provide an overview of dissemination activities during the Task. To get short descriptions to each product and download files individually, you can visit the outcomes list: http://www.iea-shc.org/task23/outcomes.htm#OUTCOMES_LIST The direct download of a CD package containing all documents and to create an own Task 23 CD is available at: http://www.iea-shc.org/task23/outcomes.htm#ITEM8_1 The opportunities for the implementation of sustainability and the reduction of greenhouse gases in buildings can be classified by four major interdependent strategies: Technical Strategies include all measures, which are directly linked to the design, construction and utilisation of buildings. Their approaches will be described detailed in chapters 3 and 4 of this Monograph. Educational Strategies include all awareness rising and know-how propagating measurements (implying technical strategies) regarding officials, decision makers and professionals from all scopes as well as users, especially children. Their approaches are e.g. media campaigns, (e-) courses and trainings, which will be covered by UNEP / IETC among other things. Regulatory Strategies include several legal measures, which can reduce the energy consumption of buildings, e.g. minimum energy performance standards 13
Sustainable Building and Construction and building codes, limiting the (primary-) energy consumption of buildings and their service engineering. These regulatory measures can only be implemented together with control mechanisms and the spread of building performance analysis tools, which allow professionals a corresponding certification. Economic Strategies comply with regulatory measures and apply the industry as well as the domestic sector. The measurements may include e.g. subsidies for the use of renewable building materials, energies and fuels or tax reliefs for the investment in energy efficient building design (according certification) and service engineering.
3.
Approaches For the Reduction of Greenhouse Gases in Buildings

General Approaches
3.1
In this chapter a brief overview is given about the measures for the realisation of sustainable buildings and the reduction of green house gas emissions in buildings. Their single aspects will be more detailed and differentiated described in the chapter design approaches. The lifetime of a building can be divided into three phases, the building process, the building use and the deconstruction after use, each implying a multitude of different actions and processes, and related to the sustainability and emission of greenhouse gases of a specific building. 1. The building process includes the production of building materials, parts and technical components, their transport to the building site, the preparation of the building site and the related infrastructure as well as the construction of the building itself. The phase of the building use includes all activities, which are related to the operation, maintenance, renovation and conversion as well as the retrofitting of the technical components of a building. The deconstruction of a building includes all processes which are related to the removal of the entire building and the treatment of all components and materials, including the possible reuse, retrofitting, recycling or combustion and landfill at the worst.
2.
3.
The optimisation and minimisation of all activities related to these three phases of the life cycle of buildings are measures to strengthen the sustainability and to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions of a building. Appendix 2 Life Cycle Assessment Tools gives an overview about available software tools for the life cycle assessment of building materials, building operation and whole buildings (including all life cycles of a building).
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Sustainable Building and Construction The 14 main criteria for the assessment of buildings can be assigned to 4 main factors which are interacting: External: Economic: Ecological: Substructural: Building Conception (according to: Diederichs J. (editor);Entwicklung eines Beewertungssystems fuer oekonomisches und oekologisches Bauen und gesundes Wohnen, S. 20, Darstellung der Bewertungsmatrix und Einfluesse der Regulatorien; Lehr und Forschungsgebiet Bauwirtschaft Bergische Universitaet Wuppertal; Germany 2000) The CSTB (Centre Scientifique Et Technique Du Batiment) has defined 24 criteria for sustainability, which have been classified in direct and indirect criteria. The direct criteria involve impact factors in terms of physical pollution and have effects on resources depletion, area degradation and pollution growth. The indirect criteria are all the other criteria, expressly those of socio-economic character. They have only an indirect influence on the life environment and the human relations. The examination of the sustainability of a building through the set of criteria is done one element after each other, according to the following treelike outline (Illustration 10). Before planning any new building project, it should be taken into account that the most effective measure to reach sustainability in the building sector and to reduce greenhouse gases in buildings, is to avoid new construction activities, to minimize the related material flow and to optimise the existing build environment concerning the consumption of energy. Save energy! The first step towards sustainability is to reduce the consumption of electric energy in already existing buildings. With this measure the greenhouse gas emissions, caused by the production of electric energy can be minimized in an effective way, within in a short period of time, and with minimum effort. Energy input Construction materials resources Noxious emissions Disposal Water, Soil, Air Construction management Site development Structural design Technical equipment Outside facilities Equipment and artworks Project conditions Site
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Illustration 10: Treelike outline of the analysis of a sustainable building. D=Direct Criteria, I= Indirect Criteria
The requirements for the construction of new buildings should be verified. In many cases it is more suitable to use already existing buildings, if they can meet the space requirements, then to demolish the existing building and to build a new one. Existing assets can be converted and often also extended, if there is more space required. The energy consumption caused by cooling, heating and lighting can be minimised by modification of the existing building structure, the attachment of relevant components and the replacement of inefficient components of the technical building equipment. There are two general possibilities for a building site, if a new building is required. The utilisation of a former already covered site (e.g. post- industrial or military sites) should be always preferred compared to a site on the green field to protect the natural environment as much as possible. In any case the site should be surveyed concerning potential contamination with hazardous substances and eventually recycled to protect the natural environment (e.g. related to soil quality, groundwater quality protection and gas emissions) as well as the human health.
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The elimination of plants and open ground for a building project should be minimised and compensated, e.g. by the re- naturalisation of already covered ground and the construction of green roof or cladding systems. The concept for urban planning and building construction should include decentralized nature-orientated water management systems to minimise the disturbance of the natural water cycle and to allow decentralized stormwater and sewage treatment as well as sustainable drinking water supply. Plants have a strong positive influence on the natural water cycle, the microclimate (concerning evaporation, dust absorption and elimination of hazardous substances) and are important Carbon Dioxide accumulators. Referring to this, additional information is e.g. available at the UNEP IETC website about Phytotechnologies: http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Activities/Freshwater/PhytoTechnology.asp . Building and construction projects should be generally optimised due to the following indicators, which have an influence on the environmental impact and the green house gas emissions of the building and construction sector. The single aspects and influencing factors which will be described more detailed and differentiated in the chapter Design Approaches. High Resource Productivity The utilisation of environmentally friendly materials with high resource productivity (e.g. Clay and Timber) and avoidance of materials with low resource productivity (e.g. Concrete and Steel) minimises the total mass and energy flow related to the production of building materials. Local Materials The utilisation of local materials minimises the effort for transportation and allows the preservation of the cultural identity and knowledge in the build environment by the utilisation of traditional materials. Renewable Materials The utilisation of renewable materials (made from renewable primary products, e.g. Bamboo, Timber and Wool), maximise the Carbon Dioxide storage and reduce the utilisation of non-renewable products. Their utilisation is sensible if they are locally available; their production is not causing exhausting cultivation and is not in competition with food production or is leading to any alternative environmental impacts. Durable Components and Materials The utilisation of structural and functional durable components and materials allow a long-term use as well as the reduction of maintenance and renovation and refurbishment costs during the lifetime of buildings. Structural and functional durability is crucial for the reuse of components. Reuse and Recycling The concept of Reuses and Recycling describes the idea that all components and materials can ever reused, refurbished and recycled, support life and never have to be deposited as waste. The utilisation of recycled materials saves resources and the utilisation of recyclable materials allows recycling.
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Building Size and Shape The building size and shape should be optimised regarding the surface and volume ratio, which has effect on the energy demand of the building for cooling and heating as well as the quantitative material input, related to the floor area. Climate Responsive Design Climate responsive design is related to the specific regional macro and microclimate of a building and has a crucial effect on the energy demand for the climate control of a building. The main principles for climate responsive design are passive cooling and passive heating (also termed as passive solar utilisation), which should be applied on the building design process according to the specific climate and global position. Natural Ventilation Natural Ventilation is based on natural forces (e.g. cross ventilation or buoyancy) and can therefore reduce the energy demand compared to ventilator driven ventilation systems and may be a component for climate responsive design. Natural Lighting Natural Lighting is based on reflection and control technology, can reduce the energy demand for artificial lighting and has an important effect on the wellbeing of the building users because of its natural spectrum and frequency. Multifunctional Design The implementation of multifunctional design concepts has influence on the utilisation-orientated life cycle of a building and allows the extension of a buildings lifetime by easy conversion, modification or extension for different utilisations. Multifunctional design can avoid the necessity for deconstruction and construction activities and therefore may have a remarkable effect on the life cycle and the related environmental impacts and GHG emissions. Maintenance Maintenance-friendly design implies the utilisation of durable building products, which should be well adapted to the climate (e.g. for the building envelope) and utilisation (e.g. floor finishes). The maintenance intervals should be long and realised with a minimal effort and effect on the environment. Additionally the selected materials should minimise the need for modernization and renovation. Deconstruction-friendly Design Deconstruction, and reuse friendly design allows the widely non-destructive deconstruction of a building structure. I history there are many examples for timbered buildings which can be easily disassembled transported and reassembled (e.g. in Germany, Japan and Korea). Hence the building components should be assembled in a way that they easily can be disassembled, transported and reused. Building services engineering Very material- and energy-efficient systems and products should be selected for technical components such as heating -, cooling -, ventilation - and lighting devices.
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Illustration 11: Cascade model of planning principles, concerning the needs for a new building property and the selection of building products.
3.2
Design Approaches
All single factors and criteria mentioned in the chapter General Approaches should be considered during the entire lifetime of a building and during all construction, refurbishment and deconstruction processes. They should especially be applied during the early design, decision-making and planning process because their early implementation can improve significantly the overall social, ecological and economic efficiency. The application of a life cycle approach during these stages of a building project can help successfully to find an appropriate balance between social, structural, environmental and technical requirements and to optimise the overall performance of a building. An appropriate building structure, resistant against natural hazards such as storms, earthquakes and fires is a basic condition for the protection of human life and to attain sustainable building and construction. Therefore the measures to achieve that aim will be not further discussed in this monograph. In the framework of this monograph all indicators responsible for the reduction of GHG emissions in the construction sector, will be assigned to Design Approaches and collated to 3 generic terms: 19
Structural Design and Building Materials Climate Responsive Building Design, Energy Efficient Building Services Engineering.
For a universal validity of the described measures, which are relevant for the realisation of a sustainable build environment, regarding the reduction of GHG emissions, the effects of the different approaches will be described qualitative and generally in the framework of this monograph. The connections between the different influencing factors are dependent on many regional specific basic conditions, related to e.g. culture, climate, infrastructure and natural resources, as well as the performance of building service engineering and the behaviour of occupants. Hence the data for the quantitative assessment of the different measures and the related indicators has to be evaluated specifically for each region, country and climate. Appendix 2 Life Cycle Assessment Tools gives an overview about already existing databases, tools and programmes for the environmental assessment of the different indicators for sustainable construction in different countries. UNEP Division of Technology, Industry and Economics, Sustainable Building and Construction Platform, Sustainable Building Design and Architecture in Co-operation with UIA International Union of Architects Work Programme Sustainable Architecture of the Future develops an architects kit which will presumably be published in the second half of 2004. 3.2.1 Structural Design and Building Materials 3.2.1.1 Interaction between building materials and spatial structures
The selection of the building material is interacting with the design of the spatial structure of buildings, which is responsible for the basic design of a building as well as for the necessary quantity of the primary material input. Solid buildings (e.g. brick, stone or adobe structures) for example have to be designed in a different way, compared with e.g. columns and beams constructions or frameworks (e.g. out of bamboo, timber concrete, or steel), arches, grid shells, shells and dome constructions (e.g. out of bamboo, timber concrete, or steel), or suspended structures. Different spatial structures do need different quantities of primary building materials to create a similar building capacity. Therefore the selection of spatial structure and appropriate building materials are basic influencing factors for the required quantity of building material, for the design of a specific space and are crucial for the reduction of the total material flow. They are directly linked with the GHG emissions and other environmental impacts of building constructions. Efficient and light weight structures have relatively small impacts on the total material consumption, while solid and heavy structures have bigger impacts and therefore in general cause comparably more GHG emissions.
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Sustainable Building and Construction 3.2.1.2 Materials for specific spatial structures
Buildings in general and specific spatial structures especially are constructed out of many different materials, elements and products (up to more than 60 basic materials and 2000 separate products (according to Kohler and Moffatt, 2003), which have different impacts on the GHG emissions, according to their characteristics and local availability. I general materials, with a high resource productivity (e.g. renewable materials) should be utilised for all construction activities to reduce the material and energy flow as well as the related environmental impacts, such as GHG emissions, caused by the production and processing of building materials. For a comparison of different available materials it is important to know their special characteristics according to the construction of specific spatial structures, as well as for all building elements, from the foundation to the roof and from the exterior to the interior.
Illustration 12: Construction of solid concrete buildings, high rise apartments in Wonju, SouthKorea.
Illustration 13: Construction of solid stone buildings, residential and commercial buildings in Kairouan, Tunesia.
Solid buildings are relatively material intensive and un-flexible because the structural elements (such as walls) are working as the primary structure. Additionally they are in general less earthquake resistant than frame structures. The interior structure as well as the building envelope can only be modified limited after finalisation. Solid buildings can be constructed out of solid materials with relatively low environmental impacts, such as adobe, natural stones, clay or even straw bales and timber. They are often locally available, appropriate to many countries and climate zones and have an immense influence on the minimisation of the environmental impact of construction materials, compared with industrialised products such as cement blocks or burned bricks.
Columns, beams and frame constructions are less material intensive, more flexible and may be more earthquake-resistant (if required) compared to massive structures. The primary structure is a pillar and beam or frame construction. According to the building design and size it can be constructed out of bamboo, timber, steel, concrete or a combination out of these. Like mentioned before, the utilisation of materials with low resource efficiency, like steel and concrete should be minimised as much as possible. The structural elements, such as walls and the building envelope are not load-bearing. They can be constructed
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Illustration 14: Construction of a steel framed timber building in Osaka Japan.
in a relative light way, easy to modify, to exchange or to deconstruct. For these elements nearly all environmental friendly building and insulation materials such as bamboo, timber, clay, wool or recycled products may be used if they are appropriate to the specific climate requirements. Many of existing as well as new constructed buildings are realised as solid, column, beam or framework constructions. Anyhow there are other intelligent construction methods with minimised material input, which may be more adapted for many building and construction projects. The most appropriate and efficient building structure should be evaluated in the very early planning phase of a building project.
Illustration 15: Construction of a timber framed building in Osaka Japan, (exterior view).
Illustration 15a: Construction of a timber frame building in Osaka Japan, (interior view).
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Sustainable Building and Construction The Primary structures of arches, grid shells, shells, cupolas, vaults and dome constructions are self-supporting. Therefore the material input, related to the covered volume, may be highly minimized. The shape of these structures is not orthogonal and therefore they can only be utilised for specific building projects. Vaults and domes can be easy constructed out of solid materials, e.g. environmental friendly adobe or natural stones, but can be realised also as non-solid rod structures, e.g. out of bamboo or timber.
Illustration 16: Overview different types of vaults. Illustration 17: Overview different types of cupolas.
Illustration 18: Small geodesic dome (non solid structure).
Illustration 19: Construction of a solid cupola in India.
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Illustration 20: Arch constructions out of branches and earth, a finished residential hut and granary during the construction phase in Rajasthan, India. Illustration 21: Grid shell construction with paper tubes of the Japanese Pavilion (Architect Shigeru Ban) at the Expo in the year 2000 in Hanover.
The Material input for suspended structures is also very minimal compared with standing constructions. Traditional Suspension bridges out of vegetable fibres, which can be found almost worldwide in many cultures, are very good examples for such efficient, environmental friendly structures. In the building construction sector these structures are generally used for relatively huge structures, like stadiums and halls, as well as for lightweight membrane structures.
Illustration 22: Suspended roof structure of the Football Stadium in Seogwipo on Cheju Island, South-Korea.
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Sustainable Building and Construction 3.2.1.3 Conventional building materials and related GHG Emissions
The production of concrete and steel, which are the basic building materials for most of modern constructions consumes the most energy and causes the majority of the GHG emissions in the construction sector. (According to: CIB, UNEP IETC; Agenda 21 for Sustainable Construction in Developing Countries; South Africa 2002). The production of glass also causes immense GHG emissions because its production is very heat energy intensive but glass can also help to save and gain energy if it is utilised in an intelligent way (e.g. by natural lighting and use of solar radiation for heating). According to World Business Council for Sustainable Development, Cement Sustainability Initiative (on the Internet available at http://www.wbcsdcement.org/concrete_misc.asp), twice as much concrete is used in the construction sector around the world than the total amount of all other building materials including wood, steel, plastic and aluminium (Cement Association of Canada). The annual production of cement is ~1.56 billion metric tonnes worldwide, one third of the total amount is produced in China alone (USGS Minerals information, Cement statistics, 2000). Through the production process an equivalent amount of more than 1.56 billion tonnes CO2 is released into the atmosphere (Centre for Contaminated Land Remediation). Therefore the cement industry is responsible for ~1/4 of the annual worldwide CO2 emissions from fossil fuels. (In 1999 ~6.46 billion tonnes CO2 were emitted worldwide from the utilisation of fossil fuels, ~1.1 tonnes per capita (Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Centre http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/home.html). The annual global production of concrete is more than 3.8 billion cubic metre (Cement Association of Canada). Concrete is the second most consumed substance on Earth (after water), with more than one tonne (1 cubic metre concrete ~ 2-2.8 tonnes) of it being used in average for each human every year (Lafarge Coppee SA, 2000). The production of iron and steel, which is also used in reinforced concrete, is responsible for more than 4% of the total energy use worldwide and the related GHG emissions (World Resources 2000-2001, World Resource Institute, http://www.wri.org/) The primary production of Aluminium is more than three times higher than for the same quantity of steel. The production of metals and other construction materials e.g. glass, lime and bricks, is responsible for 20% of annual dioxin and furan emissions. PVC and other chlorinated substances used in the construction industry are excluded from that figure. The production of cement, metals, glass and baked bricks have very high environmental impacts and causes immense GHG emissions because their production requires the processing of mined raw materials at a very high temperature. While concrete and steel are comparative modern building materials (their use became popular in the 19th century), baked bricks and quick lime (which production requires more primarily energy than the production of cement) are well known in many cultures since several thousands of years (e.g. at Indus Culture, Mohenjo Daro, etc.). For the baking of bricks, traditionally timber was used as a burning material, which has lead to immense deforestation in the specific areas. Today mainly fossil resources such coal, mineral oil or gas are used for that process. The construction of thousands
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Sustainable Building and Construction of pagodas constructed out of burned bricks in Myanmar (Burma) e.g. has turned a former forest into a steppe. In the Kathmandu Valley in Nepal the urbanisation and burning of bricks, which traditionally used as building materials has lead to deforestation. Today imported brown coal is used, which causes heavy air pollution (by transport and the burning process itself) and leads to respiratory diseases of inhabitants as well as to forest dieback and the corrosion of buildings by acid rain. Regarding the minimisation of the total mass and energy flow in the main stream building and construction sector, it is crucial to use smart building products if products out of renewable materials are not appropriate or available. Looking, e.g. at concrete, which is used in many present construction projects, there are two main materials available, common concrete, which is made out of cement, water and gravel, and gas concrete (or Autoclave Light Concrete (ALC) or Autoclave Aerated Concrete (AAC)), which is made out of cement water and sand, frothed up with aluminium powder (only 0,05 - 0,1% of weight) to build up the porous structure and hardened in autoclaves. While Concrete is very massive, resource and energy intensive, ALC is comparable very light and much less resource intensive. For the production of 5m ALC only 1m of raw materials is required. The accumulated primarily energy demand for the production of 1m ALC (~220 kWh/m) is about 3 times smaller than for the same amount of concrete (~660 kWh/m). (According to: Hullmann, H., Weber, H.; Porenbeton Handbuch; Germany 1998) For many applications in building construction especially for interior and exterior walls, ALC is a more appropriate building material than concrete because it is much easier to handle and has a much better insulation effect than massive concrete.
Illustration 22a: Examples of primary energy content for building materials.
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Sustainable Building and Construction 3.2.1.4 Alternative building materials and related GHG Emissions
The intelligent use of natural available materials like inorganic materials (e.g. natural stones and clay) and especially the utilisation of building materials out of organic raw materials, made from biomass which is renewable, can lead to a significant reduction of the GHG emissions and the environmental impacts caused by the production of building materials. Also inorganic materials can be characterised as renewable materials if they can ever be reused or recycled (like e.g. natural stones and clay). Almost every region on this planet has its own tradition in the utilisation of renewable raw materials. Typical examples are the utilisation of timber, products from palm trees, straw and grass (including bamboo). Some materials may be used directly as building materials (e.g. reed or straw for the construction of thatched roofs or even walls) or as raw materials for the processing of building materials. Their utilisation maximises the Carbon Dioxide storage, reduces the need for non-renewable materials and is sensible, if they are locally available, their production is not causing exhausting cultivation and is not in competition with food production, or is leading to any alternative environmental impacts. The utilisation of biotechnology for the development of new efficient building materials may be crucial to reduce the GHG emissions caused by the construction industry.
Illustration 23: Construction of a building with straw bales and timber. Illustration 24: Primary energy demand for cement and straw.
Traditionally, renewable materials were often used in combination with inorganic materials, to use the synergetic effects between these materials. A typical example is the mix of clay with organic and inorganic aggregate to reduce the crack initiation of components and to make it stronger against dynamic stress. Further examples can be found in traditional building constructions in Asia, Europe, Africa and South America. The houses were built by a primary post and beam structure or skeleton framing out of timber or bamboo. The interspaces or the whole structure were filled, respectively covered with wattles, made out of organic fibres (timber, straw or bamboo) and than plastered with clay.
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Illustration 25: Techniques, materials and typical lifespan of biomass roofing
Compared with industrialised products, the traditional processing of natural available and renewable materials is relatively labour intensive. On the one hand that may have the positive effect that the value enhancement concerns the workmen. On the other hand it may have a negative effect on the utilisation and distribution of these techniques, because they are in comparison with industrialised building products, which are fashioned and easy to use. Therefore beneath the activation of traditional techniques and knowledge, the development of new appropriate technologies for the processing as well as the production of ready made" products, which are easy to use and are comparable with industrialised building products, are crucial for the wide use and of environmental friendly building materials. Anyhow the generally small enterprises using less industrialised techniques and the relatively high employment intensity of construction activities in Illustration 26: Energy consumption in the low-income countries offers manyfold production of building materials in Brazil. possibilities for an immediate change in the building and construction industry towards sustainability by the utilisation of materials with low environmental impacts and energy efficient building techniques, orientated on traditional knowledge and practices. The development of ready-made industrialised products and building systems out of renewable materials as well as out of inorganic materials becomes more and more popular, especially in high income-countries, because these materials are not only 28
Sustainable Building and Construction ecological, but in general also non hazardous. Clay for example is used to improve the indoor climate of rooms and the health of occupants, because among other things it does absorb smell, air pollutants and works as a water vapour buffer. In addition to the traditional organic building materials numerous products are already developed using renewable materials. They are available for many applications concerning building construction, eg. : - Thermal insulation (e.g. out of coco, cotton, hemp, sisal, cheep wool, wood fibre or cellulose) - Construction Materials & Composites - Construction boards (e.g. out of plant shells) - Paints and lacquers (e.g. from milk products and vegetable oils) - Plastics (e.g. linoleum as floor finish) - Sealing compound (e.g. out of caoutchouc and cork) - Floor Finishes (e.g. linoleum, cork, timber, bamboo)
Illustration 27: Bamboo parquet and interior at Columbian Zero Emission (Zeri) Bamboo Pavilion at the Expo 2000 in Hanover (Architect: Velez, S.).
The aim of a research project of Guillermo Gonzalez at the Department of Building and Architecture at Eindhoven University of Technology with the title Plybamboo- sheets as a construction material for housing is to study the use of these sheets as structural elements (walls) in prefabricated housing in developing countries. Results of these studies will be published as a thesis and as a handbook on technical and physical properties of joints for plybamboo. The results will be distributed to groups in developing countries. (According to: http://www.bwk.tue.nl/bko/research/Bam boo/Guillermo.htm)
Further information about renewable resources are available at the website of the Agency of Renewable Resources (FNR), at: http://www.fnr.de/en/indexen.htm, which links also to international organisations, e.g. the Natural Product Development, Independent Agro-Industrial Consultancy Group, at: http://www.natural-product-development.com/, or the website of Biomatnet, Biological Materials for Non-Food Products (Renewable Bio-products), at: http://www.nf-2000.org/home.html. According to Richard Hofmeister, Frank Lloyd Wright School for Architecture in Arizona, timbered walls insulated with mineral wool are 30 times more energy intensive than comparable constructions insulated with straw bales. (Translated from: http://www.bauatelier.at/strohballenhaus.html)
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Sustainable Building and Construction In many developing countries there do already exist examples for the successful utilisation and further development of renewable materials. This process offers them beneath a sustainable development the additional chance for economic growth threw the production and export of building materials. One successful example is the utilisation of bamboo, which is a much promising material for further development of sustainable building products, because it has many ecological benefits. It does grow very fast in many regions and climates and is very strong. Therefore it produces much more biomass in a specific time and place than timber. Bamboo is utilised as a building material since thousands of years in almost any countries of the world. Since several years it is also used to produce high quality technical building products, like e.g. bamboo parquet for interior floors as well as construction boards for walls and ceilings. In future it may be also used to produce bio-hight-tech building materials, which could be comparable with plywood. Examples in Columbia (e.g. by Velez, S. and Hidalgo, O., in Vegesack, A., Kries, M. (editors); Grow your own House; Germany, Weil am Rhein, 2000) show that it is possible to build out of bamboo big and challenging functional buildings and representative residential buildings for the upper-class as well as cost-effective residential building projects for low-income groups. For the building industry, by 1995 in Costa Rica 700 hectares of land throughout the country have been planted with a special kind of bamboo (Guadua Angustifolia), suitable for building, and traditionally used for the construction of structural posts and beams in Columbia and Ecuador. This should produce enough material for 10.000 houses per year. It was estimated that the same number of houses built from forest hardwood timber would have caused the destruction of 6.000 hectares of indigenous forest. The area planted with bamboo has increased to 350 hectares. This amount of bamboo planted will meet local demands for housing, furniture and a limited quantity of industrial projects. Currently, the government plans to increase number of hectares under cultivation. More than 3000 bamboo homes have been built throughout Costa Rica and, at this time, the Bamboo Foundation (FUNBAMBU, a private, non-profit foundation and operating since 1996 as auto-financed business activity) is building around 1.500 housing units a year. This represents 6% of all homes built annually in Costa Rica, a significant proportion, and also provides permanent employment to more than
Illustration 28: Columbian Zero Emission (Zeri) Bamboo Pavilion at the Expo 2000 in Hanover (Architect: Velez, S.).
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Sustainable Building and Construction 500 technicians throughout the entire year. Recently, a prefabricated home made 100% of bamboo was developed that could reduce construction costs by 20%. (According to best practices website of UN-habitat: http://www.bestpractices.org/cgibin/bp98.cgi?cmd=detail&id=727) Further research and development on bamboo construction for sustainable building and construction technologies is done at several institutes world wide e.g.: International Network for Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR), an international organization created by 27 Member States of the United Nations, and Headquarters in Beijing, China. (http://www.inbar.int/index.htm) Bamboo Research and Development Center (BDRC) in China (http://www.caf.ac.cn/newcaf/english/zzzx/bamboo.htm) Bamboo thematic network project in Belgium (http://www.bamboonetwork.org/) National University of Columbia's Research Center for Bamboo and Wood (CIBAM) in Columbia Project Alandaluz in Ecuador
Illustration 28a: Bamboo in Japan.
Beneath the exchange of materials, the knowledge exchange is an important measure to support the further intelligent and white spread utilisation of renewable materials and sustainable building construction. For example the sprinkler installation on the straw roof of the South African Wildlife College for fire protection measures could have been maybe avoided by the impregnation of the straw with soluble glass (sodium silicate), an environmental friendly technology, which is used e.g. in Denmark and Germany for the same purpose.
The innovation of sustainable building materials and construction methods can be worldwide orientated on traditional knowledge and practice, which are in general relatively good adapted to local climates (see Chapter Climate Responsive Building) and using locally available materials. Anyhow the development has to be also adapted to specific ecological, economical and social basic conditions to meet the present and future needs and requirements. The utilisation of these techniques in cities requires rethinking, especially of politicians, investors, city planners and architects because the urban context may not be built according to international style anymore. The utilisation of timber as construction material, e.g. limits the building hight, while steel and concrete is generally necessary to construct high-rise buildings. These natural limitations of Eco-technologies offer the chance to create a generally more sustainable urban context. The fashion aspect and symbol character is critical for the wide use of sustainable construction materials. In many low-income countries in Latin America,
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Sustainable Building and Construction Africa, Asia there is still a building stock, which meets the definition of sustainable building, is durable and climate responsive constructed and offers comfortable living conditions. Although the majority of people wants to use modern and fashioned building materials, like e.g. metal sheets as roofing material and cement blocks and cement plaster as wall building material, not because the indoor climate is better than in houses, built with traditional materials and methods, but because it looks modern. Cement and Steel became status symbols in developing countries because they are used in industrialised and high-income countries since decades. These countries always have paradigm functions and their building styles, the utilised materials and technologies are the symbols for prosperity and the improvement of life. Therefore a change towards sustainability in the building and construction sector can be only effectively achieved by a paradigm-shift in high-income countries. Only technologies and materials, widely used in these parts of the world will also change the wishes and goals of people living in low-income countries and will open the way towards a sustainable evolution.
Illustration 29: Modified traditional clay house in the rural area of Kumasi, Ghana, with tin roof, modified building corner out of natural stones and cement mortar as well as inappropriate cement plaster on the existing clay wall in the background. Illustration 30: Traditional house with spark eroded clay wall and new tin roof, in the rural area of Kumasi, Ghana.
Illustration 31: Advertisement for cement in the rural area of Kumasi.
An example in the rural areas of Ghana may be generally representative for the worldwide situation in low-income countries regarding traditional sustainable design and construction technologies. The existing traditional buildings are made out of clay, and are several hundred years old. They are still very strong and durable. They are more resistant to mechanical impacts and therefore harder to deconstruct than modern buildings, constructed out of earth cement blocks. They offer a good indoor climate but the clay walls and grass roofs do not meet the present design and status standards. Therefore,
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Sustainable Building and Construction the owners do refurbish their houses with modern building materials even though these measures are relatively expensive and contra productive. The traditional roof cover is replaced by inappropriate metal sheets and cement plaster is applied on the clay walls. The new roofs do boost the indoor temperatures compared to the traditional ones and the cement plaster on the outside walls is not durable because there is no adhesion between the materials clay and cement. 3.2.1.5 Combination of Alternative and Common building materials
Since many years also research is done to develop techniques, which shall allow the replacement of reinforced steel or aggregates in concrete products by bamboo fibres or chips (e.g.: MIT Boston (1914); Fachhochschule Koeln, DFG Forschungsvorhaben II-D4-At 11/1,J.Atrops und S. Haerig: Bambus und Bambusbeton (1983)). Research in natural fibre reinforced concrete has also been done e.g. by the Institute for intuitive technology and bio architecture (TIBA), Lengen, J. v., at Casa Do Sonho, Brazil. In 1966 Brink, F. E., Rush, P. J. published already the research work Bamboo reinforced concrete constructions; U.S. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory; Port Hueme, California, USA 1966; which is available at: http://www.romanconcrete.com/Bamboo/BambooReinforcedConcreteFeb1966.htm These techniques are somehow compromises to reduce the amount of common building materials and to enforce the durability of building products. Regarding the possibilities to improve the quality of building materials also by the utilisation of bioor eco-technologies, their utilisation should be avoided and alternative technologies preferred. The bonding strength and water resistance of clay and mud plaster can be significantly increased, e.g. by mixing it with whey, curd, cow dung or linseed oil varnish, while the mixing with cement and lime can reduce the compression strength, especially if the percentage of the additives is less than 5%, because it destroys the bonding strength of the clay. (According to Minke, G.; Lehmbau Handbuch der Baustoff Lehm und seine Anwendung; Germany, Staufen bei Freiburg 1994) Hence and especially concerning the durability and recycling ability, the combination of materials with different product characteristics should be avoided. Adobes or compressed earth blocks (CEB) are appropriate building materials in many regions of the earth. However, the combination of earth and cement is also an appropriate technology to produce durable building elements, e.g. in regions where clay, timber or bamboo is not available. In these cases a relatively small amounts of cement (compared with normal concrete) can be used to produce components out of earth-cement or sand-cement. Further information regarding appropriate materials, are available e.g. at http://www.gtz.de/basin/publications/index.asp?A=1 (many are downloadable as *.pdf files). 3.2.1.6 Local Materials
The utilisation of local materials may minimise the effort for transportation and allows the preservation of the cultural identity and knowledge in the build environment by the utilisation of traditional materials, which may be natural resources (organic and inorganic), as well as recycled materials from building or other
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Sustainable Building and Construction utilisations. Their utilisation is sensible if they are available in a sufficing quantity and their utilisation (regarding organic materials) is not causing exhausting cultivation and is not in competition with food production. If local materials may not be used corresponding to above mentioned indicators, the priority should be, to create the suitable framework and to allow the utilisation of local materials. During the decision making process for specific building materials, the relationship between the energy demand and the environmental effects for production and transport should be always evaluated and compared with the expected durability and related lifetime for specific purposes. The Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) and the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of specific products are important tools to gather the required information for the decision making process. For further information about available LCA tools and EPD for building materials, please have a look at Appendix 2 Life Cycle Assessment Tools and Appendix 3 - Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction. 3.2.1.7 Proportion of a buildings life phases on the total GHG emissions
The proportion of the environmental impact of each phase of a buildings lifecycle is, in general, basically dependent on the energy demand and material budget for the building performance during the entire lifespan. According to the Green Building Challenge currently the impact of construction products in developed countries is on average 10-20%, relative to the overall lifespan impact of a building. If buildings contain much mass, have a very low energy demand or a very short lifecycle the impact of construction products has a more significant proportion. Some entrants for the Green Building Challenge show that construction products contribute up to 50% of the impacts for some buildings. This proportion can easily build up to more than 50%. (According to: www.buildingsgroup.nrcan.gc.ca/projects/gbc_e.html) Especially in countries with a very moderate or subtropical climate and no energy demand for heating and cooling, as well as a low energy demand and material budget for the building service, the building structure itself contains the bigger part of the environmental impact. While in the USA and European industrialized countries the mass flows and global material costs per person and year are very big, they are much smaller in many urbanized African and Asian countries. The life cycle of buildings is directly linked to lifestyle and technology change and macro economic cycles. The main influencing factors for the length of a buildings lifecycle beneath these linkages are: - Multifunctional building structure - Durability of the building structure (which is also influenced by structural engineering and (climate responsive) design) - Durability of utilised building materials The following table shows the influence of the three life phases of two halls for the production of train cars in Kassel, Germany. The reference project is built according to the legal building codes. The building envelope of the advanced project is highly insulated and has been built mainly from renewable materials (airtight timber construction with an insulation layer out of cellulose). The production hall is equipped
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Sustainable Building and Construction with advanced building service engineering (e.g. natural ventilation with heat recovery) to reduce the energy consumption as much as possible and to create a healthy indoor environment. The building will be described more detailed in Appendix 4 - Case Studies, Production Hall in Kassel, Germany.
Illustration 32: Comparison of a typical production hall (reference object) with an advanced production hall (construction project). Influence of the three life phases of two halls for the production of train cars in Kassel, Germany. The reference project is built according to the legal building codes. The building envelope of the construction project is highly insulated and has been built mainly from renewable materials (airtight timber construction).
3.2.1.8
Multifunctional Design
The implementation of multifunctional aspects in the design of new construction projects as well as their consideration for the existing building stock is crucial for the total lifetime of building constructions. It allows the extension of a buildings lifetime by easy conversion, modification or extension for different utilisations. Multifunctional design can avoid the necessity for deconstruction and construction activities and therefore may have a remarkable effect on the life cycle, the related environmental impacts and GHG emissions as well as on the monetary and nonmonetary related building costs. The multifunctional use of buildings is the most important influencing factor for the flexibility and adaptability of buildings to changes in regional economy and society and therefore among other things is critical for the sustainability of cities.
Illustration 33: The department of Architecture at the Technical University of Hanover in a converted commercial building (a former printing plant) with increase of a new top floor.
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Sustainable Building and Construction The influencing factors for the multifunctional use of building constructions are manifold and may play an important role in the decision making process for or against a buildings modification for different utilisations. The primary basic conditions are the structural design and the characteristics of the building itself. Among these it is also influenced by economical, social and political aspects, which are very specific to time and place and therefore will be not further discussed in this paper. The basic building and construction related factors can be classified to functional and constructive aspects: The functional aspects concern the utilisation of buildings. In history we find many examples for the modification of buildings, especially in the industrialised countries in Europe and the USA. The majority of modifications have been realised between commercial and residential buildings. Commercial buildings have been modified to fit for habitation (e.g. production buildings to loft apartments) as well as residential buildings have been modified to fit for commercial utilisation (e.g. apartments to offices). The structure and space on offer are the most important influencing factors for the potential multi functional utilisation of buildings. They can be partitioned into the following aspects: - Room dimensions (height, length, width) - Coverage of the whole building (vertical und horizontal) - Natural ventilation and lighting of rooms The constructive aspects, influencing the flexibility and potential modification of building constructions for multifunctional utilisation can be partitioned into the following main aspects: - spatial structure - building envelope - building component splices - building service engineering The spatial structure of a building is interacting with the multifunctional aspects and is one basic condition for which changes of a buildings use are realisable at justifiable effort. First of all the origin function is crucial for it. The modification of structures for high loads (industrial buildings) to utilisations with smaller loads produces no expenditure, while the subsequent reinforcement of structures for small loads can become very complex or may lead to the construction of additional structures with own foundations. Compared with other structures, post, beam and frame constructions can relatively easy be modified, because additional openings in floors and walls can be created in between the posts and beams, generally without touching the buildings statics. The modification of massive constructions, which are relatively inflexible, is more difficult because it requires the consideration of all structural elements (floors and walls), and the evaluation of the elements which are load bearing and do create the spatial structure. The building envelope often is the area which requires the most effort for adjustment. On the on hand this is influenced by the fact that the receivables on the building envelope may be lower for the original use (e.g. commercial) than for another use (e.g. habitation). Additionally it may be influenced by new demands, e.g. concerning the
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Sustainable Building and Construction reduction of GHG emissions by energy conservation through additional thermal insulation and the passive use of solar energy. The building component splices always play an important role when old components have to be removed with low expense and without damaging the remaining parts. All splices of the assembly construction such as screwed and clamped joints but also traditional removable joints of timber constructions offer the most favourable possibilities. The building service engineering almost requires a specific adjustment because it generally has a shorter lifetime than the primary building structure and has to be renewed anyway in specific intervals, also without any modification of a building use. A further aspect for the or optimisation of the variability of The variability of existing building can be created or optimised through structural additions, for example by exterior or interior attachments (house in house systems). The described functional and constructive aspects for multifunctional building constructions can be summarized to the following main measures, which application ability has to be evaluated according the specific project related basic conditions: Partitioning of existing spaces by addition of horizontal or vertical structural elements (e.g. walls and floors) Creation of bigger spaces in width and height by deconstruction of structural elements (e.g. walls and floors) Optimisation of the variability through the creation of additional spaces, e.g. by interior or exterior attachments, for example exterior staircases and floors (horizontal end vertical) Optimisation of natural ventilation and lighting by creation of openings in floors and outside walls or by extension of existing windows.
Illustration 33a: Residential buildings in a former roman settlement in Umbria, Italy. The houses were modified, refurbished and used for almost 2000 years. The modifications of the building envelope and the use of different materials (baked bricks and natural stones) are well visible at the facade.
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Sustainable Building and Construction 3.2.1.9 Durability
The utilisation of structural and functional durable components and materials allow a long-term use as well as the reduction of maintenance and renovation and refurbishment costs during the lifetime of buildings. Structural and functional durability is crucial for the reuse of components. A building design, well adapted to the specific climate is an important influencing factor for the durability of materials. The outside walls of buildings, without roof overhangs are for example not good adapted to humid and tropical climates because they are much more exposed to the rain as these of building with roof overhang, what may have an important influence on the durability and maintenance frequency of the utilised facade materials. Therefore a climate responsive building design is directly linked with the durability of the building structure.
Illustration 34: building in Osaka Japan with destroyed wall surface, caused by precipitation water, too small roof overhang and too low foundation. Additionally the clay wall has been covered with cement plaster, which is not appropriate regarding construction chemistry. Hence the plaster shows cracks and falls off on several parts.
Illustration 35: Inappropriate reparation of an old mud plastered timbered wall, with cement mortar, at a house in the rural area of South Korea.
Materials and components with a long life cycle and optimised for their use have an important influence on the total lifecycle of a building. Additionally they may be reused after the end of a buildings life phase and may allow the construction of new buildings with a minimised necessity for the processing of new building materials. Therefore they can minimise the GHG emissions related to construction. Durability is also linked to knowledge and technology transfer concerning renewable materials. For the durability of the end product the time for the cutting of plants is crucial. E.g. trees should be cut during the season with 38
Sustainable Building and Construction reduced growth (autumn, winter or dry season)). The correct seasons for felling of bamboo are autumn and winter in the subtropics and the dry season in the tropics. Rule of thumb: The building material should be as structural durable and environmental friendly as possible. Regarding this the utilisation of bamboo is the measure of choice for nearly all construction projects, especially if it is locally available. A very good example for the multifunctional and appropriate use of bamboo is the construction of scaffolds even for the construction of skyscrapers, e.g. in Hong Kong. The well trained workers of mostly small enterprises do construct and deconstruct the bamboo scaffolds around three times faster and with much less construction and transport effort than the competitors with steel scaffolds do. The bamboo rods are connected only with plastic ties. For the deconstruction the ties are simply cut. While the bamboo rods are reused, the ties can not be reused but recycled. The scaffolds can be even constructed upside down from the top of buildings.
Illustration 36: Comparison of strength values of fast growing bamboo with relative slow growing spruce.
Mechanical / Technical properties kp/cm2 Wood Modulus of Compression Species Elasticity Strength d Spruce 111.000 430 Bamboo 200.000 621 - 930
Tensile Strength z 900 1.484 3.843
Bending Strength b 660 763 2.760
Shear Strength d 67 198
Illustration 37: Efficiency of the material bamboo. Comparison of the energy balances for the production of different building materials and the relationship to their structural durability (e.g. certain stress capacity) informs about the sustainability and shows the efficiency of bamboo.
Building Energy of Density Energy of Stress Relationship Comparison material production kg/m3 production kN/cm2 of energy of of production MJ/kg MJ/m3 production energy per per unit unit stress stress (bamboo has factor 1) (1) Steel (2) 30,0 (3) 7.800 2.400 600 600 (4) 234.000 1.920 600 300 (5) 1,600 0,080 0,075 0,100 (4)/(5) 150.000 24.000 8.000 3.000 (4)/(5) 50 8 2,7 1
Concrete 0,8 Lumber 1,0
Bamboo 0,5
The Comparison of energy of production per unit stress gives an idea of the sustainability of bamboo. The production energy and the related greenhouse gas emissions for steel with a specific strength is around 50 times higher than for bamboo with same strength.
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Sustainable Building and Construction 3.2.1.10 Maintenance
Maintenance-friendly design implies the utilisation of durable building products, which should be well adapted to the specific climate (e.g. for the building envelope) and utilisation (e.g. structure, building envelope, interior works like floor and wall finishes, etc.). The maintenance intervals should be relatively long and realised with a minimal effort and minimised environmental impacts. Additionally the selected materials should minimise the need for modernization and renovation. A good example is the selection of floor materials. While textile floor materials generally contain a mix of different materials, are not reusable, hard to recycle and have to be renewed in relatively short terms, the utilisation of strong bamboo, timber, ceramic tiles or natural stones allows a much longer use and without or minimal necessity for maintenance. Bamboo and Timber floors are sustainable and renewable materials in two senses. On the one hand they are organic and function as a carbon dioxide sink. On the other hand they can be easy maintained by refurbished. If the material is thick enough the floor can be used for several hundred of years or dissembled and reused in other buildings if required. 3.2.1.11 Lifespan Reuse and Recycling The idea of comprehensive Reuse and Recycling of building materials and elements can also be expressed Cradle to cradle design which stands for a shift in thinking towards sustainability regarding the material flow in the built environment. While the term Cradle to Grave implies in the idea that the lifecycle of products will eventually end and has to be deposited as waste without any use, Cradle to cradle design describes the concept that all components and materials can be reused, refurbished and recycled, support life and never have to be deposited as waste.
Illustration 38: No baby learns that its output is as worth as mothers input. For other species human economy must learn to keep its material in use.
The goal of Cradle to cradle design can only be achieved by following the hierarchical path of reuse and recycling and by the widely avoidance of downcycling methods. All materials should preferably be reused on the same quality level otherwise a closed loop system in the building industry is not achievable. Therefore the careful application of the following rules of thumb is indispensable: Utilisation of "green" ecological materials and cleaner production methods, avoiding hazardous or poisonous materials (eg. heavy metals and plasticisers) because all elements are kept in the material flow. They can accumulate in products after passing recycling processes, though may become more
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Sustainable Building and Construction hazardous for people and the environment and may exclude any further utilisation, except down-cycling and deposition. Avoidance of composite products, which are made from different materials with different properties and therefore are not or only difficult to separate and to recycle.
Reuse and recycling are sense full supplemented by optimised, durable building materials and longevity. A material-optimised structure, which fulfils its building function with less material input generates less remnants, energy input and transport activities, already during the construction - as well as later during the deconstruction process. A building with a damage-safe construction, foresighted planned, flexible and easy to convert for multifunctional use, simplified has following big advantage: Waste avoidance: A double lifespan of the building signifies half amount of wastes caused by demolition. Modular and retrofitting-friendly design allows the easy and non-destructive replacement of building components (e.g. installation and building service engineering components), which may have a relative short lifetime compared with the lifetime of the building itself. Deconstruction - and reuse friendly design allows the widely non-destructive deconstruction of a building structure. I history there are many examples for timbered buildings which can be easily disassembled transported and reassembled (e.g. in Germany, Japan and Korea). Hence the building components should be assembled in a way that they easily can be disassembled, transported and reused (see above).
Illustration 39: Construction of a traditional timbered building with roof cover out of rice straw. Those kind of constructions can be dismantled, transported and build up at other locations. All utilised materials are regional available (natural stones, timber, clay and straw).
Optimal material-cycles can be realised by the construction of buildings with long lifecycles, a flexible structure for a good multifunctional use, built as a materialoptimised structure with economically input of raw materials and the utilisation of recycled materials. After a long service process the components should be easy and non-destructive to disassemble and reusable in another construction. At the end of their lifetime the parts should be easy decomposable to their basic materials to serve as a new resources. 41
3.2.1.11.1
Reuse of components
The reapplication of used components is quantitative realisable only in a small scale but it represents the qualitative higher recycling method compared with the material recycling. It is a major contribution for the realisation of intelligent material cycles. Therefore first of all the possibilities of its application should be reviewed in every construction project.
Illustration 40: Clean deconstruction site with a lot of reusable components. Illustration 41: Refurbished parquet and doors at an exhibition of reusable components.
The reapplication of components in the same project represents the optimal way of recycling. In general this is only the case during the refurbishment and modification of buildings. Used components from other civil works are applicable in refurbishment as well as new construction projects. The components can be supplied directly from the demounting site or through an intermediate store, a processing or recycling company or so called component markets and stores. Complete buildings offered under the term recycling buildings can be dismantled to individual parts and reconstructed somewhere else. Bricks, roof tiles, components from trusses, wood truss ceilings or columns and massive timber parquet can be reused for the same function if the fastening allows a non-destructive dismantling.
Illustration 42: Construction of a timbered wall with old,, and new components.
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3.2.1.11.2
Recycling of building materials
The optimal case of material recycling under the aspects of quantitative resource protection and waste avoidance can be achieved by the extensive processing of mass construction materials for new construction materials without deterioration of quality and in consideration of the qualitative application in buildings and preferably closed material flows. Since long time steel complies with this requirements and also stainless steels are produced with high rates of scrap metal.
Illustration 43: The material separation is the most important recycling condition. Collection of scrap metals at a building yard.
The purity grade of the collected materials is the main quality criteria for the processing at high stage. Therefore the incoming component inspection during the receiving of used or residual building materials at a recycling facility is the most important measure for quality control. Here hazardous materials and harmful substances have to be identified and separated, same as contraries for the recycling process which have to be disposed separately.
3.2.1.11.2.1
Recycling materials made of residual building materials
Recycled materials made of used or residual building materials are not labelled always as recycling building materials. A good example is the production of highgrade steel components. They can be produced since a long time with the utilisation of scrap metal which does also originate from the construction sector. Although the percentage of scrap metal is very high, the produced steel is generally not called recycling material.
Illustration 44: Cement blocks made out of recycled bricks. Illustration 45: Scrap timber, a raw material for derived timber products.
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Sustainable Building and Construction Recycling materials from used or residual building materials can be differentiated in the following categories: mineral recycling materials wooden recycling materials metal recycling materials synthetic recycling materials
Illustration 47: lawn grid element, made from recycling-plastic.
Illustration 46: Soft fibre boards, made from scrap timber.
3.2.1.11.2.2
Recycling materials made of industrial by-products
Recycling materials made of industrial by-products are materials and compounds which accrue during industrial processes and can be used for the fabrication of new products or can be applied to another utilisation. Like all other products, the harmlessness for men and nature must be warranted by regular inspections. 3.2.1.11.2.3 Recycling materials made of other products, e.g. consumer goods
The return of consumer goods to the material circle by processing recycling materials and their utilisation for the fabrication of new building products offers a further potential saving of natural resources, energy and green house gas emissions besides the utilisation of recycled materials made of residual building materials and industrial by-products. All components and building materials, which can be classified in the following 11 groups can be potentially reused or recycled and can even be made out of recycled materials: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Plaster, Mortar-layers und Floor Pavement Concrete and Light-Concrete Construction Boards, Facings and taken down Ceilings. Wall building materials Insulating Material Windows and Glass 44
Sustainable Building and Construction 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Timber and Derived Timber Products Ceramics and Natural Stones Gaskets and und Sealant Films Roofing and Metals Flooring
A very good and wide overview about reuse and recycling and other aspects of sustainable building and construction in developing countries is given in the proceedings of CIB W107 1st International Conference: Creating a sustainable construction industry in developing countries, 11 to 13 November 2000, Stellenbosch, South Africa. Available at: http://buildnet.csir.co.za/cdcproc/3rd_proceedings.html The International Centre for Science and High Technology (ICS) is an international technology centre of the United Nations International Development Organization (UNIDO), created to assist countries in their industrial development through technology transfer programmes. ICS Gives a Hand to Developing Countries, it adopts a strategy of project proposals to solve pressing needs. For instance a building waste recycling plant has been proposed for Afghanistan which will turn building debris into bricks. Reusing debris will help local authorities to clean up war damaged areas and at the same time produce low-cost basic building materials for construction. Available at: http://www.ics.trieste.it/news/projects.htm
3.2.2 3.2.2.1
Climate Responsive Building Design Introduction
Compared with the total energy consumption of buildings during their entire life phase, the proportion for heating, cooling and ventilation as well as the supply with hot water and electricity covers a significant proportion. Additionally the related GHG emissions related with the building use are generally comparatively high, compared with the GHG emitted during the construction and deconstruction phases, like already explained in the chapter Proportion of a buildings life phases on the total GHG emissions. Therefore savings in this area are crucial to solve the general problem and to reach the goal of sustainable building and construction. Some of these savings can be achieved by optimisation of building service engineering and electronic equipment but they will be only significantly effective if they are utilised on the basis of a climate responsive building. The conception of these does not need primarily new technologies but requires an intelligent planning process, which includes detailed knowledge about the interaction between the local climate and the energy consumption of building and the consequently implementation in the building design. This chapter will give a comprehensive analysis and explanation of the basic conditions of climate responsive building design which have been developed for places in different climate zones and in combination with old basic strategies (e.g. heat storage, thermal insulation, passive use of solar energy, cross ventilation and shading) as well as with actual developments in the areas of design, construction,
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Sustainable Building and Construction materials and energy technology. This integrative approach allows the combination of economic profitability and innovative creativity. It may do sensualise and motivate all involved parties for the utilisation of special site-specific possibilities as well as to integrate new technologies in the characteristic regional architecture. Intelligent design does not cause additional costs, but may reduce the monetary and nonmonetary costs for the building service significantly and may help to conserve regional cultural heritages. The available instruments for the analysis and planning of climate responsive buildings will be explained and systematically related to the specific basic conditions of building site and the kind of building use. The purpose of this paper is to encourage awareness and knowledge to realise the concept of the first decision making processes and design approaches in a climate responsive way. Only the know how of site specific chances and alternatives enables the sense full utilisation of most available planning instruments for the further optimisation of the design of specific buildings. 3.2.2.2 Basic principles of Climate responsive building
Regarding history, it is observable that since people have constructed buildings as shelters, the site-specific climate always has influenced the building concept and shape. In times when there did not exist any technical equipment to create indoor climates independent from outdoor climates, climate responsive design and construction methods using the positive climate effects and diluting the negative effects have been the only possibility to create comfortable indoor climate conditions for the human organism. Hence the traditional architecture in each climate zone and region offers a large reservoir of suitable building concepts and measures for the control of the indoor climate by selective utilisation of outdoor climate factors. Building shapes and construction types were optimally aligned over centuries to the specific climatic conditions. During the planning of buildings the ancient master builders took it for granted to incorporate the different seasonal cycles of winter and summer or rainy season and dry season, day and night, as well as the influences of sun, wind and precipitations. Looking at the different traditional building types it is eye-catching that special building forms were developed out of geographic-climatic circumstances and local conditions. The people did know how to create adequate indoor climate conditions by the utilisation of climatically and physical principals and with a minimum supply of additional energy. Examples for climate responsive, traditional buildings are the well ventilated pile buildings in tropical hot-humid regions, the massive adobe (clay) buildings, equipped with flat roofs and a meagre amount of windows in the dry-hot climate zones, farm houses in the mountains with flat sloped, wide protruding roofs as well as farm houses in cost regions with deep-drawn roofs, well adapted for strong wind. The igloos of the Eskimos with an optimal ratio between the cool building and terrain surface to the warm indoor volume and equipped with tunnel entrances which work as heat locks, are ideal examples for climate responsive buildings in extreme conditions.
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Sustainable Building and Construction Such traditional building concepts are difficult to imitate in todays industrialised society with its complex organisation and in part metropolitan congested urban areas. Although they do show the design basis, which lays the foundation for a good functioning indoor climate without necessity for secondary technology or costly building service engineering, or at least it may remarkably reduce the energy demand for these. Therefore the specific structural requirements for the different climate zones will be describes as well as the respective traditional strategies and building types. The spatial structure and the architectural design building size and shape should be optimised regarding the surface/ volume ratio, which has effect on the energy demand of the building for cooling and heating as well as the quantitative material input, related to the floor area. interacting with climate responsivity. The principle of the surface/ volume is shown in the following example and illustration. 12 buildings with the dimensions 7x7x3m are arranged as single bungalows, as row houses and as a compact 3-story building. The surface/ volume ratio changes significantly: Volume 1764 m3 1764 m3 1764 m3 Surface 1596m2 1134m2 700m2 Ratio 1:1 1:1.6 1:2.5
a) as single bungalows b) as row houses c) as compact 3-story building
Illustration 47a: Volume to surface ratio of differently arranged building units.
Illustration 47b: Volume to surface ratio of different sized cubes.
The same principle can be observed when comparing buildings with the same shape but different dimensions. The following table and illustration demonstrate this by comparing cubes of different volumes: Volume 24 m3 343 m3 8000 m3 Surface 45m2 245m2 2000m2 Ratio 1:0,6 1:1.4 1:4.0 47
a) cube 3 x 3 x 3 m b) cube 7 x 7 x 7 m c) cube 20 x 20 x 20 m
3.2.2.3
Climate Factors
The term Climate is defined here according to lexica and simplified scientific elucidations as the typical coactions of atmospheric and meteorological conditions on the earth surface over a longer period, in the specific characteristics for a place or a region (climate zone). The typical climate of a region is also dependent on the coaction of different coefficients. For the conception of buildings, which main function is to shelter people from unfavourable weather conditions, the following climate factors are particular important: - The radiation of sunlight (direct and diffuse) - The air temperature and their short- and long-term fluctuations (day/ year) - The relative air moisture (humidity in dependence on the air temperature) - The airflows (power and direction) - The precipitations (quantity and periodic appearance) A simple regional classification of climate differentiates between macroclimate and microclimate. Sometimes the term mesoclimate is utilised for the further differentiation. The macroclimate is determined by the location of a region according to latitudes, continental masses and the oceans. It can be regarded as almost unchangeable by single construction measures and therefore creates the superior conditions for the climate responsive building and construction. The microclimate is dependent on the local conditions of a site and its immediate surroundings, including vegetation and buildings in the neighbourhood and whether its location is on slope, in the valley or in the plain. The microclimate can be influenced by landscape design and constructive measures. Therefore the effects on the buildings and on the indoor climate can be controlled significantly with intelligent design strategies. The indoor - or building climate is composed out of all bioclimatic factors inside of a building or in its direct neighbourhood and is critical for the human wellbeing in and around that building. The room climate is a direct result of the design concept and constructive measures, even in combination with or without technical equipment for climate control. 3.2.2.4 Climate zones and structural requirements
The main climate zones and their distinctive features are generally simplified classified in 4 main zones: Hot and humid climate zones Hot and dry climate zones Temperate climate zones Cold climate zones
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Neglecting the particular modifying influences of a site which are effected by the altitude, the arrangement of water- and land-masses in the region or special wind conditions (e.g. monsoon climate), the climate zones are located from the equator to the both poles in similarly parallel belts around the globe. The first two climate zones are located between the northern (23,45 north) and the southern (23,45 south) tropic and therefore are called tropics.
Illustration 48: World map with the 4 main climate zones.
With increasing distance to the equator, the temperate climate zones and the cold climate zones follow. The transition areas between the temperate and the tropic climates sometimes are identified as subtropical zones. The Climate Classification System first introduced by the Russian-German climatologist Wladimir Koeppen in the year 1900, which is the most widely used classification system today the world climates can be more differentiated described according to the following chart, available at: http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011700b.htm?terms=k%F6ppen :
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Tropical humid
Af Am Aw BWh BSh BWk BSk Csa Csb Cfa Cwa Cfb Cfc Dfa Dfb Dwa Dwb Dfc Dfd Dwc Dwd
Tropical wet Tropical monsoonal Tropical savanna Subtropical desert Subtropical steppe Mid-latitude desert Mid-latitude steppe Mediterranean Mediterranean Humid subtropical Humid subtropical Marine west coast Marine west coast Humid continental Humid continental Humid continental Humid continental Subarctic Subarctic Subarctic Subarctic Tundra Ice Cap
Dry
Mild Mid-Latitude
Severe Mid-Latitude
E H
Polar Highland
ET EF
No dry season Short dry season; heavy monsoonal rains in other months Winter dry season Low-latitude desert Low-latitude dry Mid-latitude desert Mid-latitude dry Mild with dry, hot summer Mild with dry, warm summer Mild with no dry season, hot summer Mild with dry winter, hot summer Mild with no dry season, warm summer Mild with no dry season, cool summer Humid with severe winter, no dry season, hot summer Humid with severe winter, no dry season, warm summer Humid with severe, dry winter, hot summer Humid with severe, dry winter, warm summer Severe winter, no dry season, cool summer Severe, very cold winter, no dry season, cool summer Severe, dry winter, cool summer Severe, very cold and dry winter, cool summer Polar tundra, no true summer Perennial ice
In the framework of this monograph the highland and the polar climates which are own classifications according to Koeppen will be described within the chapter cold climates.
3.2.2.4.1
Hot and Humid Climate Zones
The hot and humid climate zones are predominantly located near the equator. Regions belonging to it are for example large areas of South and South East Asia, South and Middle America as well as Central Africa. The monsoon climate zones of South Asia and North Australia may here be also included because the requirements for the conception of buildings of the partly similar in these regions.
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Sustainable Building and Construction The dominant climate factors of hot and humid climate zones are: High relative humidity (60 100%) High average rainfall (1200mm to 2000mm per year, upper extremity to 5000mm per year Smooth temperature pattern (average varieties are only approx. 7K per day and 5K per year) Highest air temperature during the day is approx. 30C (86F) in annual average Lowest air temperature during the night is approx. 25C (77F) in annual average High clouds frequency and therefore high percentage of diffuse radiation (indirect sunlight) At cloudless skies high percentage of direct radiation, but mostly moderated by clouds Low air pressure Generally only small airflows, but squalls may appear during rainfalls Regional occurrences of tropic cyclones (typhoons and hurricanes)
Illustration 49a: Typical house shape in a tropical climate.
Illustration 49: map of hot and humid (tropical) climate zones (a)
Building materials, which can absorb moisture, may be affected by premature aging or corrosion, caused by mould or the frequent change of solar radiation and rainfalls, causing swelling and shrinkage. The heavy rainfalls followed by storms are raising problems according the buildings themselves as well as for the surrounding outside facilities. The basic conditions for the construction of climate responsive buildings in hot and humid climate zones are: Relief for the human organism of the unfavourable influences of heat and humidity (mugginess) by the utilisation of airflow, to support the heat dissipation by perspiration (skin evaporation). Protection of buildings and components from direct solar radiation and undesired heat storage by shading, building shape and orientation Protection of components from permanent moisture penetration by well controlled rainwater drainage and ventilation
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Illustration 49b: Typical pile dwelling in the warm and humid climate of Paraguay. Illustration 49c: Multi-storey buildings with big windows and steep roofs in the monsoon climate of the east African islands (e.g.: Lamu and Zanzibar).
During the planning and design of a climate responsive building for humid regions the utilisation of airflow to reduce the impacts of heat and humidity on humans, buildings and goods, should always be incorporated. The orientation of the longitudinal axis of a structure cross to the prevailing wind direction and with a short building depth, can significantly improve the room climate. An effective utilisation of the natural airflows can be achieved e.g. by the following measures: Cross ventilation by layout of vents on opposed sides of a building Short building or room depth in direction of aeration Orientation of aeration inlets in direction of the prevailing wind direction Shading of the outside building surfaces in the area of aeration inlets Avoidance of aeration barriers inside of buildings Utilisation of air buoyancy (chimney effect) for heat removal Arrangement of air conducting elements outside of buildings, e.g. walls, hedges and trees Elevation of buildings Insertion of open air storeys in multi storeys buildings The traditional construction types in hot and humid climates, with generally high rainfalls are featured by wide, cladding protecting roof overhangs, which may also be climate responsive solutions for modern buildings. For a climate responsive implementation planning, the utilisation of airflows in hot-humid regions is an essential advantage. Concerning this the protection of the building envelope from direct sun radiation and related warming as well as the utilisation of appropriate constructions and materials is crucial. 52
Illustration 49d: Optimal ventilated building of churches in the hot and humid climate of Tanzania, with wide roof overhangs and shorter, closed east and west facades against low sun in the morning and afternoon.
The heat charge of a building can be minimised by utilisation of components, which are ventilated on all part. Therefore well rear-ventilated wall structures and multilayered roof constructions are especially appropriate for hot and humid climates. If they are additionally constructed out of light building materials with a low heat storage capacity, a fast evacuation of the absorbed heat by airflow is warranted.
Illustration 49e: An administration building in tropical Rio De Janeiro, Brazil, with individual adjustable lamellae functioning as shading elements, vertical orientated at the east and west facades, horizontal orientated at the north faade and no lamellae at the south faade due to the location on the southern hemisphere. Big openings in the faade and multi storied air spaces allow a natural ventilation of the rooms through shaded and partly greened terrace areas.
Caused by the demand for low heat storage capacity with low building mass and for effective aeration of the rooms, traditional building structures in hothumid climate zones often are characterised by permeable wall structures, made out of palm leaves, reed, grass or bamboo. For the building envelope generally, materials with a low heat storage capacity and high heat conductivity can be regarded as appropriate. A circumferential thermal insulation in wall - and roof structures only should be applied on buildings with artificial climate control. In buildings with natural air condition with predominantly equate room temperatures it can cause heat accumulation. Only for the roof surfaces, which are exposed to the sun and gain the main radiation, a thermal insulation can be appropriate also in hot-humid climates.
Ventilated roof constructions in humid climate zones have to be designed according to advanced demands. For efficient ventilation, the aeration layer has to be designed adequate and big enough and has to be equipped with sufficient and therefore relatively wide aeration inlets and outlets, which have to be protected well against bugs. Additionally the roof ages, which are exposed to the sunlight, as well as the surfaces of the second layer has to be equipped with light reflecting layers to avoid primary the heat absorption and secondary the heat transfer from the first layer to the second. For the design of shading elements at the building apertures it is important to consider that they have to allow a free airflow and do affect the ventilation as less as possible. The vents also have to be equipped with shutters, which have to be well closed during storms to protect the building from destruction. In tropical cyclones extreme wind power can appear from different directions followed by suddenly falling air pressure.
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Illustration 49f: Two climate responsive buildings in the tropical climate of Takoradi, Ghana, viewed from west. The left building is protected against the sun by horizontal vertical orientated shading elements integrated in a well ventilated structure in front of the building envelope and the spatial structure. The building on the right side is well protected against radiation from the south but has no fixed shading elements against low sun in the west. In case of sunshine there are rollers installed (visible at the first floor under the roof) which can be temporarily used to shade the openings.
Almost all cyclones are accompanied by heavy rainfalls, which may often lead to significant consequential damages, caused by flooding and undermining. Therefore all components have to be careful protected against strong pressure - and suction forces. Also the whole building structure has to be anchored well with the foundations to which is of imminently importance concerning the resistance of light building structures against the wind forces. The foundations itself have to have a sufficient depth and have eventually be protected against undermining by ring-drainages. For all building openings the application of guards are sense full, which can be closed in case of early storm warnings.
Illustration 49g: West terraces and windows of Japanese apartment buildings well protected against high sun by roof overhangs and low sun with flexible but not building integrated bamboo mats, during summer.
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Sustainable Building and Construction 3.2.2.4.2 Arid Climate Zones
All deserts and semi-deserts as well as the predominantly dry steppe areas, which are also expressed semi-arid regions, belong to the dry and hot or arid climate zones. In these zones are located the countries of the Sahara, the near- and middle-east, the south-west countries of Africa and South America, the inner regions of Australia, northern India, central China, as well as the dry regions of northern Mexico and the south-western USA. The dominant climate factors of arid climate zones are: Low relative humidity (10 50%) Very low average rainfall (0 250mm per year), rainfall may appear seldom but with high rainfall for short term High variations in temperature (average varieties are approx. 20K per day) Highest air temperatures during the day are approx. 35 38 C (95 100,4 F) in annual average. In continental desert areas they may reach more than 50 C (122 F) Lowest air temperatures during the night are approx. 16 20 C (60,80 68 F) in annual average. Temperatures around 0 C (32 F) may appear. Low cloud frequency, mostly clear sky, temporarily high dust portion in the air Intensive direct solar radiation High air pressure Varying airflows, sometimes very strong, in deserts as sand- or dust-storms
Illustration 50a: Typical house shape in an arid and hot climate.
Illustration 50: map of arid and hot climate zones (b).
The effects of the high day temperatures in arid climate zones on the human organism are moderated by the relatively low humidity, which disburdens the evaporation on the skin, which is crucial for the cooling of the body. The temperatures during the day are in most cases higher than the temperature of the human body. Therefore airflows can be utilised only during the evenings, nights or cooler seasons for the improvement of the microclimate or the room climate. For perishable products or goods sensible to heat, the high temperatures are a particular burden, which can be generally only moderated by artificial assisted climate control. Building materials and parts are unfavourably affected, particularly by the direct solar radiation and the high shortterm temperature variations, which can lead to a remarkable building damages and the reduction of buildings life phases. 55
Sustainable Building and Construction The basic conditions for the construction of climate responsive buildings in arid climate zones are: Protection of the human body from the stresses and strains of high heat absorption by direct solar radiation and high air temperatures Protection of components and - materials from direct solar radiation as well as their selection and utilisation under consideration of high shortterm temperature variations
The climate responsive city planning and the allocation of buildings in arid countries are generally subject to different conditions as in hot and humid climate zones. Here, not the permanent utilisation of airflows is the highest bid, but the protection from heat absorption through direct solar radiation. First principles, which partly can be found already in the ancient city enclosures of Mesopotamia, are: Convoluted layout of narrow roads, alleys and lanes, partly as dead end, for shelter from hot winds and sandstorms and for interacting shading of building storefronts Layout of vegetation and water surface areas for the improvement of the microclimate in settlements or urban areas Layout of wind barriers (vegetation and walls) at the edge of settlements to the open landscape. Greening of streets and squares with plants for the shading of the outside area. The cooling effect of vegetation can be illustrated by the following measurements which were taken in South Africa (according to: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); Climate Responsive Building Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical Regions; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993): Slate roof in the sun Concrete surface in the sun Short grass in the sun Leaf surface of tree in shade Short grass in shade 43C 35C 31C 27C 26C
Illustration 50b: Compact and closed buildings with minimised window openings and thick massive walls out of earth for big phase shift and amplitude attenuation in the hot and dry climate of Morocco (e.g. with cold nights, dependent on the elevation above sea level).
The climate responsive design of buildings in arid countries is based on a reduction of heat reception by direct solar radiation on buildings. In this regard the orientation and the shape of buildings are important influencing factors. The traditional buildings in arid zones are often compact and related to their volume have preferably small building envelope surfaces exposed to solar radiation. East and west orientated
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Sustainable Building and Construction claddings are closed for the most part. Buildings with inside courtyards can also often be found in hot and dry countries. These courtyards are often separated from the surrounding rooms by covered shady arcades. They are equipped with plants, fountains or water basins to some extent. The evaporation of such green oasis improves the room climate significantly. This building type was widely spread in antique residential buildings around the Mediterranean Sea. For the conception of floor plans the orientation of rooms inside the buildings and the time frame of their utilisation during the day are of importance. Sleeping rooms in residential buildings should be preferably located in the east where the buildings absorb the heat caused by solar radiation during the morning and can release it until the night. The traditional habits in arid countries also include the utilisation of roof terraces as sleeping berth during the cool evening hours. Living rooms can be located at the western part, because their heat absorption influences the indoor climate during the late evening and night hours and they can cool off again during the night. The similar principle is applicable on rooms which utilisation period normally ends in the afternoon, as e.g. offices and schools. An efficient cooling after the heat absorption is mainly dependent on the utilised building materials and the construction of the external building envelope.
Illustration 50c: Narrow shaded alleys and courtyards in the desert architecture of Algeria reduce solar radiation absorbance of buildings and occupants. The platform roofs do function as sleeping places during the hottest season. Illustration 50d: Market alleys and intermediate space between buildings shaded with pergolas and tendril plants reduce the radiation absorbance in hot and dry Morocco.
Due to the sometimes very high air temperatures, external air flows can not be used for cooling during the daytime. This is essential for the extreme dry desert climates. In other arid and semi-arid climates a utilisation of air flows for cooling is always sensible if the air temperatures are noticeable lower than the human blood heat (~35C; 95F). Particularly at the coasts, the opening of buildings towards the cool breezes from the sea can contribute the improvement of the indoor climate. Thermal air flows inside a building can be utilised by using the chimney effect. They are based on the different density of warm and cold air and the physical effect of pressure equalisation. Therefore the location of the supply air inlets in a cool and shadowed area of the outside wall as well as a preferably high difference of level between the supply air and exhaust air openings is important to increase the air renewal rate. The indoor warmed air rises up and escapes through the high located 57
Sustainable Building and Construction exhaust air openings. Through the low located supply air openings fresh and cooler air infiltrates. In traditional buildings simple water evaporators often were used which can be located e.g. near the supply air openings to humidify and cool the air by evaporation. The construction of earth ducts in houses for cooling purpose is also a natural climate control method of traditional building construction in some regions. In higher buildings staircases which are opened to the cooler basement can be used for the utilisation of the chimney effect. Rooms with higher headroom can also be cooled by this effect. The big heights between floors of older buildings in hot and dry countries are based in part on this awareness. Special construction forms in the Middle East are so called wind towers or wind catcher (in Arabic called Malquaf amd in Persian called Bagdir). They are used in high density urban settlements to allow the outside air to enter the building above the interiors. They are orientated towards the main wind directions and are conducting the air to the basement through vertical ducts, constructed out of clay or natural stones and often equipped with additional water evaporators for the cooling of the outside air, which enters the interiors in the basement. The air raise flows through the rooms, is getting warmer raises up and leaves the building threw courtyards or higher elevated openings.
Illustration 50e: Illustration of a traditional building type in Arab countries with a wind catcher (or scoop), low tech evaporative cooling device (evaporative cooling) and a double layered roof.
A special form of climate responsive buildings, underground houses, buried in the natural ground to minimize the construction effort and get an immense phase shift by ceiling which are several meters thick, can be found in several cultures over the world, e.g. in the northern China (Henan and Shanxi province) and northern Tunisia. All measures for the shading of components and openings, exposed to direct solar radiation are of fundamental importance. This includes above all the roofs which are direct irradiated at noon, as well as the east and west claddings which are affected by direct irradiation during the morning and evening. If not obligatory required, openings should be avoided in these parts. In other respects they careful have to be protected from direct solar radiation. The north, respectively the south claddings (dependent on their location to the equator) receive much less heat load due to the steeper angle of the solar ecliptic. Therefore they are much easier to protect by shading elements. It follows from the above described coherences that the right arrangement of shading elements has to be determined separately for all claddings. Openings in north and south facades can be easily protected by horizontal shading elements against the almost vertical solar radiation while openings in east and west facades can be generally protected well by vertical shading elements if those openings are not closed totally at the corresponding day time.
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Illustration 50f: Underground building in Tunisia with immense phase shift and amplitude attenuation by the ground and 3 to 4m thick ceilings and relative low construction effort. Every family dug her own house with their own hands.
Overhanging building elements such as balconies, roof overhangs as well as fixed or movable lamellae and blinds can be used as horizontal shading elements to protect the openings from steep vertical solar radiation. Shading elements lying outside and avoiding the penetration of radiation through the windows should be preferred to much less efficient in lying anti-glare shields in either case. Deep Loggias and building openings in set-off outside walls are effective shading measures.
For the protection from the more horizontal morning and evening sun, vertical lamellae or building elements lying outside and angular turned first of all are appropriate to protect the openings from direct radiation from east and west but to allow an outlook to the north an east as well as natural lighting of the interiors. Claddings often are orientated in a way that their openings require horizontal as well as vertical shading elements. For this purpose, gratings made from different materials (profiled stones, metal nettings and wooden gratings) have proved ones worth, which are located in front of the ultimate cladding and protect the whole outside wall including the windows and openings. The most effective protection of closed roof and wall surfaces against solar radiation is a separate natural ventilated radiation reflecting outer skin. The climate responsive implementation planning aspires to protect buildings from direct radiation and high temperatures. Therefore, the surface of all components, exposed to the solar radiation, preferably has to be designed light in colour or reflective and the roof and wall constructions have to have high temperature inertia to minimise the effects of the outdoor temperatures on the interior temperatures (amplitude attenuation) and to decelerate the heat pass from outside to inside (phase shift). In traditional building techniques of the specific regions the requirements on roof and outside wall have been met by massive and hefty components with high heat storage capacity and light outside surface for the most part. These kinds of components can absorb big amounts of heat during the day and release them only during the night hours to the inside and most notably to the outside. To achieve similar or better building physical properties on modern buildings but to avoid the immense wall thickness of traditional building types at the same time, multilayer wall and roof constructions are used.
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Illustration 50g: Double layered roofs at a Hotel building in Morocco. The white plastered outside layer functions as a well ventilated solar radiation reflector.
The outside layer, preferably with a high light reflection capability protects the components of the inside layer from direct sunlight to reduce their heat absorption. The inside wall of those multi-layer constructions has the function to minimise and decelerate the heat transfer to the interior by high temperature inertia. A delay of the effects of the highest day temperatures by 12 hours is perfect because to reach the interior only during cool night time. Such a phase shift und simultaneous amplitude attenuation (flat portion of temperature curve between maximum and minimal value) can be achieved by thick building elements made out of heavy heat storing building materials or alternatively by the combination of a heavy building material with an insulating material at the outside. For further information about climate responsive building in hot and dry climate zones please have a look at the chapter Case Studies.
3.2.2.4.3
The Temperate Climate Zones
The temperate climate zones are attached to the tropics to the north and to the south. Belonging to it are the countries of middle and South Europe, southern South America, the most regions of the USA, southern Russia and China, Korea, Japan, New Zealand, regions on the east and south coast of Australia as well as some areas in southernmost Africa. In contrast to the previous described climate zones, the temperate climate zones are featured by distinctive seasons, which are characterized by high varieties in temperature between summer and winter. This is the main similarity between the countries located in temperate climate zones. In other respects there are significant variations between the climatic conditions of single regions, dependent on their continental location or special influences from close-by huge water bodies or particular ocean-currents (e.g. Gulf Stream).
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Sustainable Building and Construction The dominant climate factors of temperate climate zones are: Middle to high relative humidity (in middle Europe ~60 80%) Middle average rainfall (in middle Europe 800mm to 1000mm per year, in regions near to the tropics ~300mm to 400mm per year) Significant varieties in temperature over the year (average varieties in middle Europe are approx. 18 to 20K) Smooth daily temperature patterns (average daily varieties in middle Europe are approx. 6 to 8K) Very different intensities of radiation, dependent on the sky cover and degree of latitude (high portion of diffuse radiation due to frequent clouds, e.g. in middle Europe and partially higher amounts of direct radiation in regions close to the tropics due to more daylight hours compared with the tropics itself)
Illustration 51a: Typical house shape in temperate climate.
Illustration 51: map of temperate climate zones (c).
On the northern hemisphere December to February are the coldest and June to August are the warmest months (winter and summer). The transitional periods (spring and autumn) between the warmer and the colder seasons are generally dependent on the location to the equator and are getting longer with increasing distance. The border areas between the temperate climate zones and the tropics are identified by long and warm summers and relatively short winters with rainfalls. On the other hand, the border areas to the cold climate zones (e.g. Southern Scandinavia) are identified by long and cold winters and often only two to three warm summer months. The regions with continental climates (e.g. countries of American middle-west and central Asia) are characterized by outstanding extreme variations in temperature between the specific seasons, while coastal areas are influenced by the temperature of the water bodies and identified by more moderate temperature conditions. E.g. the warm gulf stream reduces the extreme temperature patters in Western Europe, specifically in south west Ireland with subtropical vegetation. The climate conditions of the temperate zones do afford good basic requirements for the human organism but they call for protection against the extreme temperatures of summer and winter.
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Sustainable Building and Construction Due to the very different basic constructional requirements in the specific countries in temperate climate zones, the climate responsive construction in these zones requires a special empathy and recognition of the respective regional characteristics. The traditional construction types are noticeable demonstrating this. The prior basic conditions for the construction of climate responsive buildings in temperate climate zones are: Protection from wintery cold Protection from summery heat The necessary protection from occasional and in some regions frequent precipitation.
The most buildings in these climate zones have to unify all mentioned protective functions. Thereby the application of technical equipment is commonly inevitable. The coherence between climate responsive and energy-conscious executions is eminently intensive in these as well as in cold climate zones due to the regular high energy demand for heating and cooling purpose. By right conception of settlements and buildings the energy demand for wintery heating can be reduced by the utilisation of solar radiation. The energy demand for summery cooling can be reduced by screening this radiation.
Illustration 51b: Architecture on the Greek islands with compact buildings, narrow shady alleys, small windows and flat roofs, which are functioning as rainwater collectors for cisterns in an almost dry, so called Mediterranean winterdry-zone.
For the climate responsive city planning, important measures for the favourable manipulation of microclimate and interior-climate are the choices of the habitat, the orientation of the housingestate or the sub-assemblies and the way of allocation of single buildings to the natural and built environment. The choices of the habitat of a housingestate as well as the specific buildings should be done I a way that avoids the cooling by cold winds or the location in cold-air-ponds (swales, troughs, closed vales) but allows the utilisation of direct solar radiation for the heating of buildings in winter. This includes a screen against main wind directions and an opening to the southern directions (on the northern hemisphere) or the northern hemisphere (on southern hemisphere). The screen can be realised by grouping of buildings, wind barriers or summarized building construction with short and angled roads.
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Sustainable Building and Construction Whereas other regions require a preferably wind exposed location when summery maximum temperatures do pose the bigger burden and necessitate an effective aeration. Every single habitat does call for a close examination of the year-round climate conditions to find the right compromise in case of contrary demands.
Illustration 51c: The buildings in the Tuscan city Siena in Italy have sloped roofs, because the winter rain is more copious than on above mentioned Greek islands, but narrow shady alleys and compact buildings protect against the same main climatic problem, the summer heat. Illustration 51d: South facades of houses in the Umbrian city Perugia in northern Italy with sloped roofs and relatively big windows to catch the winter sun and well protected against the summer sun by movable shutters.
The prior aim of climate responsive design in temperate climate zones also is the protection from cooling in winter and to utilise as much as possible solar radiation for the heating of the building. Whereas the prior aim in summer is the protection from intensive solar radiation and the utilisation of natural airflow for cooling, appropriate measures to achieve this are: Optimisation of the surface/volume ratio of the building Choice of roof shape and roof overhang Orientation of the building to point of the compass and wind direction Opening and optimisation of south orientated outer surfaces (on the northern hemisphere) or of the north orientated outer surfaces (on the southern hemisphere) according to the passive utilisation of solar energy The design of appropriate shading elements or anti-glare shields
Thereby the choice of an overall-concept by combination of these measures is influenced widely by the climate conditions of the specific habitat. Essential basic demands on the climate responsive implementation planning in temperate climate zones is the heat insulation of the building, i.e. the constructive and building physical reduction of the wintery heat losses. Likewise the protection from high temperatures in arid climate zones, the impacts of low temperatures can be diluted.
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Illustration 51e: Arcade Corridor on the south side of a building in Venice, Italy. A comfortable site during low winter sun with warmed walls in the back and the sun in the face, while comfortable shady and cool during high summer sun.
Essential basic demands on the climate responsive implementation planning in temperate climate zones is the heat insulation of buildings that is the constructive and building physical reduction of wintery heat losses. As well as the protection from high temperatures in arid climate zones the effects of low temperatures on the interior climate can be lowered by good heat storage and insulation capacity of components and building materials. Which combination of both material characteristics is more appropriate is dependent on the function of the building or specific rooms and the period specified for utilisation.
Illustration 51g: Old fisher house in the costal area of Western Scotland with natural stone walls and sloped straw roof well protected against strong winds and rain. View to North West the main weather-side.
Illustration 51f: Old timbered farm house in the costal area of North Western Germany with low and sloped straw roof well protected against strong winds and rain. View from North West the main weather-side.
An important component for the heat insulation is also the impermeability of splices of the building envelope and all building apertures, which can reduce significantly the required energy demand for heating during winter and possibly also for cooling during summer. Due to the often strong winds in some countries during the transitional periods and the cold seasons, in case of leakage implementation of splices the related heat losses are increasing substantial. Eminently sensible are additional moving apparatuses out of heat insulating materials, to close not required vents (e.g. windows during the night or off the utilisation period of a building). Such a kind of apparatuses like retractable, slide or roller shutters do reduce the heat losses of the whole building apertures including the splices.
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Sustainable Building and Construction Particular climate occurrences which require special considerations during the implementation planning in some areas are, extreme amounts of precipitation (regarding roofing and drainage), big snow loads (location of building apertures and load assumptions), summery tornados or typhoons and wintery blizzards which can turn the climate conditions of a temperate climate zone into the extreme condition of cold climate zones.
Illustration 51h: Old fisher house in the costal area of Jeju Island in South-Korea with natural stone walls and sloped straw roof well protected against strong winds and rain. The big opening in the south faade allows comfortable ventilation and shading during the warm summer, allows passive solar utilisation during the winter and can be closed during cold nights and strong winds. View from the south west.
3.2.2.4.4
The Cold Climate Zones
The cold climate zones are attached to the temperate climate zones in direction of the poles. Except the Antarctic, all countries of the cold climate zones are located on the northern hemisphere. Countries belonging to are Canada, Alaska, northern states of the USA, Greenland, Island as well as parts of Scandinavia, the Baltic States and Russia. Compared with the temperate climate zones the cold climate zones are even more characterised by distinctive seasons. The dominant factors of cold climates are: Low relative humidity, especially during the winter months Low rainfall (only approx. 250mm/a in the fringe area to the arctic zone) Low temperatures in annual average (0 6C, or 32 42,8F) Long-lasting frost periods (5 to 9 months), in part permafrost in the low lying support-layers Low variations in temperature over the day (due to long brightness in summer and long-lasting darkness in winter) High annual variations in temperature in continental areas (Siberia 45 60K) Low to middle annual variations in temperature in coastal areas or areas influenced by the sea (Island and Norway 11 to 15K)
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Illustration 52: map of cold climate zones (d).
Illustration 52a: map of polar climate zones (e).
The survival of people in cold climate zones is dependent on intensive protection measures due to the harsh climate conditions. The main burden for the human organism is the low temperature. The co action of humidity from rainfall and frost can have negative impacts on the building substance and cause damages. In the framework of this monograph the highland and the polar climates which are own classifications according to Koeppen will be described within this chapter. The construction of buildings in the Antarctica is confined to exceptional cases. The only difference between the virtual unsettled south-polar area and the cold climate zones on the northern hemisphere is the opposite orientation of the housing estates and buildings to the points of the compass.
Illustration 52b: map of highland climate zones (f), with differentiated description of the specific properties.
The basic conditions for the construction of climate responsive buildings in cold climate zones above all are the protection from coldness during the most part of the year as well as from strong wind and storm during the long clod season and the best possible utilisation of solar heat during the short summer. The climate responsive building design in cold regions also has to meet the prior intention of maximal utilisation of winter sun for the support of the interior heating. The already mentioned optimisation of the surface/ volume ratio for the reduction of the heat delivering building envelope is particular important. A demonstrative example for it is the traditional construction type in the coldest area populated by people, the Eskimo igloo. It does consist out of a hemisphere, lying on his cutting-area,
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Sustainable Building and Construction creating a hot air dome with a minimized surface area. The lower located entrance tunnel or inching motion is located on the wind abandoned side of the structure and does avoid the inflow of the heavy cold air from outside. I every case it should be strived for compact building design.
Illustration 52c: The Eskimo Igloo a sustainable building with optimal surface/ volume. It consists out of the insulation material snow and has a low located tunnel entrance which anticipates disperse of the uprising warm inside air.
The orientation of a building has to be designed, dependent on the main directions of cold winds and preferably big cladding parts to the south. The cooperation of climate responsive shape and orientation of a building has e.g. led to the characteristic residential building type in the predominantly cool states of New England in the north-east of the USA. That building type, also referred to as saltbox, has a big low lying windresistant roof with big on the northern wind exposed side. On the southern side it is equipped only with a short roof surface in combination with a high sun exposed outside wall. During the winter timber, straw balls or snow is piled up at the low northern wall under the roof overhang for additional insulation. This technique is common also at traditional buildings in other cold regions.
It is suggested to design the floor plan according to a temperature hierarchy or zoning of the rooms. Adjoining rooms and adjoining buildings, such as garages and storerooms are well located as a buffer zone on the northern side. Attics and cellars (latter especially in case of permafrost) do fulfil the same function. At the southern side the absorption of solar radiation should be allowed by bigger window surfaces which must be lockable during the night, preferably by insulated retractable shutters or roller shutters. The attachment of winter gardens or partial-glazed terrace areas also can support effective the heating of the rooms arranged behind. In doing so, a sufficient ventilation and sun protection for warmer summer days have to be attended. Entrance areas desperate have to be equipped with wind screens.
Illustration 52d: A house in the Swiss Alps with low roof at the northern side and insulating snow mass.
On buildings which are only temporarily used during the day (e.g. schools, offices and the like), the sealing of all windows with insulated devices off-time is an efficient measure for the conservation of energy. In the traditional architecture the stove was located often in the middle of the building. Rooms with heat producing appliances (machines, central-heating boilers and the like) had to release their heating energy to the surrounding rooms during the most time of the year but during the warm summer weeks they were good ventilated to release the heat
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Sustainable Building and Construction to the outside. The climate responsive implementation planning is based on the fact that the building envelope in cold climates is a more protecting and separating element between exterior climate and interior climate than in any other climate zone. She has the predominant function to reduce the heat flow from the interior to the exterior to the unavoidable minimum. Modern buildings can get a climate responsive envelope by the combination of several layers with different material characteristics and functions. The outer layer has to protect the building from humidity and wind. At its inside a well insulating layer has to be applied. This can be a layer of air or insulation material or both. The interior layer only does function as room surfaces but also may support the insulating effect. Here as well as in other climate zones a special form of wind and heat protection for the exterior walls is the planting of greenery. For the south cladding plants dropping their leaves during the winter should be selected, on all other claddings evergreen greenery should be preferred. In doing so, the winter sun can heat up the south cladding, an effect which becomes less important during long lasting winter darkness in the areas of the polar circle.
Illustration 52e: The South facade of a school in the Swiss Alps with thick insulated walls and big insulated windows for the utilisation of the winter sun. During the summer hidden rollers (Visible on top of the window openings) can be pulled down to shade the openings. The construction is a contemporary timber construction orientated at traditional building design. in the Swiss Alps with low roof at the northern side and insulating snow mass.
An intensive protection from intruding moisture is necessary on all components, above all on the roofing. The more flat the slope is designed, the bigger is the problem of backwater during snow and ice cover or upwards driven water during wind especially on wind ward parts. Beneath carefully implemented roof coverings itself, additional screens fixed below the roofing are today and common and necessary. The impermeability of splices of the building envelope and particularly of the doors and windows, which are contributing much to the reduction of heat losses, has been already discussed in the context of temperate climate zones. Hence it has naturally a very positive effect in cold zones.
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Sustainable Building and Construction 3.2.2.5 Data and Planning Tools
The procedure for climate responsive design and sustainable building and construction can be summarised to 3 main procedures, the collation of information, the building design and analysis of collated information and design procedure. Therefore the analysis is interacting between the information and the design procedure and ends only with the finalised planning process. Different analysis methods are described after the listing of the 3 main procedures and its partitions: 1. Collation of information about: Meteorological data (Macro and Micro Climate including detailed information about solar ecliptic, sky conditions and radiation, temperature range (seasonal minimum and maximum temperatures during night and day), humidity, precipitation, air movement and miscellaneous) Building site (topography and related ventilation, orientation, vegetation, neighbouring structures, local climate factors and the requirements of the user) Building usage and cultural background of occupants (type of usage, period of usage as well as clothing, traditions and aesthetic values of occupants) Economic aspects (financial means, standards of building as well as available labour, materials and technologies) Analysis of collated information and building design by: Analogue diagrams (e.g. solar diagrams, shading diagrams, comfort diagrams and tables) Computer programs (building simulation and assessment tools, utilising digital data about regional climate as well as properties of building materials and building components. Development of the appropriate design concepts by natural and mechanical means: Building orientation and shape Type of Construction Building materials and components Natural ventilation Passive heating (e.g. Utilisation of solar energy) Passive cooling (e.g. shading measures) Utilisation of solar energy and/ or shading measures Air humidification Air dehumidification Appropriate building service engineering Collation of Information
2. -
3. -
3.2.2.5 .1
Detailed meteorological data generally can be obtained by national meteorological associations as well as private companies in form of printed or digital databases. To locate specific data bases and if it should seem that there is no detailed local climate data available, it might be helpful to search the database of the World Meteorological Association (WMO) available on the World Wide Web: http://www.wmo.ch/index-en.html
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If there should be no regional climatic data available at all, it is sense full to install a climate station at the building site to record the main climate data such as hourly wind speed and direction, temperature, humidity, precipitation as well as direct and indirect solar radiation at least for the period of one year. They can be measured by state of the art sensors coupled to digital data loggers. Additionally to the above mentioned possibilities to determine specific climate data, it is useful to utilise software which is interpolating climate data worldwide. Hence it is possible to work on climate responsive building design with relatively exact climate data for every location on earth without the necessity for an own data evaluation. The software METEONORM is such a meteorological database and calculation program. It is available in English, German, French, Italian and Spanish. The generated data sets can be exported to building simulation programs for the operational performance of buildings. The program is developed by the company econcept and is available at the World Wide Web: http://www.econzept.com/. A detailed description of the database and a shareware version can be downloaded at: http://www.meteotest.ch/pdf/am/mn_description.pdf The urban microclimate may differ extremely from surrounding rural areas. The so called specific urban climate is extremely site specific and dependent on many influence factors. It is generally characterised by less humidity, more extreme temperature and varying wind patterns as well as higher air pollution and less solar radiation. Information and specific urban climate data as well as a lot of further information such as tools and links are available at the World Wide Web at: http://www.urbanclimate.net/ Non climatic, site specific data, regarding topography and city structure, can be achieved in general from regional authorities, universities or specific associations and organisations or have to be evaluated for each project if sufficient data is not available. Presently worldwide more and more communities are introducing computer based geographical information systems (GIS). Among other things these systems offer the collation and evaluation of all site specific topographic, geological and construction as well as infrastructure specific data. They are indispensable for the efficient management and control of the build environment especially for urban areas. An index of World-Wide Web (WWW) servers which are likely to be of interest to the GIS community is offered by Department of Geography in the University of Edinburgh, in collaboration with the Association for Geographic Information, available at the World Wide Web: http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/home/giswww.html GRASS GIS (Geographic Resources Analysis Support System) is an open source, Free Software Geographical Information System (GIS) with raster, topological vector, image processing, and graphics production functionality that operates on various platforms through a graphical user interface and shell in X-Windows. Available at the World Wide Web: http://www.geog.unihannover.de/grass/index.html Topographic data worldwide can be achieved by the Global Land One-kilometer Base Elevation (GLOBE) which is an internationally designed, developed, and independently peer-reviewed global digital elevation model (DEM), at a latitude-
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Sustainable Building and Construction longitude grid spacing of 30 arc-seconds (30"). The data are available on CD-ROM and the World Wide Web: http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/topo/globe.shtml In any case it is suggested to analyse the building site during the very early design and decision making process and to contact also local people and neighbours to evaluate site specific climatic and non climatic characteristics. All other required information such as Building usage, cultural background and economic aspects are in general also locally available. 3.2.2.5 .2 Analysis of collated information and building design
All collected data should be collated in tables, graphs and other planning tools to provide a sufficient overview about the specific conditions and related appropriate measures for passive and active conditioning of buildings. A very good example for sufficient collation and presentation of all important data for a climate responsive design of buildings is shown in Appendix 1 - Planning Tools for Climate Responsive Building and Construction in the hot and humid climate zone of Pondicherry, India (from: Krishan, A., Yannas, S., Baker, N., Szokolay, S. V. (editors); Climate Responsive Architecture A Design Handbook for Energy Efficient Building; India, New Delhi, 2001). The listing includes: - Description of climate context - Climate Classification Chart (including solar chart which is indispensable for the design of passive solar heating and shading) - Eco chart (detailed table with monthly collation of climate factors) - Comfort Zone Chart (comfort of outdoor climate and required conditioning of interior by heating or cooling measures) - Annual Solar Radiation Chart (for the calculation of annual solar gains) - Direct Solar Radiation Chart for 21st March/ respective 21st October (average daily solar radiation) - Direct Solar Radiation Chart for 21st June (maximal daily solar radiation) - Direct Solar Radiation Chart for 22nd December (minimal daily solar radiation) - Mahoney tables 1 and 2 with more detailed climate data Computer Software for building simulation and assessment which is available for or adaptable to different climates and regional building practices allows an efficient and fast verification of the developed building design. While for the developed countries there is a relatively huge range of computer software available, from the inspection of building design during the early design process as well as the assessment during the late planning phases, for developing countries the market is comparable small. Therefore among other organisations UNEP IETC is working in cooperation with international partners on the development of such software tools. An overview about already existing tools for the simulation, certification and assessment for buildings which are able to evaluate the environmental impact for the operation and/ or construction of buildings is given in Appendix 2 Life Cycle Assessment Tools. The computer software can be divided into three main categories:
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Sustainable Building and Construction LCA of building materials and products (environmental impact of selected building materials) Energy demand for the operational performance of buildings (heating, cooling, ventilation, lighting, building service engineering and equipment) for a specific period (in general for one year) Environmental impact assessment of buildings over the entire life cycle (utilisation of the previous information plus many additional specific data to calculate a life cycle assessment)
3.2.3 Energy efficient building conditioning measures and building services engineering For the natural conditioning of buildings as well as for the selection and application of buildings products of the building service engineering, principally the same indicators for sustainability are valid as for building products and elements. Additionally very energy efficient systems and products should be selected for technical components such as heating, cooling, ventilation and lighting devices. However their application should be minimised as much as possible by intelligent building design which implies passive heating and/ or cooling systems as well as natural ventilation and lighting systems. Decentralised power and heat production, preferably based on renewable energies can significantly reduce the greenhouse gas emissions in the building and construction sector. Furthermore the installation of ecological sanitation and decentralised water systems does also reduce the energy demand and green house gas emissions for the building and construction sector related infrastructure. The field of building service engineering is very complex. The right application of appropriate systems is dispensable on numerous factors and has to be discussed in the early planning and decision making building design progress with experts. The mentioned-below principles, systems and measures may only give a brief overview about appropriate technologies and their application and are not exhaustive. For further information concerning the energy demand for building service as well as building service engineering, you might visit the website of the Energy Research Group at the University College Dublin, School of Architecture, which offers plentiful information and documents for further reading to download: http://erg.ucd.ie/ 3.2.3.1 Natural Lighting
Contemporary buildings often are not well designed for the use of natural day light and are equipped with artificial lighting systems which service is also required during daytime when enough light for natural lighting is available. Especially non residential buildings are designed with large only artificial lighted areas. These systems are responsible for a big part of the energy consumption and the related GHG emissions for the service of buildings. Like already mentioned in the previous chapter Climate responsive Building an inappropriate design of glazed areas can also cause a high cooling or heating load of buildings and is therefore directly connected to the indoor climate and the green house gas emissions for conditioning of interiors.
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Sustainable Building and Construction In office buildings the effort for lighting can account for as much as 50% of electricity consumption and if the building has a deep plan it may use more energy than the heating does. In the summer months excess heat generated by artificial lighting may entail the consumption of further energy for artificial cooling. Modelling studies of an identical, well designed and well controlled 54m office rooms in Athens, London and Copenhagen indicated that in all three places artificial lighting accounted for about 35% of total lighting, heating and cooling cost over the year. The substitution of daylight for artificial light can be expected to produce savings in the range 30 - 70%, provided that use of the artificial lighting installation is well controlled. (School of Architecture, University College Dublin; Daylighting in Buildings; Ireland, Dublin 1994)
Illustration 53: Energy costs in a model office room.
The spectrum of the natural light is indispensable for the well being of people and can not be replaced by conventional electrical lighting systems. Therefore at any design and construction project the sufficient natural lighting and ventilation of the residence areas should be guaranteed. This can basically be realised by the utilisation of the components and measures shown in the following illustration and description.
- Sufficient quantity, dimension and positioning of glazed areas in the building envelope. - Resident areas and carrels generally should be not more than ~5 meters away from vertical orientated windows in the faade area to guarantee a sufficient natural lighting. The daylight factor deep in the rooms can be raised by convenient application of light directing elements, e.g. light shelves, reflective blinds or prismatic components in the window area, especially in the higher part, for sufficient natural lighting up to ~7m away from the windows. Light shelves are placed in the window openings above eye level of the occupants to provide shading for the room close to the window and to redirect the incoming light to the rooms ceiling. The surfaces of the shelves as well as of the interior ceilings should be equipped with high reflective surfaces for more effective lighting of the interior. - Adjustable louvres with light reflecting or diffusing finishes often are more responsive compared to fixed light shelves, because they can track the sun and therefore lighten the interior more effective, and on overcast days they cause no obstruction of daylight, if completely retractable.
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Illustration 54: Examples of different daylighting devices.
- Fixed louvres, equipped with lenses, mirrors, holographs or prisms, custom made for specific latitude and facade orientation, are excellent components to provide shading and to redirect diffuse and/ or direct sunlight deep into the building. These sophisticated components were developed in the last decades and therefore are not widelyused yet. - Application of rooflights which are useful elements to supply resident areas with natural light, because the incidence of light is higher through horizontal orientated openings than it is through vertical with same size. Rooflights should not be used as a substitute for view windows because it is proved that a meaningful visual contact with the outside is essential for the wellbeing of the occupants especially during long working hours. A disadvantage of rooflights is that they collect more sunlight and heat in the summer than in the winter. Therefore they should be equipped with appropriate shading elements or replaced by well orientated clerestories. - Arrangement of light wells or glazed areaways and atria in the core zone of big buildings which can be used e.g. also for horizontal and vertical opening up. The glazing of an open light well can reduce the daylight level in the created atrium by at least 20% and sometimes 50%. The proportions of an atrium as well as the properties of the utilised glazing and the colour of the interior walls do directly determine the quantity of light which reaches the floor. Atria, same as rooflights, have to be well protected against sunlight during the hot seasons to avoid overheating.
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Illustration 55: Light directing components.
Illustration 56: Adjustable external louvres during high & low angle sun.
Illustration 57: Adjustable external louvres, protecting again direct sunlight and open for diffuse and reflected radiation.
Illustration 58: Internal mirrored louvres, protecting again direct sunlight and open for diffuse and reflected radiation.
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Sustainable Building and Construction - Installation of light pipes and light ducts which are mechanically relative complex daylighting devices. Sunlight is collected by heliostats (movable mirrors which are automatically tracking the sun) or lenses and reflected into the building. A technically more advanced method is to concentrate the collected sunlight by means of lenses or mirrors and to direct it through flexible tubes with a special liquid (so called optical liquids) or acrylic rods or glass-fibre cables (so called optical fibres), which can function itself as illuminant or contribute lighting systems in dark areas with concentrated natural light.
Illustration 59: External device using prismatic component. Illustration 60: Redirecting Light with heliostats and light pipes.
- Appropriate application of shading devices, to avoid overheating of the interior by sunlight and protect it from glare. External shading devices are the most effective for avoiding heat gain in the building. Internal shading devices are less effective because they are producing heat where it is not desired, creating a greenhouse effect inside. Fixed shading devices are mechanically easy to install and require no control system. Well designed they are an appropriate climate control element because they can also be used as light and airflow directing components. Adjustable shading devices require control systems and are more vulnerable to mechanical problems especially when they are installed outside and exposed to the weather, but they are more flexible and can be utilised in a very effective way. They may respond better to
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Sustainable Building and Construction the movement of the sun and allow a better control of diffusion and glare, if completely retractable they do not cause obstruction of daylight on overcast days.
Illustration 61: External versus internal louvres. Illustration 62: Transparent Shading System (with prisms or mirrors).
Illustration 63: Variations of different external shading devices, appropriate to different designs, latitudes and orientations.
Illustration 63a: External shading devices for different directions and building locations on southern or northern hemisphere. Horizontal blends on the southern or northern facade, vertical blends at the eastern and western facade.
- The utilisation of translucent insulation material (TIM) which is generally made out of transparent polycarbonate (PC) or acrylic (PMMA). Originally developed for the translucent insulation of walls to allow passive solar heating, the material is today also used as insulating, light scattering and light redirecting component for various types of glazing. It is used in interspaces of insulated double glazing or in between single panes to improve the insulation properties.
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Illustration 64: Schematic sketch of idealised and realistic geometry of capillary and squarecelled honeycomb structures.
Illustration 65: Principle of the light directing effect in translucent insulation material. Illustration 65a: Samples of different TIM Materials.
Climate responsive glazing well adapted to the main requirements: insulation and light transmittance. While single glazing out of clear float-glass does transmit approx. 85% of light and has a poor insulation effect, double or triple glazing does reduce the transmission to 70-60% but has much better insulation properties. For specific appliances there are special glasses available, such as tinted glass (reducing heat gain and cut down daylight transmission by distortion of outside colours), heat absorbing glass (reducing heat gain by only ~10%), reflective glass (reflecting up to ~50%) and low-e glass (having a very low heat loss and a high light transmission factor of ~80%, thus being appropriate for passive solar utilisation). Responsive chromogenic glasses are relatively expensive high-Tec products which are based on different working principles:- Electrocromic glass changes its optical absorption properties in response to the application of an external electric field. It can be switched from clear to dark or cloudy by reversing the electrical field. Control technology is required. Thermocromic glass automatically switches between heat-transmitting (clear) and heat reflecting (diffuse) state. No electrical field or control technology for regulation is required. Photochromic glass darkens and lightens in response to the intensity of incoming light. It darkens exposed to strong solar radiation and becomes clear when affected by less intense radiation. No electrical field or control technology for regulation is required.
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Sustainable Building and Construction Dirt on vertical windows can reduce the daylight transmittance by 10% and more. If dirt is allowed to accumulate on rooflights there is no limit for the reduction in performance (according to McNicholl and Lewis, 1996). Therefore windows should be cleaned regularly. The installation of glazing and daylight systems which are easy to clean and to maintain are indispensable for efficient natural lighting and to minimise the building service cost.
Illustration 66: Solar gain factors of different glazing and shading devices.
Due to the fact that definitions and assessment methods for window systems differ from one country to another and are leading to considerable confusion for the building designer and product specifier, the Advanced Windows Information System (WIS) project of European Commission Directorate General XII for Science, Research and Development has developed the WIS tool which is a uniform, multi-purpose, PC based European software tool to assist in determining the thermal and solar characteristics of window systems (glazing, frames, solar shading devices, etc.) and window components. The tool contains databases with component properties and routines for calculation of the thermal/optical interactions of components in a window. More information as well as the download of a freeware version of the program is available at: http://erg.ucd.ie/wis/html_pages/aboutwis.html. The use of lighting design computer tools is indispensable for an effective utilisation of natural as well as artificial lighting during the early planning phases. The development, enhancement and validation of selected daylighting programs as well as their connection with detailed, dynamic thermal and energetic building simulation programs has been supported and coordinated by the International Energy Agency (IEA), Solar Heating and Cooling Programme Task 12. Daylighting and electric lighting programs are combined in the ADELINE integrated software system (detailed information is available at: http://www.ibp.fhg.de/wt/adeline/index.html). Lighting calculations are executed by SUPERLITE (daylight simulation and artificial lighting calculations program) and visualised with RADIANCE (open source ray-tracing software: http://radsite.lbl.gov/radiance/HOME.html).
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Sustainable Building and Construction 3.2.3.2 Artificial Lighting
The need for artificial lighting should be minimised as much as possible but beneath the utilisation of natural lighting, the use of artificial lighting is indispensable in almost all buildings.
Illustration 66a: Combination of effective natural and artificial lighting.
To minimise the required energy end related greenhouse gas emissions the following measures should be considered: The light source (e.g. lamp or tube) should be in an adequate distance to the lighted surface (as close as possible, according to the properties of the specific light source) because the light decreases in quadrate by distance. Efficient balance between artificial and natural lighting by intelligent building design, location of luminaries and up to date measuring and control technology or awareness rising of users for efficient manual control of lighting, to avoid unnecessary artificial lighting.
Illustration 66b: Automatic lighting control for efficient use of artificial lighting.
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Sustainable Building and Construction Lighting systems should be designed for easy maintenance and cleaning because dust on luminaries can reduce the efficiency of luminaries by up to 25%. Poor maintenance of a typical fluorescent lighting system can reduce the efficiency by 50% (according to McNicholl and Lewis, 1996). Utilisation of lamps with long lifetime and low energy consumption. In future Light emitting diodes will presumably satisfy the claims of sustainable artificial lighting at low cost.
The following table shows the efficiency of different light sources (according to collated internet resources, Schuetze, T.; Hamburg, Germany 2003) Lamp type Incandescent lamp Fluorescent lamp Low Pressure Sodium High Pressure Sodium LED 3.2.3.3 Efficiency in Lumens/W 14 25 67 96 25 (~200 in future) Lifetime in hours 1.000 20.000 7.000 12.000 20.000 (~100.000 in future)
Natural Ventilation
Sufficient ventilation is indispensable for the health of occupants because it does replace used air by fresh air and does remove humidity, CO2 and pollutants, resulting from people as well as emissions from building materials. Natural ventilation is caused by pressure differences between interior and exterior or temperature differences inside of a building which are naturally produced and do allow air to flow inside and outside of a building. For the successful design of a naturally ventilated building the wind characteristics and air flow patterns around a building, influenced by climate, neighbouring topography, plants and buildings has to be taken into account. Furthermore the fulfilment of natural ventilation depends on the location of vents (e.g.: windows and rooflights) and the interior design (e.g. walls, openings and courtyards). Contemporary buildings are often equipped with artificial ventilation systems and not well designed according to the specific climate. Like already described detailed in the chapter Climate Responsive Building, an appropriate building design can avoid the necessity of mechanical ventilation. Therefore here only a brief overview will be given about appropriate measures for natural ventilation. Appropriate ventilation is also a measure for cooling of interiors. Therefore further ventilation types will be mentioned in the chapter passive cooling. Good aeration of all residence areas can be achieved by room arrangements which afford cross ventilation. If this is not possible, the sufficient air exchange rate has to be proved at least by controlled exhaust. The necessary installations for it require space in form of vertical and horizontal ducts, which should be provided during the design process. Atria and different kind of chimneys can be used to force the natural ventilation by natural winds, buoyancy, the stack effect or solar radiation.
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Illustration 67: The Queens Building De Montfort University (UK) building uses the stack effect of chimneys to ventilate auditoria and classrooms. The design of displacement ventilation and temperature stratification was predicted by saline bath simulation.
Illustration 67a: Wind induced cross ventilation (top) and temperature induced ventilation through an inside courtyard (bottom).
Open able Rooflights and clerestories are also appropriate components for natural ventilation. Dependent on their design they can be used as exhaust, using wind forces outside of the building or the buoyancy inside. Natural ventilation can be supported by mechanical ventilation systems (driven by electric ventilators) to achieve the required indoor air exchange rate. These systems are called Hybrid Ventilation Systems and generally are a good and energy efficient alternative to exclusively mechanical driven ventilation systems.
Illustration 68: The stack effect described in the illustration can also be induced by placing vents near the floor and under the ceiling. Illustration 69: Black coated pipe as solar chimney.
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Illustration 69a: Floor plan, section and perspective view of a multidirectional windcatcher in the Middle East.
3.2.3.4
Mechanical Ventilation:
Simple mechanical ventilation systems are exhausting air systems which are working on the principal of cross ventilation. Exhaust air vents are replaced by low-energy fans which drawn the exhaust air of the building through ducts. Fresh air is drawn through openings which can be integrated into windows, doors or walls. Mechanical Ventilation systems are sensible to guarantee a sufficient ventilation and air exchange rate at building with an inappropriate design for natural ventilation. Furthermore the use of mechanical ventilation is indispensable for well insulated and airtight buildings with air to air heat recovery systems. These systems have to be equipped with air filters to protect the air ducts and heat exchangers from dust and microbiological contamination. The air resistance of these fine filters (which have to be replaced regularly!) are too high to allow natural ventilation and therefore require mechanical ventilation. Mechanical Ventilation Systems can be divided into three groups: - Extract or exhaust ventilation systems - Supply ventilation - Balanced Supply and extract ventilation For energy efficient use of mechanical ventilation systems Fans with a high efficiency and adjustable speed drive, according to the varying required air flow and exchange rate should be applied. Furthermore the air ducts, fittings and filters should have a low air resistance. For an appropriate building design and to avoid problems with natural ventilation such as insufficient ventilation, uncontrolled ventilation and draughts the use of computerized fluid dynamic techniques (CFD) or simplified network models during the early design process is suggested. Well known CFD tool is e.g.: PHOENICS (http://www.cham.co.uk/phoenics/d_polis/d_info/phover.htm)
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Sustainable Building and Construction For further information concerning CF you might visit CFD Review which is a news/support/information clearinghouse for the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) community. It is a place where the CFD community can learn about the latest developments in CFD technology, read about interesting applications, post questions, and generally help each other out. Available at the World Wide Web: http://www.cfdreview.com/ For the design of mechanically ventilation systems multizone air flow models can be used. A well known model is e.g.: COMIS (http://wwwepb.lbl.gov/comis/users.html, free download for DOS and UNIX Systems) For further information concerning infiltration and ventilation please visit: International Network for Information on Ventilation: http://www.inive.org/Index.htm Air Infiltration and Ventilation Centre: http://www.aivc.org/ Hybrid ventilation and building-integrated ventilation, Norwegian Building Research Institute (includes links to realised case studies in Norway): http://www.byggforsk.no/prosjekter/hybvent/ 3.2.3.5 Cooling, Heating and Air Conditioning
Contemporary buildings, especially non residential buildings like offices and stores are often equipped with air conditioning systems for cooling and/ or heating to supply the interior with conditioned air, even when the outdoor climate meets the required characteristics concerning temperature and humidity for the wellbeing of the occupants. Due to the design of contemporary architecture and the climate change from year to year more and more air conditioning systems for single rooms or are sold with a remarkable effect on the electricity consumption and related Green House Gas emissions. Furthermore mechanical conditioned air may cause multitude of physical disorders. I many cases the air (microbiological quality, temperature and humidity) or the system itself (noise and microbiological impact) is responsible for the so called Sick-Building-Syndrome. Furthermore these systems are responsible for a big part of the energy consumption and the related GHG emissions of buildings. Today there are manifold alternative systems available which allow the abandonment of common air conditioning systems even if the building design or the local climate does require a conditioning of the interior air. A basic design tool for passive heating or cooling is the consideration of different material and surface conditions. A well reflecting surface protects a building component from heating-up and keeps it relatively cool, while a surface with good absorbance properties heats-up easily if exposed to direct radiation. A recent study in the U.S.A. assessed the potential of natural and hybrid cooling strategies in 40 United States cities. The maximum estimated cooling energy savings were up to 50%. (According to: Spindler H., Glicksman L., Norford L.; The potential for natural and hybrid cooling strategies to reduce cooling energy consumption in the United States; U.S.A. Cambridge 2002. Available at the World Wide Web: http://www.roomvent.dk/papers/p517.pdf )
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Illustration 69b: Material and surface conditions concerning the grade of absorption and reflection
Mechanical ventilation systems heat recovery are sensible for all well insulated and airtight buildings if the average daily outside temperature does differ remarkably from the desired indoor temperature. The heat recovery unit does cause a temperature equalisation between the inside and the outside air and therefore can reduce or prevent the heating or cooling demand. Especially in urban areas with extreme hot or cold climates the described systems can reduce the heating or cooling demand and improve the indoor air quality (dependent on the utilised filter components and replacement cycles) compared to the outside air remarkably. Heat recovery systems can be good supplementations for passive heating and cooling measures. The fresh outside air is let through central inlets and distributed to fresh air outlets in resident areas. The used air is exhausted through openings in areas which are apart from the inlets and where odour might occur to allow cross ventilation in the areas in between and let to central exhausts. The heat between the fresh and exhaust air can be transferred either directly, with thermal wheels or cross flow heat exchangers (heat recuperation) or indirectly with general less efficient liquid to air heat recovery systems (regenerative heat recovery), dependent on the location of the fresh air inlets and exhaust air outlets. Compared with active heating or cooling measures the energy demand for low energy fans is relatively low. Therefore mechanical ventilation systems with air to air heat recovery generally do have a positive impact on the energy consumption of the buildings in the above mentioned climates. Heat pumps are also a kind of heat recovery systems but do require a comparably high amount of external energy for operation and are generally used for active heating and cooling. Therefore these systems will be discussed further below.
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Sustainable Building and Construction 3.2.3.5 .1 Cooling techniques
In this chapter different cooling techniques are described which can be applied to buildings to enhance the indoor climate. The energy demand for the service of the described systems differs very much. While the energy demand of passive systems is very low mechanical and especially conventional refrigerative cooling systems do consume a lot of energy.
Illustration 69c: Passive cooling strategies.
Mechanical cooling consumes 2 to 4 times more energy than space heating and also the investment of a cooling plant is greater than the investment needed for a air heating plant (according to: Altener Program Europe (Editor); Mid Career Education: Solar Energy in European Office Buildings, Technology Module 6 Auxiliary Energy Services; Europe 1997) The bigger part of 35% of the world wide production of the most common used Hydro-Fluorocarbon (HFC-134a) is used for commercial and residential air conditioning and supermarket refrigeration, 15% is used for domestic refrigeration, and the remaining 50% for automotive air conditioning. (According to Heating the planet with HFCs, available on the World Wide Web: http://archive.greenpeace.org/~ozone/hfcs/ 3heating.html )
"If HFCs are to be used to replace CFCs without restriction, global HFC emissions may increase to 1931 Mtonnes CO2 equivalent per year by 2035. If HFCs are also used as substitutes for HCFCs, emissions could double to 4665 Mtonne CO2 equivalent per year in 2035. These HFC emissions equal 7% and 17% respectively of present CO2 emissions."(Kroeze, C. "Potential Effect of HFC Policy on Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions in 2035", National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection, Bilthoven, The Netherlands, September 1994: Study commissioned by the Air Directorate, Directorate-Generate for Environmental Protection of the Dutch Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and Environment; project # 773001) Cooling Techniques can be divided into four groups: Evaporative Cooling Ground Cooling Radiative Cooling Refrigerative cooling
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Sustainable Building and Construction 3.2.3.5 .1.1 Evaporative Cooling
The cooling effect of evaporative cooling is caused by the absorption of sensible heat from the air and its utilisation as latent heat for the evaporation of water. There is variety of evaporative cooling systems available (passive or hybrid and direct or indirect) which are also called adiabative cooling systems. They are briefly described and summarised below: Passive direct cooling techniques include the use of vegetation (evapotranspiration), fountains, sprays, pools, ponds as well as volume and tower cooling.
Illustration 70: Passive direct cooling by vegetation and porous clay pot filled with water at a courtyard house. Illustration 71: Passive indirect cooling technique in a wind tower.
Passive indirect cooling techniques include roof sprinkling, roof ponds and moving water films. Direct hybrid evaporative coolers are direct air humidifiers. Air is circulating by means of a ventilator through a porous material (pad), saturated with water, loosing a part of its heat by evaporating a part of the water in the pad.
Illustration 71a: Passive indirect cooling technique with collected rainwater in combination with double roof, natural ventilation and shading can control the indoor thermal environment adequately without electricity at a Japanese house in Tokyo.
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Sustainable Building and Construction Indirect hybrid evaporative coolers are using a primary circuit for evaporation of water and cooling, while the air which has to be cooled is passing through a secondary circuit which is connected with the primary circuit by a heat exchanger. Therefore the air in the secondary circuit is keeping its moisture content but might be dehumidified if it is cooled below its dewpoint.
Illustration 72: Direct hybrid evaporative cooler at a window opening..
Note: It is sensible to run indirect evaporative coolers with rainwater. Microbiological contamination can be avoided by the use of hybrid systems, with primary cooling of the exhaust air and secondary cooling of the outdoor air by heat exchangers. Due to the low mineral content of rainwater it may save the water demand for these so called adiabative cooling systems. Two-stage evaporative coolers are a combination of indirect and direct evaporative coolers which are used to achieve a lower dry bulb temperature than only one system is able to. In theses systems the air is primarily cooled in the secondary circuit of an indirect hybrid evaporative cooler before it is additionally cooled by direct evaporation in a direct hybrid evaporative cooler. Evaporative Sorption Coolers do dehumidify and cool the outdoor air by two separated processes. First it is dehumidified by sorption and secondary it is cooled by a one- or two-stage evaporative cooling process. There are techniques with liquid or solid regenerative materials (e.g. silica-gel or lithium-chloride) for the sorption process. The sorption material is humidified by the flow of wet outdoor air and dehumidified by the counter current flow of hot exhaust air. It is sensible to use solar thermal energy for the regeneration process of the used material. Due to the fact that the outdoor air is warmer than the exhaust air after the sorption process, it is passed through an air to air heat exchanger to pre-cool it before evaporative cooling.
Illustration 72a: Principle of evaporative sorption cooling process with heat recovery for building construction.
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Sustainable Building and Construction 3.2.3.5 .1.2 Ground Cooling
Ground cooling does base on the dissipation of heat to the ground. It is sensible if the ground is significantly cooler than the outdoor air. The dissipation of heat can be achieved by direct contact or earth to air heat exchanger pipes. Ground cooling by direct contact is based on direct contact of the building envelope to the ground which has a lower temperature than the surrounding air and therefore does increase the conductive heat exchange. The best effect is achieved if the building is totally buried in the ground. (See also illustration 50f: underground house in Tunisia) Earth to air heat exchangers consists of pipes which are buried horizontally in the ground at a certain depth and with a certain diameter, dependent on the temperature patterns of ground and air at a specific location. The outdoor air is naturally or mechanically ventilated through the underground ducts and is cooled by the surrounding soil. Therefore the air at the outlet of the exchanger is cooler than the outside temperature at the inlet. A remarkable effect of this system is that the air is not only cooled but also dehumidified. Condensate may occur if the outside temperature is cooled below its dew point. (See also Appendix 4 international case studies: Factory building in Kassel, Germany).
Illustration 73: Use of natural ventilation in conjunction with earth coupling; if natural forced ventilation is not realisable, naturally conditioned air and ventilation with photovoltaic powered fans are sustainable alternatives.
Note: The principles of and measures for ground cooling can be used also as ground heating, during the heating degree days in temperate and cold climate zones. This principle is based on heat dissipation from the ground and is sensible if the ground is remarkable warmer than the outdoor air.
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Sustainable Building and Construction 3.2.3.5 .1.3 Radiative Cooling
Radiative cooling is based on long wave radiation emissions from one body of specific temperature towards another body of lower temperature which does function as heat sink. Generally the sky is used as heat sink during night since sky temperature then is cooler than most objects on earth, due to the fact that the space has a temperature of 0 Fahrenheit. Therefore radiators function better under clear sky conditions than under cloudy or average sky conditions which reflect long wave radiation (greenhouse effect). Therefore radiative cooling is less effective in hot and humid climates than in hot and dry climates. The protection of building parts from solar radiation during the day by light colour does support the radiative cooling effect during night due to less heat-up thermal mass. Note: Double layered roofs do reduce the heating-up by solar radiation but they also minimize the effect of radiative cooling. Movable Insulation can protect the roof from heating-up during the day but can be retracted at night to allow radiant cooling of the roof surface. The cooling effect can be enhanced by the exposure and insulation of huge storage mass, e.g.: the construction of a roof pond which has to be temporarily covered with movable insulation. The same system can be also used for passive solar heating. For cooling purpose the pond has to be covered with an insulating layer during the day and opened for radiative cooling at night.
Illustration 74: Roof pond for radiative cooling. Opened at night for radiative cooling of the storage mass and insulated during the day for cooling of the interior.
Flat plate air coolers are simple devices consisting out of horizontal ducts covered by a metal plate which is functioning as radiator and heat-exchanger and therefore have to be highly emissive in the long wave section to enhance the efficiency. The air generally has to be ventilated through the system by electric fans at night. Flat plate water coolers are functioning according to the same principles as flat plate air coolers but can achieve a higher efficiency because the specific heat capacity of 1m water (4.180 J/kg K, 1.000 kg/m) is 3200 times higher than of 1m air (1.005 J/kg K, 1,29 kg/m). Furthermore the system can be combined with solar thermal system if required. The flat plate heat exchanger can be used as a solar collector during daytime and as a cooling radiator at night. The cooled water can be used e.g. for the service of chilled ceilings.
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Sustainable Building and Construction 3.2.3.5 .1.4 Refrigerative Cooling
Refrigerative Cooling with vapour compression cycle is the most common cooling techniques for air-conditioners and heat pumps. It based on condensation and evaporation. Its working principle is based on the circle of compression, condensation, expansion, evaporation, compression and so on. This vapour compression cycle is based on two physical properties. 1. A specific amount of heat will change a liquid into a gas. When the gas will be condensed, the heat will be released again. 2. The boiling and condensation temperature of any material is pressure dependant. This principle is used in compressor driven cooling machines according to the following description: To change a gas into a liquid a large amount of pressure is required. During this process, which is done by a compressor and a condenser coil a lot of heat is released. In common air conditioners this work is done in a building part placed outside of a building (where it is heating-up the outside air) which is equipped with a heat exchanger and cooled by an electric fan. After passing an expansion valve the liquid is evaporated. This process requires the same amount of heat which was released during the condensation process. This heat absorbing process is done inside the building and creating the cooling effect. The cooled air is ventilated through the interior by an electric fan. After the evaporation process the gas is pumped to the compressor and the compression process is started again. The same principle is used for the operation of refrigerators. The boiling and condensation temperature is pressure dependent. While the bigger part of coolers based on vapour compression cycles are still working with hazardous green house gases (e.g. HFCs), even though nowadays there are manyfold possibilities to run these systems with more harmless substances e.g. made from natural gas (propane, isobutane, cyclopropane or even water (presently only for huge systems). Refrigerative Cooling with vapour absorption cycle is based on three physical properties. 1. A specific amount of heat will change a liquid into a gas. When the gas will be condensed, the heat will be released again. The boiling and condensation temperature of any material is pressure dependant. 2. A specific amount of heat will change a liquid into a gas. When the gas will be condensed, the heat will be released again. 3. Some liquids have the strong tendency to absorb specific vapours. This system is used in thermally driven cooling machines which are sensible and energy efficient alternatives to above mentioned vapour compression systems if sufficient waste heat or solar radiation is available. Therefore it is a system of choice for all warm and temperate climates. Vacuum tube collectors can supply the system effectual with hot water, even in regions with relative low solar radiation.
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Sustainable Building and Construction For further detailed information and a comparison of the energy efficiency between vapour compression chillers (VCC) and vapour absorption chillers (VCA) please refer to: Guidebook On Cogeneration As A Means Of Pollution Control And Energy Efficiency in Asia, Part 1, 2.6 Working Principle of Absorption Chillers, United Nations Economic and Social Commission For Asia And The Pacific, available at the World Wide Web: http://www.unescap.org/enrd/energy/co-gen/part1.htm 3.2.3.6 Technologies for heating and electricity production
In this chapter different heating techniques are described which can be applied to buildings to enhance the indoor climate. The energy demand for the service of the described systems differs very much. While the energy demand of passive and active solar systems is very low, conventional heating systems do consume a lot of energy. The global warming potential of combustion plants can be reduced by the use of energy efficient technologies like heat recovery of exhaust gases (upper heating technology) and the burning of renewable fuels (biomass) which do not cause irreversible greenhouse gas emissions by the burning of fossil fuels. Heat pumps are using the physical properties of vapour compression cycle for heating purpose and are heat recovery systems. They are extracting heat from a media (air, water or soil) and do transfer the energy to a higher temperature level. Hence heat pumps do work very energy efficient. There are different kinds of heat pumps available, powered by natural gas or electricity. Heat pumps are available for the extraction of heat of the following different media and the transformation to another specific media, e.g. air to air, air to water, water to water or earth to water. They can International links concerning heat pumps further information and case studies are available at: http://www.fiz-karlsruhe.de/hpn/html/bp.html The installation of systems for decentralised combined heat and power (CHP) production, desirably powered by renewable fuels, are also important measures to reduce GHG emissions, due to the fact that line losses do worsen the bad primary energy balance of centrally produced electric energy significantly. Like already discussed detailed in the chapter climate responsive building intelligent design strategies based on the passive use of solar energy and conservation of energy are the most ecological and economic way to create a comfortable indoor climate without emitting green house gases for the service of conventional combustion heating systems. The utilisation of turbines driven by wind energy or small water power, are sustainable solutions for the electricity production in specific rural areas. They are not producing any greenhouse gas emission during their service, except for maintenance. Electricity production with Photovoltaic (PV) Elements is an appropriate method for decentralised electricity production, almost everywhere. The systems do work with direct and diffuse light. The glazed modules can be used as facade and roof elements. The investment costs can be reduced by charging them against the savings for common building elements.
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Sustainable Building and Construction Well designed buildings, based on passive technologies and equipped with energy saving building service engineering and an appropriate quantity of PV modules, are able to produce more electric energy than they do require for the building service and the specific building utilisation. Hence it is possible to use buildings, connected to the public electric grid as decentralise solar power plants.
3.2.3.6 .1
Passive Solar Heating Passive solar heating is based on the transformation of long wave solar radiation to heat when it does penetrate an absorbing surface. Strategies for the passive use of solar energy for heating purpose can be summarized to four major elements, solar collection, heat storage, heat distribution and heat conversation which are interacting: 1. Solar collection (space heating by the collection of solar radiation and conversion into heat) by direct or indirect gains. The most important building component for the collection of solar radiation is the glazing or a translucent insulation material (TIM).
Illustration 75: Passive solar strategies.
The key design parameters for an effective use are: Good solar transmission (crucial for solar gains) Good insulation (sensible for reduction of heat losses) Appropriate orientation and slope (exposition to the sun for the most time of the day) Appropriate glazing size (interacting with previous parameters)
To avoid overheating of glazed areas without external or internal shading elements, special insulated panes with inlays out of prisms or mirrors were developed which are designed for specific sites and orientations. They do reflect or transmit the sunlight depending on the wave angle. 2. Heat storage (storage of heat collected during the day for future use, e.g. at night) by materials with high heat storage capacity. Sensible is the use of solid materials (e.g. earth, concrete and water) or phase shift materials (PSM, e.g. paraffin wax which can store ten times more heat than water in the same mass by the physical phenomenon of phase shift). The application of PSM materials is sensible for passive solar use because it is especially efficient for the storage of comparable small temperature ranges. Therefore its use is not recommended for active solar thermal systems which are working with big temperature ranges.
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3. Heat distribution (redirection of collected and stored heat to zones where the heat is required) can be achieved e.g. by transmission, convection and radiation, thermo circulation or mechanical circulation. 4. Heat conservation (retaining the collected heat in the building as long as possible) by the minimisation of transmission heat losses (by building form envelope as well as of well insulated and air tight sealed building envelopes) and aeration heat losses (by the utilisation of ventilation systems with heat recovery systems (e.g. air to air heat exchangers).
3.2.3.6 .2
Components for active thermal utilisation of solar energy
All described systems are based on the principle that absorbed medium and short wave solar radiation is transferred to long wave heat. Most common components constructions for the active use of solar radiation which can be attached to or integrated in buildings will be briefly described below. Specific Components like unglazed transpired collectors (UTC), second skin facades or thermal windows will not be discussed in this monograph. For further information please have a look on Appendix Internet Resources. Glazed air collectors are components which can be integrated into the roof or exterior walls and therefore might replace common building parts and reduce the overall investment cost of a building. Air is passed through an absorber and preheated by solar radiation before it is passed into the building. The heat gain may be used direct for ventilation or first passed in a closed loop system through a heat exchanger. The heat gain can be used for the preheating of fresh air or thermal storage. The air is ventilated through the system by electric fans which can be run by photovoltaic systems. The working of solar walls is similar to glazed air collectors. Flatbed solar water collectors are components which can be integrated into the roof or exterior walls and therefore might replace common building parts and reduce the overall investment cost of a building. Water is passed through an absorber (which is placed in a glazed and well insulated collector) in a closed loop, connected to a thermal storage tank (in general consisting out of a well insulated water vessel), if the temperature in the absorber is higher than in the storage tank. There are two basic systems available. Thermosiphon systems are based on gravitation and thermodynamic principles and do not require any pump or control technology, but the bottom of the storage tank (outflow) has to be placed higher elevated than the upper side of the collector field. The system is more difficult to integrate in building design but is easy to construct, even in local workshops, and to maintain and is widely spread for the production of domestic hot water in many countries worldwide. The storage vessel can be equipped with an auxiliary heater for hot water production during insufficient solar radiation (cloudy days). The system is available with single water circuit (the sanitary water does flow through the absorber and neither additional pump nor heat exchanger is required), separated water circuits (heat exchanger and pump is
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Sustainable Building and Construction required) and with secondary separated water vessel (heat exchanger and pump is required).
Illustration 76: Flatbed solar water collector, based on the thermosiphon principle, on the roof of a residential house in Osaka Japan. The storage tank for hot water is equipped with a mirror to reflect sunlight on the absorber field and hence to enlarge the geometrical collector area.
Forced circulation systems in addition to the thermosiphon system described above are equipped with a pump, controlled by a differential thermostat. Therefore vessel and collector area can be freely placed wherever it is suitable for solar gain and building integration (e.g. in the facade or on the rooftop). These systems are generally more costly than thermosiphon systems due to higher investment of technical components and required electric energy for service. Forced circulation systems are available as above described flat bed collectors and Vacuum tube collectors which are more effective but even more costly than flat bed collectors because the absorber is placed in vacuum tubes out of glass.
Illustration77: Flatbed solar water collectors, based on forced circulation system, on the roof of a remodelled existing housing estate in Berlin are visible on the left hand side. On the right hand side Photovoltaic (PV) systems are installed.
Roof ponds equipped with movable Insulation can protect the roof from cooling at night but can be retracted at day to allow solar radiation of the roof surface. The heating effect can be enhanced by the exposure and insulation of huge storage mass with good absorbance properties (e.g. dark colour) e.g.: the construction of a roof pond which has to be temporarily covered with movable insulation at night when it can release the heat which was collected during the day to the interior.
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Illustration78: Roof pond for passive solar heating. Opened during the day for solar heating of the storage mass and insulated at night for heating of the interior and protection from radiative cooling.
3.2.3.7
Sanitation Systems and Water Consumption
Common centralised sewage systems, based on underground pipelines, gravitation flow, equipped with pumping stations and biological treatment plants do cause greenhouse gas emissions through the construction of the necessary infrastructure (in general from non renewable resources), as well as from the treatment process of the sewage itself, caused by the production of electrical energy which is necessary for the technical equipment for the elimination of the nutrients in the renewable resources faeces and especially urine. The sewage itself produces greenhouse gases, primarily methane, which has. Urine separation and its utilisation for fertiliser substitution is a relative simple method to reduce the eutrophication of receiving water bodies of sewage treatment plant outlets and to reduce the energy demand for nitrate (N) elimination. The analysis of the global warming potential of different sanitation systems (for the construction and service phase) shows that a common municipal sewage treatment plant produces the highest green house gas emissions followed by composting systems and small scale sewage treatment plants. The lowest green house gas emissions are produced by fermentation systems which are equipped with water saving toilets (e.g. vacuum toilets) and do also ferment the organic kitchen waste. If these biogas systems are equipped with combined heat and power (CHP) production, the balance for energy and GHG emission can be positive. If the savings for sewage, water supply and substitution of fertilizer are taken into account the energy and GHG balance is positive at all. However these systems are technically advanced and therefore not appropriate for all projects. For a holistic overview about appropriate solutions for specific regions worldwide, please visit the website of the ecological sanitation project ecosan: http://www.gtz.de/ecosan/english/ Technologies (modules and installations) for ecological and sustainable water and sanitation systems should be applied on all new settlements and buildings not only to reduce greenhouse gas emissions but also to close the loop of the nutrient cycle and to save and protect ground water, receiving water bodies and coastal areas.
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Sustainable Building and Construction The advantages of ecological sanitation systems (composting and fermentation systems) can be summarised as followed: 3.3 Recycling of Nutrients in the agriculture, primarily phosphor, potassium and sulphur. The sewage which is free from faeces and urine (greywater) has no surplus of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphor) and is easier to clean. Saving of drinking water Saving of energy Smaller green house gas emissions Utilisation of household waste More sustainable infrastructure and smaller effort for installation work protection of water bodies with small costs
The challenge of Guidelines, Regulations and Building Codes
Guidelines, Regulations and building codes are crucial for a widespread utilisation of sustainable building and construction techniques. According to the Annex 31 group of the IEA (Annex 31 homepage at the World Wide Web: http://annex31.wiwi.unikarlsruhe.de/INDEX.HTM) they are defined as passive Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) tools (on: http://annex31.wiwi.uni-karlsruhe.de/core_reports/MainFrame_tools4.htm). Passive tools support decisions without much interaction with the user, and typically lack the degree of customisation and computer support provided by LCA tools and simulation models. Rather than applying the tool to conduct calculations, passive tools tend to contribute static information to the process. Depending on their type and purpose, passive tools: aid formulation of design objectives; convey results of pre-cooked assessments based on proxies or references assist in directing the planning and decision making processes; and provide outputs of assessment results completed by third parties. Each of these types of passive tools is described in more detail in the following pages: 1. Laws, Regulations and Conventions 2. Guidelines 3. Checklists 4. Ecological and quality assessment for buildings 5. Case-studies / Best practice / Example buildings 6. Building passport / documentation 7. Energy passport 8. Element catalogue 9. Ecologically oriented specification aids 10. Product labelling ecological and quality grading 11. Product descriptions 12. Recommendations and exclusion criteria 13. Plus and minus lists
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Sustainable Building and Construction A broad range of passive tools exist for decision-support, including, in order of complexity: Environmental Assessment Frameworks and Rating Systems; Environmental Guidelines or Checklists for Design and Management of Buildings Environmental Product Declarations, Catalogues, Reference Information, Certifications and Labels Passive tools can be especially well suited for application within the fast-paced processes involving design professionals. Consequently they have broad market potential, if their use adds value to the end product. Each type of passive tool is described later in this report. (The whole report is downloadable at: http://annex31.wiwi.uni-karlsruhe.de/pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20%20Annex%2031%20Directory%20of%20Tools%20by%20Country%20and%20.pdf )
Appendixes
Appendix 1 - Planning Tools for Climate Responsive Building and Construction in the hot and humid climate zone of Pondicherry, India Appendix 2 - Life Cycle Assessment Tools Appendix 3 Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction Appendix 4 International Case Studies Appendix 5 Physical Data Appendix 6 References Illustrations Appendix 7 References Literature
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Appendix 1 - Planning Tools for Climate Responsive Building and Construction in the hot and humid climate zone of Pondicherry, India 4.1 Planning Tools for Climate Responsive Building and Construction in the hot and humid climate zone of Pondicherry, India
From: Krishan, A., Yannas, S., Baker, N., Szokolay, S. V. (editors); Climate 99 Responsive Architecture A Design Handbook for Energy Efficient Building; India, New Delhi, 2001
Appendix 1 - Planning Tools for Climate Responsive Building and Construction in the hot and humid climate zone of Pondicherry, India
Appendix 2 - Life Cycle Assessment Tools 4.2 Life Cycle Assessment Tools LCA tools for buildings are able to evaluate the environmental impact of buildings. The programmes can be divided into three main categories: Life Cycle Assessment of building materials and products (environmental impact of selected building materials) Energy demand for the operational performance of buildings (heating, cooling, ventilation, lighting, building service engineering and equipment) for a specific period (in general for one year) Environmental impact assessment of buildings over the entire life cycle (utilisation of the previous information plus many additional specific data to calculate a life cycle assessment)
Sustainability of Building Practices is a world wide applicable Sustainable Building Evaluation Tool (SBET), available on the World Wide Web, developed by an international team and supported by UNEP which aims to make a practical evaluation of sustainability of building practices against critical ecological, social and financial indicators in an objective manner. http://www.sbet.ch/ The following tables do not present a complete listing of existing tools but a selected overview about the available well-known state of the art products. For additional and more detailed information about the listed programmes please use the related links, the Appendix 3 - Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction, Internet based search engines (e.g. www.Google.com) or databases, e.g.:
Building and Construction LCA Tools Report and Matrix, at http://buildlca.rmit.edu.au/menu8.html and http://buildlca.rmit.edu.au/decisiontool/alldata.html (Note: some of the links do not work) where you can also download the Building and Construction LCA Tools Description Report (http://buildlca.rmit.edu.au/downloads/Toolsdescription.pdf), prepared by the Centre for Design at RMIT (http://www.rmit.edu.au/ ) Comparative study of national schemes aiming to Analyse the Problems of LCA tools (connected with e.g. hazardous substances) and the environmental aspects in the harmonised standards (study for the European Commission, DG Enterprise) Interim report, Current situation and options for harmonization. (http://europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/construction/internal/essreq/environ/intrmlca.pdf ) The database of Building Energy Software Tools Directory of US Department of Energy gives access to 267 (06.2003) national and international tools to aid in the design and development of energy efficient building. http://www.eren.doe.gov/buildings/tools_directory/ or http://www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/tools_directory/ -The Annex 31 tool survey is designed to complement the United States Department of Energy Tool Directory and offers a listing by type and country. http://annex31.wiwi.uni-karlsruhe.de/TOOLS.HTM
1.
Life Cycle Assessment of building materials and products
DURANET is a network for supporting the Development and Application of performance based Durability design and Assessment of concrete structures. This European project ended in the year 2001. The European Thematic Network on Practical Recommendations for Sustainable Building, Practical Recommendations for Sustainable Construction project
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Appendix 2 - Life Cycle Assessment Tools (PRESCO) is working on a comparison of the various existing tools. Available on the internet at: www.etn-presco.net
Country Denmark Model owner or model organizer SBI (Danish Building and Urban Research) Model name Environmental Product Declaration for Building Products (in development) KCL-ECO Contact
http://europa.eu.int/comm/en terprise/construction/internal /essreq/environ/intrmlca.pdf (info)
Finland
Finland France
France, USA Germany
KCL, Limited company owned by the Finnish pulp, paper and board industries RTS (Building Information Foundation) AIMCC (French Construction Products Association) based on AFNOR (French standardisation organisation) standards Ecobilan IKP University of Stuttgart
http://www.kcl.fi/general/ind exn.html
Environmental Product Declaration for building products Experimental standards - Information concerning the environmental characteristics of construction products
http://www.rts.fi/english.htm
TEAM Gabi Life Cycle Engineering Environmental Product Declaration for Building Products (in development) natureplus (building material labelling and certification programme for producers of building materials, retailers, professionals and consumers) ECOBIS 2000, ecological construction material information system (CD can be ordered exempt from charges), describes effects of on environment and health during 5 phases: raw material, production, processing, use, reuse MIPS (Material Input Per Service unit), MIPS-Online UMBERTO SimaPro IVAM LCA Data 4; 1350 processes, leading to more than 350 materials MRPI (Environmental Relevant Product Information) MEPB (Material Based Environmental Profile for Building) (in development) Environmental Declaration of building products EcoDec (Miljdeklarasjoner Environmental Declaration)
http://www.ecobilan.com/uk _tools.php http://www.ikpgabi.unistuttgart.de/english/page/fra_ page_e.html
Germany
AUB (Arbeitsgemeinschafft Umweltvertrgliches Bauproducte) Natureplus e.V.
Germany
http://www.natureplus2.org/ web/main/
Germany
Federal Ministry of Transport, Building and Housing , Architectural Association Bavaria Wuppertal Institute IFU Pre, Product Ecology Consultants IVAM NVTB (Dutch Construction Products Association) NEN (Dutch standardisation organisation) NBI (Norwegian Building Research Institute) NBI (Norwegian Building Research Institute)
http://www.byak.de/
Germany Germany Netherlands Netherlands Netherlands Netherlands Norway Norway
http://www.wupperinst.org/P rojekte/mipsonline/ http://www.umberto.de/engli sh/index.htm http://www.pre.nl/simapro/d efault.htm http://www.ivambv.uva.nl/u k/index.htm http://www.nvtb.nl/default.a sp http://www.nen.nl/nl/act/spe c/mmg/ http://www.byggforsk.no/def ault.aspx?spraak=en http://www.byggforsk.no/def ault.aspx?spraak=en
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Appendix 2 - Life Cycle Assessment Tools

Sweden Chalmers University of Technology CIT Ekologik SIA Schweizerischer Ingenieur- und Architektenverein (Swiss Society of Engineers and Architects) Government of Taiwan Boustead Consulting Ltd. BRE (Building Research Establishment) U.S. EPA Environmentally Preferable Purchasing (EPP) Program Green Design Initiative of Carnegie Mellon. BuildingGreen, Inc. SPINE (Sustainable Product Information Network for the Environment); links to LCAiT, EcoLab,and EPS Design System, used for EPD and LCA LCAit SIA Ecological product declaration, Internet database and SIA-documents D 093 und 493
http://www.environmentalcenter.com/consulting/chalm ers/spine.htm http://www.lcait.com/ http://www.sia.ch/d/praxis/b auprodukte/
Sweden Switzerland
Taiwan United Kingdom United Kingdom USA
Green Building Logo Boustead (UK based data general and building specific, has been used and adapted to Australia by DPWS in LCAid Environmental Profiles of Construction Materials, Components and Buildings BEES - Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability EIOLCA - Economic Input/Output LCA data Green Buildings Advisor
http://www.ftis.org.tw/sidn/S idn1-2/SIDN1-2.htm http://www.bousteadconsulting.co.uk/ http://www.environmentalcenter.com/software/bre/bre. htm http://www.bfrl.nist.gov/oae/ software/bees.html
USA USA
http://www.eiolca.net/
http://www.greenbuildingad visor.com/
2.
Energy demand and environmental impact for the operational performance of buildings (Building Performance and Rating Software)
Model owner Sustainable Energy Authority Victoria BEPAC, the UK affiliate of the International Building Performance Simulation Association (IBPSA). Ecotope EnerLogic and James J. Hirsch & Associates. U.S. Department of Energy Model name FirstRate house energy rating software BREGains Contact
http://www.seav.vic.gov.au/ buildings/firstrate/ http://www.bepac.dmu.ac.uk /index.html
Country Australia United Kingdom
USA USA USA
SUNCODE (SERI-RES) EQUEST; DOE-2 PowerDOE EnergyPlus
http://www.ecotope.com/ http://www.doe2.com/
http://www.eere.energy.gov/ buildings/energyplus/overvie w.html
USA Canada
Solar Energy Laboratory Energy and Environment Canada Ltd., TerraChoice Environmental Services Inc. University Siegen
TRNSYS BREEAM Green Leaf Eco-Rating Program I D E A (Interactive Database for Energyefficient Architecture), CD, internet demo available HELIOS / HELEX - Dynamic heat simulation for buildings
http://sel.me.wisc.edu/trnsys/ default.htm http://216.58.80.108/product s/BREEAM%20GL/breeam _gl.html http://nesa1.unisiegen.de/wwwextern/idea/m ain.htm http://www.econzept.com/
Germany
Germany
Econzept Ltd.
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Appendix 2 - Life Cycle Assessment Tools 3. Environmental impact assessment of building

Country Australia Model owner Department of Public Works and Services (DPWS) Environmental Services BHP BHP Billiton Minerals Technology Newcastle Laboratories Sustainable Technology Athena Sustainable Materials Institute Open Source Code, Free Software Foundation Europe:http://www.fsfeur ope.org/index.en.html Privates Institut fr Baupreisforschung (P.I.B.), http://www.aum.de/c.php/ Wir_ueber_uns/PIB/PIB.r sys SBI (Danish Building and Urban Research) CSTB Ecole des Mines de Paris Centre for Energy Studies - Paris VTT SBR Model name LCAid Contact
http://www.projectweb.g ov.com.au/dataweb/lcaid /
Australia
LISA (LCA in Sustainable Architecture), also available case studies. ATHENA ESP-r, integrated modelling tool, designed for the Unix operating system, with supported implementations for Solaris and Linux, made available at no cost LEGOE (LCA of buildings, monetary and non monetary costs, environmental impacts)
http://www.lisa.au.com/
Canada International
www.athenasmi.ca http://www.esru.strath.ac .uk/Programs/ESP-r.htm
Germany
http://www.aum.de/c.php /Produkte/LegoeBausoftware/oekologie.r sys
Denmark
BEAT 2002, Building Environmental Assessment Tool 2002 Escale Ecquer
http://www.dbur.dk/engli sh/publishing/software/b eat2002/index.htm
France France
www.cstb.fr http://wwwcenerg.ensmp.fr/english/i ndex.html
Finland Netherlands
LCA House Eco-Quantum
http://www.vtt.fi/rte/inde xe.html www.ecoquantum.nl http://www.ivam.uva.nl/ uk/producten/product7.ht m
Netherlands
Stichting SUREAC
Greencalc
www.dgmr.nl/new/softw are/software_gc.html
Sweden
KTH Infrastructure & planning
Eco-effect
http://www.infra.kth.se/b ba/bbasvenska/forsning/ miljoweb/miljovardering /nysammanft.pdf
United Kingdom United Kingdom USA
BRE (Building Research Establishment) BRE (Building Research Establishment) USGBC (U.S. Green Building Council) iiSBE, International Initiative for Sustainable Built Environment Taisei Corp.
Canada + 20 countries
Envest: environmental impact estimating software for the early planning phase BREEAM environmental impact estimating software LEED (Leadership in Energy and environmental Design), Credit based Green building estimating and certification system GBToolTM (Green Building Tool)
www.bre.co.uk/sustainab le/envest.html http://products.bre.co.uk/ breeam/index.html http://www.usgbc.org/
http://iisbe.org/ http://www.buildingsgro up.nrcan.gc.ca/software/ gbtool_e.html
Japan
CASBEE (in development)
www.worldworkplace.or g/japan/con_info_edu_se ssions.htm (Info)
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Appendix 3 Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction 4.3 Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction In addition to the Internet Resources given in the Monograph on Sustainable Building and Construction - Basic Principles and Guidelines in Design and Construction to Reduce Greenhouse Gases in Buildings, selected useful internet resources for further reading are listed below: Building Materials and Components: CRATerre is the international centre for building with earth at the Faculty of Architecture at the University of Grenoble, France. http://www.craterre.archi.fr/homepage.html Dachverband Lehm e.V. lives from the input and commitment of its members. We are recognised as a non-profit organisation and are the primary forum for technical know-how and practical skills and experience in the field. A forum for the exchange of information and ideas between manufacturers, the trade, architects, academics and clients and all others who work with clay and earth. http://www.dachverbandlehm.de/start_gb.html Earth Building Foundation, Inc. is a non-profit corporation, currently applying for tax-exempt status. Help people learn how to utilize earth building for better, safer, shelter. http://www.earthbuilding.com/ EcoSpecifier's aim is to help architects, designers, builders and specifies to shortcut the materials sourcing process. Its broader aim is to help create a more sustainable physical environment by increasing the use of environmentally preferable materials. EcoSpecifier is a joint initiative of the Centre for Design at RMIT, EcoRecycle Victoria and the Society for Responsible Design. http://ecospecifier.rmit.edu.au/flash.htm Efficient Windows Collaborative, the homepage of the Efficient Windows Collaborative. It contains advise on how to use advanced windows and to reasons why to as well as other valuable data and links. http://www.efficientwindows.org Components of Sustainable Resident Halls (Western Washington University). http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~sustwwu/sustain/conkle/res_hall.html German Institute for Building Technology (DIBt) is an institute of the Federal and State governments for the uniform fulfilment of technical tasks in the field of public law. http://www.dibt.de/index_eng.html James & James database of Energy Efficient and Sustainable Building Suppliers and Services holds the details of over 6,000 companies and organisations. The database is published in 2 versions, An on-line version which you can search from here; and the annual European Directory of Sustainable and Energy Efficient Building. The 1999 edition is out now: http://www.jxj.com/suppands/edseeb/index.html
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Appendix 3 Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction Natureplus provides the seal of quality in Europe for building products, construction materials, and home furnishings that are environmentally friendly, do not endanger our health, and properly perform their allotted function. http://www.natureplus2.org/web_englisch/main/default.asp Selector.com - developed in partnership with the Royal Australian Institute of Architects - gives you detailed product information in an easy-to-read, standardised format. You can view photographs, technical data, colours and textures, and much more for thousands of building products. http://www.selector.com.au/ Valorisation of building demolition Materials and Products The overall goals of the VAMP management system are the reduction of non-differentiated wastes, the valorisation of reusable and recyclable materials, the optimization of the local recovery networks and the promotion of new employment opportunities. http://www.regione.emilia-romagna.it/vamp/index_e.htm Case studies SBC: Aga Khan Award for Architecture http://www.akdn.org/agency/aktc_akaa.html Australian Building Energy Council, Energy Efficient Building Case Studies, The vision of ABEC is to act as a peak strategic body articulating the views of the Building and Construction Industry on energy related matters, which will foster an industry-driven move towards developing world best practice in the management of greenhouse gas emissions. http://www.abec.com.au/ Cost Efficient Passive Houses as European Standards, Construction of ca. 250 housing units to Passive House standards in five European countries, with in-process scientific back-up and with evaluation of building operation through systematic measurement programmes. http://www.cepheus.de/eng/index.html Earth Centre, Home page of the UK's millennium demonstration project on sustainable landscape habitat and building design, provides links and detailed information on the Centre's projects, activities and experiences. http://www.earthcentre.org.uk/ EASAE, Education of Architects On Solar Energy And Ecology, Case Studies: http://www-cenerg.ensmp.fr/ease/case_main.html EC2000 case studies principles are reducing energy consumption by 50% compared with traditional buildings, reducing CO2 emissions by up to 70%, avoiding airconditioning, or minimising its energy use, providing good internal visual and thermal conditions, allowing individual control of lighting, heating and cooling where possible, stimulating environmentally friendly design and construction. http://erg.ucd.ie/EC2000/ec2000_about.html, http://erg.ucd.ie/ec2000/, Thermie Target Demonstration Project (final reports), Energy Comfort 2000: http://erg.ucd.ie/ec2000/, Solar Energy in European Office Buildings (case study modules), Altener Mid-Career Education: http://erg.ucd.ie/mid_career/mid_career.html
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Appendix 3 Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction ERG has participated in a number of projects which have produced a range of deliverables within the European Commissions' THERMIE Programme (Directorate General XVII for Energy). The files which are free to download include technical booklets, videos and newsletters. http://erg.ucd.ie/down_thermie.html EU THERMIE Programme supports many demonstration projects for innovative RUE and REB (Renewable Energy in Buildings). General information about them is provided, and it will be extended when more becomes available. You can browse the information about all these projects. THERMIE Targeted Demonstration Projects concerning Rational Use of Energy in the Building Sector are available at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/energy/en/thermie/ttp-bu.htm European Commissions' THERMIE Programme (Directorate General TREN), technical booklets, QuickTime videos and newsletters have been prepared which you are free to download. You can also link to the THERMIE home page. http://europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/energy_transport/index_en.html European Green Building Forum, Catalogue of Best Practice, Examples: http://www.egbf.org European Solar Building Exhibition is an international building exhibition for solar and low-energy housing. Twelve European cities are united in the common target to develop innovative concepts for bioclimatic urban redevelopment, forward-looking new developments, passive housing and the integration of renewable energy sources. The Solar Building Exhibition, which is the first project of this kind, will present the results to the public until the end of 2005 and will serve as a model for future developments. http://www.eu-exhibition.org/en.htm Gaia Group contains green architecture case studies and other projects carried out by The Gaia Group, also publications. http://www.gaiagroup.org/ Green Buildings BC, this British Columbia initiative has been established to reduce the environmental impact of provincially-funded buildings and, in the process, foster the growth of BC's environmental industry. http://www.greenbuildingsbc.com/new_buildings/case_studies.html High Performance Buildings EREN, Exemplar projects, commercial and residential, of the National Renewable Energy Lab's Office of Building Technology State and Community Programme's High Performance Building Projects. http://www.nrel.gov/buildings/highperformance/projects/ IEA Task 23 International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, Information about each of the IEA Solar Heating and Cooling Programme Tasks including case studies can be found under Research Tasks section: http://www.iea-shc.org/task23/index.html
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Appendix 3 Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction Sustainable Building Information System (SBIS), Building Data Base; Buildings included in this file have been selected by two means. Those identified as having been selected in a competitive process that places emphasis on environmental performance will be included at face value. In other cases, buildings proposed for inclusion will be selected if recommended by the Technical Advisory Committee of SBIS and if supporting information is provided that indicates that the building includes some environmental performance features of interest. Nevertheless, it should be noted that the buildings included in that file are not promoted by SBIS as necessarily having superior performance. http://www.sbis.info/database/dbsearch/buildingsearch.jsp SKAT CASE STUDY SERIES is a collection on intelligent architecture and best practices of economical and energy-efficient building systems. It encompasses traditional and socio cultural aspects as well as the requirements of modern living. The CASE STUDY SERIES comprises three dossiers: Social Housing, Health Facilities and Educational Facilities. http://www.gtz.de/basin/publications/index.asp?A=1 Solar Energy in European Office Buildings, Altener Mid-Career Education An integrated package on Solar Energy and Energy Efficiency in Office Buildings for experienced: Architects, Building Services Engineers, Building Economists, Building Energy Managers; Includes case studies; overheads; Instructor Modules for Architects, Building Service Engineers, Building Economists, Building Energy Managers; and Technology Modules. http://erg.ucd.ie/mid_career/mid_career.html Solarbau Monitor Programme, German case studies for non residential buildings with extreme low energy consumption. http://www.solarbau.de Sustainable Architecture and Building Design (SABD) Hong Kong, China, List of many international Case studies available at: http://www1.arch.hku.hk/research/BEER/casestud.htm Japan specific case studies are available at: http://arch.hku.hk/~cmhui/japan/index/ok-index.html Sustainable Refurbishment in Europe SUREURO. http://www.sureuro.com/
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Appendix 3 Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction Energy efficiency: Absorption cooling, a good link collection is available at: http://www.healthget.com/info/absorption_cooling.html Alliance to Save Energy promotes energy efficiency worldwide to achieve a healthier economy, a cleaner environment and energy security. Founded in 1977, the Alliance to Save Energy is a non-profit coalition of business, government, environmental and consumer leaders. The Alliance to Save Energy supports energy efficiency as a cost-effective energy resource under existing market conditions and advocates energy-efficiency policies that minimize costs to society and individual consumers, and that lessen greenhouse gas emissions and their impact on the global climate. To carry out its mission, the Alliance to Save Energy undertakes research, educational programs, and policy advocacy, designs and implements energyefficiency projects, promotes technology development and deployment, and builds public-private partnerships, in the U.S.A. and other countries. http://www.ase.org CLIMATE 1 - The Global Climate Data Atlas http://www.climate1.com/ Fraunhofer Gesellschaft in Germany provides information and research regarding: Buildings and Technical Building Components, Solar Cells, Off-grid Power Supplies, Decentralised Power Supply and Storage in the Grid, Hydrogen Technology, Annual Reports, Brochures and Product Information, Scientific publications and Conference papers. http://www.ise.fhg.de/english/sitemap/index.html World Energy Efficiency Association (WEEA) was founded in June 1993 as a private, non-profit organization composed of developed and developing country institutions and individuals charged with increasing energy efficiency (USA). http://www.weea.org/ Education and research : Advanced Buildings and Technologies, Building professional's guide to more than 90 environmentally-appropriate technologies and practices. Architects, engineers and buildings managers can improve the energy and resource efficiency of commercial, industrial and multi-unit residential buildings through the use of the technologies and practices described on the web site. http://www.advancedbuildings.org/ Ecole de Mines, EASE Project: Education of Architects in Solar Energy and Environment, Abstract: http://wwwcenerg.ensmp.fr/english/themes/cycle/html/12a.html, regener2_APPLICATION OF THE LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS TO BUILDINGS: wwwcenerg.ensmp.fr/francais/themes/cycle/pdf/regener2.pdf, EUROPEAN PROJECT REGENER LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.pdf: http://wwwcenerg.ensmp.fr/francais/themes/cycle/pdf/regenersummary.pdf Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Building Technology Program and Alliance for Global Sustainability. http://web.mit.edu/bt/www/
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Appendix 3 Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction
Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology. http://www.rmit.edu.au/ Teachers and Green Schools. http://www.ase.org/greenschools/teachers.htm University of Hong Kong, Department of Architecture, Building Energy Efficiency Research (BEER). http://arch.hku.hk/research/BEER/ UK Government Sustainable Development discussion forum website. http://www.sustainable-development.gov.uk/consult/construction/response/9.htm Uni Konstanz, Prof. Dr. E. Bucher (PV): www.unikonstanz.de/FuF/Physik/Bucher/Ishome.htm Uppsala University Sweden, www.asc.angstrom.uu.se Displays and Solar Cells, for Smart Windows (decrease energy consumption, increase comfort) Transparent PV: www.msk.ne.jp General Sustainable Building and Construction resources: building advisory service and information network, basin was set up in 1988 to provide information and advice on appropriate building technology and to create links with knowledge resources in the world for all those in need of relevant information: government officers, financiers, the builders and developers, architects, planners, producers of building materials, who need up-to-date information and advice on the manufacture, performance and availability of appropriate outputs and technology from around the world, and on the effective management of local resources. http://www.gtz.de/basin/ Building Services Research and Information Association. http://www.bsria.co.uk/ Canadian Sustainable Cities Initiative (SCI) is an innovative and unique trade development program designed to assist selected cities in developing countries to make progress towards their economic, social and environmental goals through partnerships with Canadian companies and organizations that offer technologies and services relevant to Sustainable Development. (related to CIB). http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/SSG/vi00007e.html
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CEVE, Experimental Center of Low Cost Housing. Their mission is to contribute, from our areas of habitat and work and from all sectors, the building of an integrated society strengthening the values of justice and solidarity so that the benfits of development may be enjoyed equitably by all its members. AVE (Asociacin de Vivienda Econmica) - Association of Economical Housing is a non-profit organization in Argentina that contributes to the integral and progressive development of low income population, helping families and Community Based Organisations to solve housing and unemployment problems by facilitating access to information, techniques and resources, CONICET - National Council of Scientific and Technical Research, Site in English and Spanish. http://www.ceve.org.ar/ingles.htm e3building is a network of building practitioners and researchers striving to promote future-oriented developments in the building industry, engaging in cooperative projects, and working together to forge plans for the future. http://www.e3building.net/en/index.php Eco-portal one of the internets most comprehensive environmental resource, linking and providing full text search capabilities for the entire contents of over 3,000 reviewed Internet sites related to environmental sustainability. The site tracks the latest environmental news stories, which are updated several times daily. http://www.environmentalsustainability.info/ European Data Bank Sustainable Development is designed to list institutions, associations, societies and experts throughout Europe involved theoretically and/or practically in the achievement of Sustainable Development on an international, national and regional level. http://www.sd-eudb.net/ BuildingGreen.com is publisher of Environmental Building News and authoritative Information on Environmentally Responsible Building Design & Construction. http://www.buildinggreen.com/index.cfm International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction (CIB) was established in 1953 as an Association whose objectives were to stimulate and facilitate international cooperation and information exchange between governmental research institutes in the building and construction sector, with an emphasis on those institutes engaged in technical fields of research. CIB has since developed into a world wide network of over 5000 experts from about 500 member organisations active in the research community, in industry or in education, who cooperate and exchange information in over 50 CIB Commissions covering all fields in building and construction related research and innovation. http://www.cibworld.nl/ International Federation for Housing and Planning (IFHP) is a world-wide network of professionals representing the broad field of housing and planning. The Federation organises a wide range of activities and creates opportunities for an international exchange of knowledge and experience in the professional field. http://www.ifhp.org/
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Appendix 3 Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction International Network of Engineers and Scientists for Global Responsibility is an association of individual engineers and scientists as well as 90 member organisations from five continents. The primary aim of the network is to encourage and facilitate international communication among engineers and scientists seeking to promote international peace and security, justice and sustainable development, and working for a responsible use of science and technology. The network was founded in November 1991 during the congress Challenges in Berlin. http://www.inesglobal.org/ ITUT GmbH and the German Chambers of Commerce and Industry present the database of German companies involved in environmental technologies and services. This database includes more than 1.000 company profiles. http://www.enviromeister.de/engl/index.html Sustainable Building Information System (SBIS) system is designed to provide users with non-commercial information about sustainable building around the world, and to point or link the user to more detailed sources of information elsewhere. http://www.sbis.info/ Skat Foundation and Skat Consulting are sister organisations with a common vision to contribute to poverty reduction and sustainable development through professional knowledge sharing and the provision of advisory services in the developing world. The areas of expertise are: water supply and environmental sanitation, architecture and settlement management, transport, environmental management, knowledge management. http://www.skat.ch/ Social Science Information Gateway (SOSIG) is a freely available Internet service which aims to provide a trusted source of selected, high quality Internet information for students, academics, researchers and practitioners in the social sciences, business and law. It is part of the UK Resource Discovery Network. http://www.sosig.ac.uk/ Sustainable Cities Development System, Interactive Campaign, EU. http://www.sustainable-cities.org/about.html Sustainable City is an international collaborative research endeavour to develop the world's first GIS (Geographical Information Systems) computer simulation programme for any town or city to see itself - and its surrounding environment - as a whole system. The software will be pre-packaged with core indicators common for all cities, including the set of 46 key indicators developed by the UN Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS) / World Bank Indicators Programme). It will also feature a larger set of approximately 1,500 indicators which users can select to meet the particular needs of their city. The indicators will include a broad variety of measurements ranging from population growth, water quality, air pollution, housing density, garbage output, energy consumption, energy waste, species diversity, to literacy rates, access to libraries, personal health and well-being, etc. The software will also allow users to create their own indicators. http://www.globalvision.org/city/index.html Sustainable Refurbishment in Europe SUREURO (also case studies). http://www.sureuro.com/
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Appendix 3 Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction Technologies for Sustainable Development (Austrian Program on Technologies for Sustainable Development) .For further information go to subprograms and projects. http://www.nachhaltigwirtschaften.at/english/index.html TRIALOG - A Journal about Planning and Building in the Third World, for architects, urban planners, sociologists, geographers, economists and development planners; for the exchange of professional experience in the field of urban and rural development in the Third World; for the presentation and discussion of recent research results, development concepts and policies for urban change; of free discussions, of work reports and of documentation of alternative approaches. http://www.tu-darmstadt.de/fb/arch/trialog/ Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment, Energy GmbH, Working Group on Eco-Efficiency and Sustainable Enterprise. http://www.oekoeffizienz.de/english/index.html Life Cycle Assessment LCA Building Science at the University of California Berkeley is dedicated to the energy efficiency and environmental quality of buildings. Its underlying premise is that energy-use patterns and environmental quality are related, and that this relationship contains great opportunities to improve the built environment. Building Science also has the objective of breaking down the compartmentalized decisionmaking that now characterizes building practice. Its research and teaching address the decisions made by architects, engineers, specifiers, facilities managers, and owners: http://arch.ced.berkeley.edu/resources/bldgsci/index.htm Comparative study of national schemes aiming to analyse the problems of LCA tools and the environmental aspects in harmonised standards; DG Enterprise European Commission, Price Waterhouse Coopers 2002: http://europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/construction/internal/essreq/environ/lcarep/lcafin rep.htm Comparisons between Environmental Technology Assessment (EnTA) and selected other environmental tools (e.g. LCA): http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/publications/integrative/enta/aeet/3.asp Defining Life Cycle Assessment: http://www.gdrc.org/uem/eia/lca-define.html Green Building Challenge (GBC) is an on-going international process of more than twenty countries (IFC International Framework Community) focused on the development and testing of a new system for assessing the environmental performance of buildings. They assigned the Canadian Architect Woytek Kujawski to develop the software Green Building Assessment Tool (GBTool): http://www.buildingsgroup.nrcan.gc.ca/projects/gbc_e.html International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI) The world buys green, an international survey of national green product procurement, made by International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives: www.iclei.org
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Appendix 3 Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction International Initiative for Sustainable Built Environment (iiSBE) is an international non-profit organization whose overall aim is to actively facilitate and promote the adoption of policies, methods and tools to accelerate the movement towards a global sustainable built environment. iiSBE has an international Board of Directors from almost every continent and has a small Secretariat located in Ottawa, Canada. Specific action includes the establishment of a website and R&D database accessible to researchers, policymakers and professionals around the world: http://iisbe.org Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) is an independent, non-profit professional society that provides a forum for individuals and institutions engaged in Study of environmental issues, Management and conservation of natural resources, Environmental education, and Environmental research and development: www.setac.org Stakeholder Forum for Our Common Future includes organisations representing all the major groups recognised by the UN including business, labour, parliamentarians, local government, NGOs, indigenous peoples, women, youth, farmers and scientists Stakeholder Organisation for Sustainable Development: www.stakeholderforum.org Support Measures and Initiatives for Enterprises (SMIE) project is financed by the European Commission's Enterprise Directorate-General in order to set up an integrated information resource on business support measures. It comprises a Support Measures database and a Good Practice database accessible via the Internet: http://europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/smie/good_practice/overview.cfm Policy areas
Business support services Co-operation with other SMEs Education for an entrepreneurial society Employment Environment Finance ICT Improve public administration Improve visibility of support services Innovation International Cooperation Management R&D Technology Training Totals
A 1
B 2
D 2
DK E 1 2
EL 1
F 4
FIN I 3 2
IRL L 1
NL 2 1
NO P 1
S 2
UK 3 1
1 1
2 1
2 1 1 1
2 1
3 1
1 1
1 1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1 4 1 1 2 2 3 1 5 4 17 2 6 5 2 1 1 11 1 1 2
2 1 1 1 6 5 5 4 1 2 1 11 2 1
1 1 8 6 1 14
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Appendix 3 Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction Links to more resources: Advanced building technologies is an US building professional's guide to more than 90 environmentally-appropriate technologies and practices. Architects, engineers and buildings managers can improve the energy and resource efficiency of commercial, industrial and multi-unit residential buildings through the use of the technologies and practices described in this web site. http://www.advancedbuildings.org/ AIVC, Air Infiltration and Ventilation Centre http://www.aivc.org/About_Aivc/about.html Archnet CRISP, A European Network on Construction and City related Sustainability Indicators, links many international resources and offers for downloads: http://crisp.cstb.fr/links.htm
Ecosustainable is an Australian site with lots of links projects and resources
http://www.ecosustainable.com.au/links.htm European Thematic Network on Practical Recommendations for Sustainable Building, Practical Recommendations for Sustainable Construction project (PRESCO): http://www.etn-presco.net/links/index.html Global Ecovillage Network (GEN) links and supports sustainable settlements. It also developed the checklist CAS (Communit Sustainability Assessment), which contains three parts: the Ecological Checklist, the Social Checklist and the Spiritual Checklist and allows a subjective assessment of communities (according to the initiators). http://gen.ecovillage.org/ GREENTIE is an international directory of suppliers whose technologies help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The site also provides information on funding and on leading international organizations and International Energy Agency (IEA) programmes whose research, development and demonstration (RD&D) and information activities centre on clean energy technologies. http://www.greentie.org IDEA, Interactive Database for Energy-efficient Architecture, University Siegen FB 7 - Dept. of Building Physics and Solar Energy, please check links. http://nesa1.uni-siegen.de/wwwextern/idea/main.htm Hybvent, very good overview about natural and hybrid ventilation (also *.pdf documents): http://hybvent.civil.auc.dk/puplications/research_papers.htm Sustainable Building Information System (SBIS), Search; Advanced search by technologies and specific web sites. http://www.sbis.info/database/dbsearch/websitesearch.jsp Share solar buildings, good link collection to sources for renewable energy and sustainable architecture: http://www.ateliervandenberg.com/share/sustainable/solar/solarbuilding.htm
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Solar Energy links. http://people.linux-gull.ch/rossen/solar/solarbookmarks.html Sustainable Architecture, Building and Culture, Directory of Green Building Professionals, Sustainable Development Professionals, Environmental Health Professionals and links to other sites. http://www.sustainableabc.com/ Sustainable Architecture, Building and Culture, USA, Directory of Green Building Professionals, Sustainable Development Professionals, Environmental Health Professionals: http://www.sustainableabc.com/ The Source for Renewable Energy online business directory. http://energy.sourceguides.com/index.shtml Renewable Resources: Agency of Renewable Resources (FNR). http://www.fnr.de/en/indexen.htm AGORES A Global Overview Of Renewable Energies. http://www.agores.org/ Austrian Strawbale Network, Oesterr. Strohballen-Netzwerk (asbn) Strohballenbau Links & List of Human Ressources: http://www.baubiologie.at/asbn/linkseu.html Biomatnet, Biological Materials for Non-Food Products (Renewable Bio-products). http://www.nf-2000.org/home.html. Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (IBAMA), site in Portuguese: http://www.ibama.gov.br/ European Strawbale Discussion Forum: http://amper.ped.muni.cz/mailman/listinfo/strawbale Natural Product Development, Independent Agro-Industrial Consultancy Group. http://www.natural-product-development.com/ Strawbale projects worldwide, Information and links, best of Web. http://www.bestofweb.at/sb_world.html World Resource Institute INFORMATION AND DATA SOURCE. http://www.wri.org/
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Appendix 3 Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction Renewable Energy: Asean Center for Energy: http://www.aseanenergy.org/index.htm CADDET Renewable Energy website is a unique source of global information on proven, commercial applications covering the full range of renewable energy technologies. http://www.caddet-re.org/ Erneuerbare Energien Kommunikations- und Informationsservice GmbH is an independent service enterprise. They work in the fields "renewable energy", "efficient use of energy" and "energy efficient construction and reconstruction" and is subdivided in the business areas fairs, congresses, invest and e-media: http://www.energie-server.de/ EUFORES - the European Forum for Renewable Energy Sources - is an independent, non-profit making organisation that aims to promote the use of renewable energy: http://www.eufores.org/ EUREC, European Renewable Energy Centres Agency was established as a European Economic Interest Grouping in 1991 to strengthen and rationalise the European RD&D efforts in renewable energy technologies: http://www.eurec.be/ European Association for Renewable Energies EUROSOLAR develops political and economic plans of action and concepts, including legal frameworks, for the introduction of Renewable Energies. All political, scientific, technological, and industrial expertise and grass-roots commitments are important parts of EUROSOLARs platform and produce concrete guidelines, proposals and mandates for action. EUROSOLAR promotes a broad-based socio-cultural movement in support of Renewable Energies, the mobilizing of new political and industrial forces as well as environmentally sustainable architecture. Founded the WCRE in 2001. http://www.eurosolar.org/new/en/home.html Independent World Council for Renewable Energy (WCRE) was founded during the International Impulse Conference for the Creation of an International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), from 8 -10 June 2001 in Berlin. The WCRE is a global voice for Renewable Energies, communicating the urgent and global need for Renewable Energies and their availability for all energy demands; analysing the international barriers to Renewable Energies and preparing proposals to overcome these; documenting experience of initiatives for Renewable Energies and communicating best-practice examples world-wide; evaluating the advanced technological opportunities and applications of Renewable Energy Technologies; supporting the creation of an International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA); organizing the "World Renewable Energy Forum"; stimulating international organizations and governments for the creation of Renewable Energy Policies and Strategies; informing globally on Renewable Energy activities and projects. http://www.world-council-for-renewable-energy.org/ International Energy Agency Solar Heating and Cooling Programme, Information about each of the IEA Solar Heating and Cooling Programme Tasks can be found under Research Tasks section: http://www.iea-shc.org/
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Appendix 3 Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction Lior-International, Official European Commission Information Centre & Knowledge Gateway for Renewable Energy Sources, coordinator of the agores web site of the European Commission: http://www.lior-int.com/ Netherlands Agency for Energy and the Environment (NOVEM): http://www.novem.nl/ Renewable Energy Policy Project (REPP): http://www.crest.org/ Renewable Energy Strategies and Technology Applications for Regenerating Towns, EU: http://www.resetters.org/ SEDA is an agency created by the New South Wales Government to reduce the level of greenhouse gas emissions in this state. SEDA accomplishes this by promoting investment in the commercialisation and use of sustainable energy technologies: http://www.seda.nsw.gov.au/ Solar Buildings Library, The Library for Solar Architecture is a central repository for information about renewable energy technologies for buildings and other aspects relating to solar or bioclimatic architecture. Information may be contributed by any person or organisation active in the area of renewable energy. Please note that all articles will be subject to an electronic review process. You have also the possibility to integrate images or other attachments and links in your report: http://wire0.ises.org/wire/doclibs/SolArchLib.nsf!OpenDatabase Solarserver, Forum for Solar Energy. http://www.solarserver.de/index-e.html Soltherm Europe Initiative EU Initiatives to stimulate the development of markets for RES. http://www.soltherm.org/ U.S. Department of Energy's laboratory for renewable energy and energy efficiency R&D: http://www.nrel.gov/ World-wide Information System for Renewable Energy (WIRE): http://wire0.ises.org
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Appendix 4 International Case Studies 4.4 International Case Studies
In this chapter case studies for sustainable building construction projects are presented described. Due to the lack of reports about case study reports of non residential sustainable buildings in development countries, also case studies in developed countries are presented in the framework of this paper. These examples shall show that sustainable buildings are realisable in all sectors of building construction. The international transfer of know how to construct sustainable buildings can enhance the desirably wide spread of sustainable building constructions and the reduction of related Green House Gas emissions significantly. Only ten case studies in different countries are presented which are only exemplary descriptions of good practices for almost sustainable building constructions. They are not representative, due to the fact that ten buildings in ten countries can not cover the whole range of possibilities in the numerous specific regions and countries worldwide. The examples according to the following list are meant for the inspiration of decision makers and professionals to improve the described good practices and develop appropriate buildings and constructions by integrated planning and according to specific basic conditions such as local climate, available materials, culture and infrastructure. Good practices can always be improved to better practices because the basic conditions are dynamic and always changing. Furthermore nobody is perfect. 1. Africa Ethiopia Hot and Dry Climate Promotion of Cost-Efficient Housing in Ethiopia (Urban housing, local and appropriate materials, labour intensive, low cost) Tanzania Hot and Humid Climate Chumbe Island Coral Park project Tanzania (Tourist Resort, local and renewable materials, passive cooling, renewable energies) America Nicaragua Hot and Humid Climate Housing Development Villa Hermosa in Diriamba, Nicaragua (Rural housing, ecological, local and appropriate materials, small and micro enterprises Peru Mountainous Climate Resettlement in Peru (Rural housing, ecological, local and appropriate materials, small and micro enterprises) Asia China Transition Zone Changzhou demonstration project (Housing estate, common materials, energy saving measures)
2. -
3. -
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Appendix 4 International Case Studies Malaysia - Hot and Humid Climate MECM Low Energy Office (LEO) building in Putrajaya Malaysia (Office building, conventional building materials, active cooling, non renewable energies) Philippines Hot and Humid Climate Buenavista Homes Jugan Consolacion Cebu City, Philippines (Urban housing, ecological, local and appropriate materials, labour intensive, low cost) Thailand Warm and Humid Climate Bio-Solar House in Thailand (Residential, energy efficiency, active cooling, renewable energies, decentralised water Australia Australia Moderate Climate 60L Green Building, Carlton, Victoria (Commercial building, recycling, renewable materials, renewable energy, service water) Europe Germany Moderate Climate Production Hall for train cars Huebner (Production hall, renewable materials, passive cooling, natural ventilation and lighting)
4. -
5. -
Please note that there have been already numerous residential and non residential buildings realised and monitored which have extreme low energy consumption (so called passive houses) or even have a neutral or positive primarily energy balance by combining passive solar design with technologies for renewable energy production. Cutting edge case studies of non residential buildings (e.g. the zero emission fabrication building Solvis) are available on the World Wide Web: http://www.solarbau.de/english_version/doku/index_0.htm. Around 250 housing units according to the Passive House standard have been realised in five European countries, with in-process scientific back-up and with evaluation of building operation through systematic measurement programmes. Detailed information and reports of the monitored case studies are available at http://www.cepheus.de/eng/index.html. The European Solar Building Exhibition is an international building exhibition for solar and low-energy housing, first project of this kind, which will present the results to the public until the end of 2005 and will serve as a model for future developments. http://www.eu-exhibition.org/en.htm For further information and numerous case studies worldwide please refer to chapter Case Studies SBC at Appendix 3 Internet Resources Sustainable Building and Construction.
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Case Study Ethiopia Hot and Dry Climate Urban housing, local and appropriate materials, labour intensive, low cost Promotion of Cost-Efficient Housing in Ethiopia (From Schwitter, D., SKAT/RAS CASE STUDY SERIES DOSSIER: SOCIAL HOUSING SH6, 2001, http://www.gtz.de/basin/publications/skat/sh6-01.pdf) Ethiopia has a population of 60 million inhabitants. Although only 15% of the population lives in urban areas, Ethiopia is one of the fastest urbanising countries of sub-Saharan Africa. 50% of the population will live in urban areas in twenty years. The rural-urban migration has accelerated to 4.5%, in some areas it is even higher. 85% of the urban population lives in inhuman, unhygienic and confined conditions. Construction generally is of low quality, having its reasons in a lack of skilled man power, high building material wastages, inefficient site organisation, missing quality controls and limited knowledge of adequate technologies. Capacity building is of urgent importance to develop the potential of the construction sector as motor for economic development.
Layout plan Low-cost Housing Project Dire Dawa
The Low-cost Housing Project is implemented by the Ethiopian Ministry of Works and Urban Development with the support of GTZ (German Agency for Technical Cooperation). The first phase of the Project is scheduled for 1999 to 2002. A title deed, a home or house of ones own is the key to become a human being. The objective of the Project is to enable lowincome sections of the urban population to acquire homes of their own that enable them to improve their living conditions. The beneficiaries are urban households of the lower 50% of the income curve with a saving potential for an initial deposit of at least 20% of the construction costs.
Special attention is given to the selection of female headed households. Mixed settlement schemes to avoid social segregation and criminality are promoted in order to facilitate economic development through purchasing power. Traditionally, this concept has prevented Ethiopia from getting high urban crime rates as for example in neighbouring countries. Safeguarding of the basic need for decent housing is as well a precondition for health as for participation in public and social life.
Digging foundations in Nazareth In a 1st phase the Nazareth House of 36 m was constructed. In a 2nd phase, a new housing design The Growing House has been developed. It consists of a modular system of two basic units, starting with 30 m to be extended up to 120 m as per need and budget of the user. The growing house considers densification (vertical construction) and economises on the expenditures for basic infrastructure, a key problem for municipalities with low budgets. The m2 rates of the units vary between US$ 40.-
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Case Study Ethiopia Hot and Dry Climate Urban housing, local and appropriate materials, labour intensive, low cost and US$ 80.- Designs are done according to the Ethiopian Building Code to guarantee durability, also for the following generation. The concept allows the beneficiary to extend the house according to financial capacity and socio-economic requirements. The project covers totally 2.460 houses in 6 cities.
New settlement area Nazareth
Earthquake resistant construction technologies are used, as Ethiopia has earthquake zones. Hollow blocks are the main building material, they are easy to produce and hardly need any maintenance thereafter (ready made). Moreover, a prefabricated slab system, prefabricated lintels and window sills are used as well as prefabricated moulded hollow blocks for beams, allowing woodless construction. This is environmentally friendly, as Ethiopia has reduced its forest reserves to 2% of the area of the country.
Evolution Phase 3, Floor Plans, Elevations and Section of housing In order to reach sustainability, in Dire Dawa cooperation with the local financial system is essential. The Construction and Business Bank of Ethiopia is the Partner of the Low-cost Housing Program. Through facilitation of the Project, the Bank gives loans to the beneficiaries at market interest rates. The credits have a duration period of maximum 15 years. The individual land title certificates and the housing units serve as collateral for the Bank. The beneficiaries enter into individual contracts with the Bank and thus get linked to the formal banking system. Individual land title certificates make them become less vulnerable human beings. Internal view of the settlement area in Nazareth
Training-on-the-job for roofing New settlement area Nazareth
Training-on-the-job for masons
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Case Study Tanzania Hot and Humid Climate Tourist Resort, local and renewable materials, passive cooling, renewable energy Chumbe Island Coral Park project Tanzania (From Huelsemann, J., Krusche,P; Tu- Braunscheig, Germany, http://www.tu-bs.de/)
View on the dome of the visitors centre
The Chumbe Island Coral Park project demonstrates sustainable use of a tropical island for the benefit of Zanzibar society. This is achieved by protecting its coral reef, and a coral rag forest by means of park management and environmental education. The project is supported by tourism and combines local traditions with modern environmental architecture. Chumbe Island was declared a protected area in 1994. The first Marine Park in Tanzania is managed by the Chumbe Island Coral Park Ltd. All infrastructural development has been carried out in a sustainable and environmentally-friendly way, using technologies which have close to zero impact on the environment. The buildings were especially designed and built for this ecologically most sensitive island.
The visitors centre under construction and drawings of the construction principle View of the vertex and a skylight of the roof dome
Aerial view of Chumbe Island and site plan of the coral park project
The innovative construction and environmental technology is based on traditional building techniques and local materials. It provides valuable experiences in sustainable housing technologies for remote areas and supports small scale industries in the local building sector. During the designing and building process many local tradesmen and small scale building enterprises were consulted and incorporated. They contributed with their knowledge of traditional building techniques and skills to define a new architectural language and construction, mainly based on the nature of the local material. The Guest Bungalows are small units carefully placed into natural clearings in the coral rag forest. Without disturbing the surrounding nature they offer protection from sun, rain and insects, and use the wind for ventilation. The bungalows provide the guests with water and electricity. The construction, the orientation and the interior of the bungalows give the visitors the sense of being alone on an island in harmony with nature. The shape of the roof enables perfect ventilation by sea breezes. The thatched roof structures follow the principle of latticed shell constructions and are made traditionally from local poles and ropes. Since 1998 the
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Case Study Tanzania Hot and Humid Climate Tourist Resort, local and renewable materials, passive cooling, renewable energy
project has proved its benefit to the Islamic society of Zanzibar by protecting the island, its surrounding reef, and educational activities.
The roof protects the guests from sun and rain. Only the evening sun can enter the building. The solid base of the bungalow protects from insects and water. The roof acts as a wind catcher. During the south-west monsoon it is open to the sea with a closing ventilation louvre in the case of storms. During the northeast monsoon the roof is high enough to catch the breeze which blows above the tree line. The house is a composition of the solid base and tower for the technical components (here the grey part), and the light-weight roof. The position of the bungalow was determined by the sea view and the natural surrounding features.
Each building functions as a self-sufficient unit by generating its own water and energy with rainwater catchment and filtration, solar water heating and photovoltaic electricity. Sewage is avoided by using composting systems, and plant beds utilise the grey water. Small decentralised solar power systems provide electricity for lighting in the bungalows. The Visitors Centre has its own solar generator lighting. A DC/AC converter enables TV sets and Video players to be used for educational purposes. Chumbe Island has no source of fresh water other than rain. Therefore rainwater catchment provides the most feasible water supply for drinking and washing. From the roof of each building the rain water is funnelled via a sandstone filter into a cistern which forms the base of each Guest Bungalow and parts of the Visitors Centre. The large size of the cistern enables water storage during an average rainy season sufficient to provide the bungalow with water even during the following dry season. For showering, the water is heated by a solar water heater attached to the rear of the technique tower. The slightly-soiled greywater from the bathrooms is directed into a natural treatment facility which is screened from insects. Specially adapted plants do absorb the surplus water continuously. Soil bacteria purify the water completely. Human wastes are not flushed away with water, but fall directly into a special container which is part of the composting system which is based on the Swedish Clivus Multrum Compost Toilet System. A sophisticated ventilation system enables aerobic decomposition to take place inside the container. During the composting process the faeces are reduced to one sixth of its original volume and the urine is partly evaporated. During the composting process the organic wastes are transferred into fertilising soil and a decomposition of germs take place. The end product is a pleasant fertilizer which does not emit off odours.
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Case Study Nicaragua Hot and Humid Climate Rural housing, ecological, local and appropriate materials, micro enterprises Housing Development Villa Hermosa in Diriamba, Nicaragua (From Schwitter, D., SKAT/RAS CASE STUDY SERIES DOSSIER: SOCIAL HOUSING SH1, 1998, http://www.gtz.de/basin/publications/skat/sh1-98.pdf) Diriamba is a small town 40kms south of Nicaraguas capital Managua. Its great advantage is the climate. Located on a hill in the midst of coffee farms, it is much cooler than stuffy hot Managua and, therefore an attractive place to live, in spite of its rather rural setting.
The seed house design allows attractive additions and variations
Grupo Sofonias, an international NGO working out of neighbouring Jinotepe, has 20-year history of assisting the local population in construction programs; they had always been directed at the poorer segments of society and essentially were selfhelp projects.
In recent years, the economic situation of the middle class in Nicaragua has worsened so much that many live in a poor peoples condition and find it more and more difficult to maintain a middle class status. Especially in the housing market, young professionals do not have any chance. They neither qualify for subsidies or commercial mortgages, nor do thy earn enough to rent a house. Many live in crowded conditions in their parents home and often, he couple has to share the bedroom with other family members. Several interest groups approached Grupo Sofonias to start a project for middle class in danger of extinction. The German NGO Viva Diriamba, with co financing from the European Union, approved a first stage and the Swiss development Cooperation a second one, to build a total of 34 houses. The commercial brand of the Grupo Sofonias, EcoTec S.A. (its profits are used for social programs) has purchased land and contracted a team of consultants of the EcoSouth Network to plan the project.
Evolution Phase 3, Ground Plan, Elevations and Section, Architects: CIDEM, Sta. Clara, Cuba
The decisive parameters for the planning were Economy and Ecology, while creating an attractive neighbourhood with an architectural touch of its own. Based upon detailed information on Nicaraguan lifestyles, habits and dreams, and, of course, with all available technical information, the Cuban team elaborated a simple but innovative proposal. The precarious situation
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Case Study Nicaragua Hot and Humid Climate Rural housing, ecological, local and appropriate materials, micro enterprises of water supplies, the lack of sewage systems and the need to install an electricity grid has led to a long but fruitful interchange between the actors.
Seed house evolution
The houses are designed on the seed house principle, which means that by starting form an identical centre, rooms can be placed in different directions and vary in size. Using all possibilities of locally available materials in their pure form creates a comfortable environment and interesting architectural expressions. The rooms are high and, through innovative roof constructions, economies have been achieved while, at the same time, the thermal comfort and the visual attractiveness of the house have been improved. Micro-concrete roofing tiles, local timber, the partial use of puzzolanic cement (which unfortunately was not available at the start of the project) and windows made of wood instead of the aluminium widows normally used in Nicaragua, are combined for economy and ecology.
Grupo Sofonias conceived a system with sliding interest rates, benefiting the house owners who choose a faster payment schedule with a higher initial down payment. The current bank rate for preferential mortgages is 18% with repayment in 20 years. The scheme is so attractive that most people sign for a 7 years mortgage with 33% down payment, which brings them to a favourable 9,5% interest rate.
Every family adds its finishing touch Houses under construction
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Case Study Peru Mountainous Climate Rural housing, ecological, local and appropriate materials, micro enterprises Resettlement in Peru (From Schwitter, D., SKAT/RAS CASE STUDY SERIES DOSSIER: SOCIAL HOUSING SH4, 2000, http://www.skatfoundation.org/resources/downloads/pdf/as/sh4-00.pdf) After a dozen years of chaotic military rule, Peru returned to democratic leadership in 1980. In recent years, bold reform programs and significant progress in curtailing guerrilla activity have resulted in solid economic growth until 1997.
Group of houses at Chalhuanca Abancay Apurmac
After the end of the terrorism period, arose the necessity for the total reconstruction of the areas affected by the terrorism violence. One of these areas is concerned to house building for people returning to their old villages, with the support of private institutions and government organizations. By 1994 there was a deficit of about 50.000 houses in rural areas. In order to satisfy this demand, the Peruvian government created the Program for Reconstruction and Development of Areas under Emergency (PAR), with the cooperation of different social organizations and NGOs. They planned the development of different studies and constructive projects within a dynamical and progressive urbanization process of rural villages. This process represented the change of traditional building patterns of dispersed villages into new urban building patterns, that is, new villages with definite streets, marketplaces, squares, etc, but with the incorporation of the socio cultural lifestyle of the beneficiary population. House building projects with international development support and financial resources of the Peruvian Government, represented by the Ministry of Women Promotion and Human Development PROMUDEH PAR, have been developed. CESEDEM participates in this process, bringing constructive advising and ecomaterial supply. CESEDEM is a private company founded in 1995 dedicated to the investigation and production of appropriate materials, local capacity building by offering technical as well as corporative advisory service.
House prototype at a rural community Pantac Ayacucho
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Case Study Peru Mountainous Climate Rural housing, ecological, local and appropriate materials, micro enterprises Projects: REHAVIR (Program for rural housing rehabilitation and refugee families): between 1996 and 1998 the governments of Peru and Switzerland convened to rebuild 1.820 new rural houses and 18 communal buildings in 55 new villages. This project benefited 10.745 people. PAR/PNUD/PER/96/018 (UNDP, United Nations Program for Development). During 19972000 and with financial resources of Peruvian Government, this program allowed the building of more than 10.600 houses in 145 new rural villages for 27.600 beneficiaries, also the building of 56 school buildings and communal buildings, all of them built with ecological building materials.
Houses at one of the communities in Abancay
Other projects were supported by different NGOs as TADEPA, VIDAPROM and INTERNATIONAL SOLIDARITY, under which 600 houses were built, with financial aid of the European Union and the Spanish NGO INTERMON. Design: Group of persons roofing a house (top), The houses area varies from 65 up to 86 m, with a Building process of houses at covered area of between 90 and 112 Pantac Huanta (bottom) m2. It has the following distribution: 1 room for multiple uses, 2 bedrooms, 1 shed, 1 annexed kitchen. Foundations are made of stone and mud. The conglomeration of houses facilitates the access to basic services, as drinking water, electric supply, latrines and sewerage systems, and also to education and health services. Walls are made of adobe bricks of 0.37 cm x 0.37 x 0.125 mm. They have reinforced structures, in type of counter forts. Roofs are made of Micro Concrete Roofing (Tejacreto). Between 1996 and 2000, 13,085 houses in 393 villages were built. 9,200 houses and schools have been covered with Tejacreto tiles. Affordable shelter for more than 70,930 poor people was provided at a unit cost of averagely US $ 2.100. 14 workshops were installed at site to cover the demand of building materials. These workshops were in charge of peasants, who were organized in small and microenterprises. 131
Case Study China Transition Zone Housing estate, common materials, energy saving measures Changzhou demonstration project (Available on the World Wide Web: http://www.eebuildingschina.org/demo.htm) China is the worlds second largest emitter of greenhouse gases. Residential and commercial buildings account for only 20% of the Chinas energy consumption. Most of Chinas present building thermal performance is inadequate and energy consumption per heating unit output is three to four times that of developed countries. Hence the amount of energy consumed for building heating in China is tremendous. The actual trends for using individual air-conditioners and heat pumps become a real concern for the impact on the environment. The country's electricity consumption is rising 16% annually, and current supply does not keep up with the demand. It is now recognised that if the energy efficiency of buildings is not improved to meet the growing demand of energy in China there will be an increase in the level of greenhouse emissions which are already dangerously high in China. For this reason, China has already undertaken considerable initiatives in terms of management, energy efficiency regulation and the development of energy saving technologies. In order to promote building energy conservation, the Ministry of Construction (MOC) of China and other state departments concerned have formulated a number of standards, regulations and policy measures and arranged special research and development programs.
In 1996, the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) mandated DESSAU-SOPRIN as the Canadian Executing Agency (CaEA), to carry out the Energy Efficiency in Buildings (EEB) Project in China. Selected from Chinas Agenda 21 Priority Program and funded by CIDA, this project aims to achieve energy savings in residential and commercial buildings. The expected result is a reduction in energy consumption through energy efficient measures, and consequently an improvement in the environment by reducing emissions of air-borne pollutants. Five demonstration projects are realised: Beijing Demonstration Project is a group of six townhouses in the Future Holiday Garden residential development in the south of Beijing. Some of the innovative energy efficiency technologies used in this project are exterior insulation and a vapour barrier in the envelope design, double glazed windows and a heat recovery ventilator. Tianjin Demonstration Project is a Canadian designed single family home which was built using an innovative construction technology, imported from Canada. Harbin 1 Demonstration Project is a retrofit of an existing residential apartment building belonging to the Harbin Coal Mine Design Institute in the north east of China. Extensive monitoring was conducted to determine the energy consumption of the building before and after the retrofit. Harbin 2 Demonstration Project is a new construction was based on the lessons learned from Harbin 1 in terms of heating system configuration and exterior insulation. Changzhou Demonstration Project is unique as it is situated in Chinas heating and cooling zone, or transition zone. A few years ago, most residential buildings were not heated neither cooled in the region of Changzhou. However, in most of the recent buildings heating as well as cooling are considered a living requirement. In the past, in order to restrict the energy supply for space heating, the Chinese government created three climatic zones in China to regulate the supply of heating energy: the central heating zone covers areas with more than 90 days below 5C the transition zone covers areas having 60 to 89 days below 5C or areas that have more than 75 days per year during which the average daily temperature is less than 8C the non-heating zone covers all other cases
Central heating zone Transition zone Non-heating zone
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Case Study China Transition Zone Housing estate, common materials, energy saving measures Despite Changzhou location in a warmer climate than Harbin or Beijing, the unit cost for energy is certainly more expensive. The unitary air-conditioner uses electricity and if this same equipment is used as a heat pump it will also require electricity for heating. The higher cost of electricity tends to improve the cost effectiveness of the Energy Efficiency measures proposed for the various architectural systems.
The Changzhou Demonstration Building Project is a residential building that will be built in the Yi Kang Garden residential development in Changzhou, China. The Yi Kang Garden is a 1400 unit development currently under construction. The development is to be completed in three phases. With approximately one third of the apartments built, the first phase was completed in June 2000. The Demonstration Project, along with another third of the apartments, is included in the second phase and is currently under construction. Through a collaborative effort between Changzhou Real Estate Development and Housing Industrialisation Office (the ChEA), the Yi Kang Garden was chosen as the site of this Demonstration Project.
The final design of the demonstration building is very similar to the initial design of the reference building. Several energy efficient building components chosen from a parametrical analysis have been added to the design in order to optimise the energy consumption of the building. The demonstration building is a seven-story apartment building with architecture similar to that of the buildings of the Yi Kang Garden residential development. It is slightly smaller than the typical building of the Yi Kang model (7 floors instead of 10 or 11). The demonstration building includes 10 regular apartments and 2 penthouses. It is one of the only buildings in the region to incorporate insulation and a vapour barrier in its wall design. Among the other energy efficient features are double glazed windows, and a geothermal heat pump for heating and cooling which uses local groundwater. The EE components for the architectural systems are:
Double pane windows with better seal Low weight concrete with insulation Roof insulation First floor insulation over the garage.
Because of the improvements of the architectural systems, the annual energy cost of the demonstration building is 44 % less than that of the reference building. With all the added energy efficient components on the architectural systems, an evaluation of different mechanical systems was completed. The annual energy cost for the demonstration building with more efficient heat pumps is 21 % less than those using a less efficient heat pump. The analysis of the Changzhou demonstration project has tried out and proven the usefulness of energy efficient technology in both reducing energy consumption, and total costs of this type of technology. Building to improve energy efficiency is more than just a question of complying with the law, the project has proven that there is a real cost savings associated with a better building.
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Case Study Malaysia - Hot and Humid Climate Office building, conventional building materials, active cooling, fossil fuels MECM Low Energy Office (LEO) building in Putrajaya Malaysia (Available on the World Wide Web: http://www.ktkm.gov.my/mecm-leo/) In the beginning of 2004, the Ministry of Energy, Communications & Multimedia MECM will move to a new building with a floor area of 16.000 m in the new Federal Government Administrative Capital, Putrajaya, situated between Kuala Lumpur and the new Kuala Lumpur International Airport. The Government of Malaysia wants their new Ministry of Energy building to be a showcase building for energy efficiency and low environmental impact. Therefore a design support from the Danish Agency for Development Assistance DANIDA (formerly known as DANCED) program was requested and granted. The building shall demonstrate integration of the best energy efficiency measures, optimised towards achieving the overall best cost effective solution.
Perspective View from South East Floor Plan with description of the natural and artificial lighted areas.
Since January 2001 the overall design of the building and its energy systems for minimum energy consumption was optimised by Danish experts in cooperation with Malaysian architects and engineers. A computerized design tool was introduced as a key instrument in the optimization of the building design and the design of the energy systems. In August 2002 the detailed design of the building has been finalised, and Putra Perdana Construction Sdn Bhd has started construction on the post and beam structure out of reinforced concrete. An ambitious goal was set for the energy efficiency of the air conditioned and active cooled building: Energy savings of more than 50% compared to traditional new office buildings in Malaysia should be achieved at an extra construction cost of less than 10%, giving a payback period of the extra investment of less than 10 years, with an electricity price presently at 29 cent per kWh. The cooling energy for the air conditioning system is provided by chilled water which is produced in gas district cooling plant. No renewable energies are used for the conditioning of the building. The cost target of maximum 10% extra costs for the energy efficiency measures have been confirmed through the recent Design and Built tender. The computer modelling has predicted more than 50% energy savings. A subsequent energy monitoring follow up program is planned. The energy monitoring during use will add vital credibility to the predictions, that major energy savings and environmental benefits can be achieved in the building sector of Malaysia. The new MECM LEO building demonstrates the feasibility of the energy efficiency measures according to the new Malaysian Standard
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Case Study Malaysia - Hot and Humid Climate Office building, conventional building materials, active cooling, fossil fuels MS 1525:2001 "Code of Practice on Energy Efficiency and use of Renewable Energy for Non-residential Buildings". Following this code, the LEO building must have an energy consumption less than 135 kWh/m2year. The predictions are, that the LEO building will have an energy index close to 100 kWh/m year . This is a very good performance compared to typical new office buildings in Malaysia and the ASEAN region, having an Energy Index of 200 300 kWh/m2year.
Gas district cooling plant and connection of chilled water pipe North elevation during installation of the facade
The energy efficiency measures that are expected to contribute to achieving the goal of an energy index of 100kWh/m per year are:
Creation of a green environment around and on top of the building Optimisation of building orientation, with preference to south and north facing windows, where solar heat is less than for other orientations. Energy efficient space planning Well insulated building faade (20cm aerated concrete) and building roof (concrete with insulation, thickness=10 cm) Protection of windows from direct sunshine and protection of the roof by second canopy roof, which prevents direct solar radiation onto the roof. Energy efficient cooling system, where the air volume for each building zone is controlled individually according to demand Maximise use of diffuse daylight and use of high efficiency lighting, controlled according to daylight availability and occupancy. Daylight design is achieved by a combination of exterior shading and a glazing, which allows 65% of the light through, and allows only 51% of the heat trough. The atrium allows daylight access to deeper parts of the building, thereby improving energy savings and user comfort. Energy Efficient office equipment (less electricity use and less cooling demand) Implementation of an Energy Management System, where the performances of the climatic systems are continuously optimised to meet optimal comfort criteria at least energy costs. Intake of outside air is controlled according to CO2 level of the indoor air, and thereby controlled according to the occupancy level. The more people in the building, the more fresh air intake required. A daylight responsive control system on lighting system is combined with a motion detector, which automatically shuts off lighting and reduce cooling once an office is unoccupied. The reduction of the internal heat gains from lighting and office equipment is of major importance. The recommended indoor temperature range from 23C to 26C and the recommended relative humidity is 60% - 70%. It is noted, that the increase of the room temperature by one degree only reduces energy consumption by 10%. Therefore it is also very costly to have too low room temperatures in the 20 22C region.
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Case Study Philippines Hot and Humid Climate Urban housing, ecological, local and appropriate materials, labour intensive Buenavista Homes Jugan Consolacion Cebu City, Philippines (From Schwitter, D., SKAT/RAS CASE STUDY SERIES DOSSIER: SOCIAL HOUSING SH2, 1998, http://www.gtz.de/basin/publications/skat/sh2-98.pdf) Metro Cebu is the second largest metropolitan area of the Philippines. It is located around 500 km south of Manila. Metro Cebu has a population of approximately 1.5 Mio. It has a very serious housing problem. In addition to population growth a large number of people continue to migrate to Cebu.
Economical, ecological and attractive units with individually created front gardens
Buenavista Homes is located in Jugan, Concolacion, and 12km from the centre of Metro Cebu. The project consists of 417 houses and lot packages in a 5-hectar area. Each regular package has a lot area of 35m and a floor area of 23m. The housing unit also has a provision which allows the buyer to add a second floor with a maximum area of 23m.
A unit is sold to the open market at a price of US$ 4.000. Buyers may however apply for a loan from a government housing finance institution, in which case the monthly rate is US$ 40 for a period of 25 years. The package is affordable to the upper level of the low-income sector of the Philippines. The minimum wage per month in the Philippines is US$ 90, and the average household income is US$ 130 per month. The project developer is Legacy Homes Inc., a subsidiary of San Miguel Properties Phils., Inc. which is one of the Philippines largest groups that also produces San Miguel Beer. Buenavista Homes is a social housing project. In the Philippines, developers are required by law to sell an equivalent of at least 20% of the total subdivision area or total subdivision project cost at a price which is affordable to the low-income sector. Buenavista Homes has become a commercial success. All the units were sold even before their completion despite the economic crisis plaguing Asia.
Evolution Phase 3, Ground Plan, Elevations and Section, Architects: CIDEM, Sta. Clara, Cuba
In addition to its low price, the project uses appropriate technology, in particular compressed earth blocks and micro-concrete roof tiles. These materials are not only low-cost but they dispose also of the following advantages. The materials are attractive and do not look low-cost at all.
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Case Study Philippines Hot and Humid Climate Urban housing, ecological, local and appropriate materials, labour intensive The materials are environmental friendly because both technologies use a relatively low amount of cement and other energy intensive products. The blocks are made of ordinary soil rather than sand and gravel, which have been depleted already in many areas (Cebu; for instance).
Cosy interior ambience Comfortable modern kitchen
House construction using compressed earth blocks (CEB) and micro concrete roofing (MCR)
Terrace-house development, cost-efficient but not looking low-cost at all
The Projects are labour intensive, it is estimated that at least 50-60% of the total project cost went to labour (15-20% is estimated when conventional materials are used). The houses were constructed by Eco-Builders Inc., the business arm of Pagtambayayong Foundation. Eco-Builders is a business corporation engaged in house construction site development. Its revenue supports activities of Pagtambayayong Foundation, one of the bigger Philippine NGOs.
Production of MCR Raw Material for compressed earth blocks Combination of MCR and CEB during the construction phase of the housing units
Buenavista Homes show that the use of appropriate technology is commercially viable. Many other commercial developers have already shown their interest in using the same approach for their own projects.
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Case Study Thailand Warm and Humid Climate Residential, common materials, active cooling, renewable energies, service water Bio-Solar House in Thailand (From Jan Krikke, available at the World Wide Web: http://www.architectureweek.com/2003/0514/environment_1-1.html) A research team from Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok has built the country's first "bio-solar" house. Solar energy powers the air-conditioning, lights, and household appliances. The house has a heavy, slanting roof with overhanging eaves, sand-colored walls, a tastefully landscaped garden, and an attached carport. Buried in the garden are a photovoltaic system, biogas unit, air conditioner, condensation collection unit, water recycling equipment, filtering units, and storage tanks.
Rain, dew, and condensation from the cooling system produce enough water for a family of four. Recycled water irrigates the garden, and surplus electricity is sold to the power company or used to drive an electric car 30 miles (50 kilometres) a day.
Side view of the bio-solar house Photo: Jan Krikke Plan view of bio-solar house with oval swimming pool Image: Chulalongkorn University Schematic illustration of the PV power generation and storage system Image: Chulalongkorn University
The designer and occupant of this self-reliant bio-solar house is Soontorn Boonyatikarm, professor of architecture at Chulalongkorn University. He long had an interest in ecologically responsible architecture. But personal circumstance provided additional impetus for the project. His wife suffers from pulmonary problems, and needs isolation from the notoriously polluted Bangkok air. The answer was a virtually airtight house in which the air is continuously filtered. Building a virtually airtight house required a high degree of workmanship, something not readily available in Thailand.
Comparison of the cooling loads of a conventional house (left) with those of the bio-solar house. Image: Chulalongkorn University
Developing the bio-solar house was a multidisciplinary project and involved a combination of material science, civil engineering, and biotechnology. To minimize energy requirements a basic concern in a solar-powered house - the research team spent long hours testing materials for walls, floors, roof, and glass for their capacity to reduce the cooling load. The roof, which absorbs most of the heat, is made of metal. Between the roof and the one-foot- (30-centimeter-) thick insulation is an air duct, allowing the wind to ventilate the heat absorbed by the roof. The garden has several artificial mounts designed to direct the wind toward the house. While the house has windows on all four sides, eaves and recessed windows prevent the sun from shining directly into most of the interior.
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Case Study Thailand Warm and Humid Climate Residential, common materials, active cooling, renewable energies, service water At no time of the day does the sun enter the main house directly. To further reduce heat gain, all windows and doors are equipped with triple-paned insulation glass. Soontorn claims the house is 14 times more energy-efficient than a conventional house. Moreover, he says, the house embodies a "philosophy of modern living," based on economy, technology, environmental preservation, and social values without sacrificing comfort. This comfort extends to air quality, cooling, lighting, and acoustics despite the reduced load on the environment. According to calculation the additional investment needed for the bio-solar house (40 percent more than a conventional house of this style) would pay for itself in seven years. The cost of this house was about US$75,000 (3 million Bhat), not including the cost of the solar panels, which are imported and whose economic competitiveness is hampered by high import duties.
The biogas unit produces cooking gas from household waste. The circular unit is the bio gas tank, the rectangular container is the overflow water tank. Waste products fertilize the organic vegetable garden and the lawn. Image: Chulalongkorn University Water from the house is recycled and used to irrigate the garden. The system features are car wash, storage tank, household plumbing units, a pipe to send water to the garden, water from the washing machine, and the garden being watered. Image: Chulalongkorn University Condensation from the air conditioning system supplies 8 gallons (30 liters) of water per day. The unit at the left is the drinking water storage tank; the unit at the right is the water purification unit. Image: Chulalongkorn University
On the roof of the 180-square-meter, three-bedroom house are 62 square meters of solar cells capable of generating 22 kilowatts a day. The system can store energy for three days. A comparable, conventional house would require 15 times more area in solar cells. The air conditioning unit has a capacity of 9000 Btu and can operate around the clock. At peak capacity it consumes 6.45 kilowatts per day. The sun powers all equipment. A modified personal computer linked to dozens of sensors controls the system. This computer, installed on the landing between the lower and upper floors, enables the occupants to monitor and adjust the equipment. They can control the temperature and humidity in all the rooms and read the outdoor wind speed. The system shows if any of the sliding windows are opened, and how far. On average, the system produces a surplus of 15 kilowatt-hours per day which can be sold to the power company or used to drive an electric car. A biogas unit produces cooking gas from household waste. It was adapted from research from Kasetsart University and the Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency in Thailand's Ministry of Energy. Dew and rain, which vary by season (80 to 100 litres) of water per day, are collected from the roof. The air conditioning unit produces 30 litres of condensation water daily. Water is filtered and stored in a tank with a capacity of 3600 litres. Wastewater from the kitchen, showers, carport, and washing machine is filtered and reused for irrigation.
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Case Study Australia Moderate Climate Commercial building, recycling, renewable materials and energy, service water 60L Green Building, Carlton, Victoria (Available at: http://www.60lgreenbuilding.com/ ) 60L is a green commercial building in Australia, unique in its approach to energy and water consumption, and the use of recycled and re-used materials during construction. The building opened for business in December 2002 and shows how it is possible to achieve a commercially viable, healthy, low energy, resource-efficient workplace with minimal impact on the environment and sets new benchmarks in environmental performance for commercial buildings in Australia. The building, set in central Melbourne provides 3.375 m lettable floor space on four floors. The building shell itself is partly new, and partly refurbished from a nineteenth-century, heritage-listed factory. The building was constructed by the utilisation of appropriate technologies rather than leading edge technology for the sake of it: The original building but was partially dismantled so that existing materials could be re-used (timber floor joists and planking, bricks, glazed partitions, most of the old building structure and the heritage listed facade. Concrete poured at 60L was made using a 60% recycled aggregate (crushed concrete). Timber windows and door frames were fabricated from recycled materials, as reinforcing steel and carpets (recycled synthetics). The use of glues, adhesives, sealants and fillers commonly used in buildings was minimised. The PVC consumption was reduced to 50% of a typical commercial building of the same size and use. PVC was eliminated from all water & wastewater pipes, electrical conduits and light fittings. Where new materials had to be used, preference was given to recycled and recyclable products such as bricks, timber, steel and copper. During design, the greenhouse emissions of the building were modelled. They are only about one-third of a typical building of this type and size.
North and west facing facades Floor plan of the 60L Green Building include large glass areas that take advantage of winter sun. A large inner atrium with light shelves also brings sunlight into the core of the building. Six light wells in the building perimeter also bring light into the inner areas of the tenancies. Double glazing and the use of 'low E' window coatings reduces heat loss in winter. This type of glazing also causes the inside surface of the window to be closer to the internal air temperature thereby improving the radiant temperature felt by the occupant. That is, it is more comfortable to sit near one of these windows. 60L uses 100% green power - electricity bought from a provider who commits to source the same amount of power from a renewable source. A rooftop solar array generates around 10% of the power for used in the building. The fit-out specifications require tenants to use energy efficient appliances wherever possible throughout in the building fit-out. 60L uses less than 35% of the electricity of a typical building of the same size and function.
Heritage listed west facade of 60L Building
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Case Study Australia Moderate Climate Commercial building, recycling, renewable materials and energy, service water
60L features a clever natural ventilation system based on the chimney effect that cuts down on the need for artificial heating and cooling. The design includes a large central atrium which allows air to flow across tenancies from the light wells and into the atrium from where it is then vented to the atmosphere through four thermal chimneys. The system is linked to computer controlled louvre windows in all tenancies and louvres on the chimneys which operate according to wind speed & direction to optimise natural air flows through the building.
60Ls thermal chimneys encourage circulation of fresh air and spread light into the building core Section of the 60L Green Building with illustration of the ventilation system, using the chimney and buoyancy effect.
The air system allows automatic cool air purging at night (night cooling) to eliminate the heat build-up from hot summer days. Tenants can also control air flows through open able windows & louvres in the office areas. When outside temperatures exceed the parameters of the fresh air system, tenancies have small domestic-sized, reverse-cycle air conditioners Natural lighting design reduces the need for artificial lighting, thereby reducing the heat generated by lights, and reducing the need for cooling of the office environment to achieve a comfortable working environment.
The building is equipped with a rooftop garden which is designed to use recycled water processed by the building's water reclamation system and acts as an source of thermal mass, insulating the offices below and providing an offset to heat build-up. In an average rainfall year, only water required for testing the fire sprinkler system will require the use of mains water. 60L will use 90% less mains water when compared to a traditional commercial building of similar size and function. 60L's approach to water conservation can be summarised through the following: Minimise the demand for water by providing water efficient fixtures & fittings, including water-less urinals and low flush volume toilet pans; Use collected rainwater to replace 100% of normal mains water consumption whenever possible; 100% on-site treatment and reuse of grey-water (basins and sinks) & blackwater (sewage) streams to produce reclaimed water for flushing toilet pans and irrigating the roof garden and landscape features; Use of reclaimed water for flushing toilet pans and irrigating the rooftop gardens. 141
Case Study Germany Moderate Climate Production, renewable materials, passive cooling, natural ventilation + lighting Production Hall Huebner (From Dr. Uwe Grossmann and Dr. Margrit Kennedy available on the World Wide Web: Solarbau Monitor Programme, http://www.solarbau.de/english_version/index.htm) The aim of the project was the planning, construction and energy-related evaluation of a factory building with 2.000 m of floor space. The building is an extension of an existing manufacturing plant on the site of "Huebner Gummi & Kunststoffe GmbH" in Waldau near Kassel, Germany.
Northeast faade of the production hall with glazed roof and facade parts for sufficient natural lighting Northwest facade of the production hall with thermal water collector on a Southeast orientated shed
The monitoring, evaluation and documentation of the building construction and performance in the framework of the SolarBau programme has been carried out by independent institutes and companies. The SolarBau Energy Efficiency and solar energy use in the commercial building sector is a German demonstration program for the non residential building sector which was initiated by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) in 1995 and since 1998 carried out by the Federal Ministry of Economy and Technology (BMWi). Within a tight financial framework, the integral planning had the task of realizing a low-energy construction method for a factory building. Special significance was attached to the choice of natural building materials (wood) and a favourable overall energy balance of manufacturing and operating energy.
Perspective view of the timber construction of the low energy production hall
Roof glazing ensures daylight for illuminating the workplace. The building is ventilated via an underground heat exchanger with the waste air being channelled over the roof and heat recovery in the form of an integrated circulation system. The shape, orientation and design of the shed encourage natural ventilation. The goal is to dispense with the use of ventilators as far as possible. Solar collectors facilitate heating and the provision of hot water by short-distance heat.
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Case Study Germany Moderate Climate Production, renewable materials, passive cooling, natural ventilation + lighting The quantity of utilised timber does store more carbon dioxide than for the construction of all other building materials have been emitted (e.g. concrete, steel, plastics and technical equipment). Therefore the described building construction has a positive CO2 balance and does have a negative global warming potential due to the utilisation of the big quantity of the renewable material timber.
Schematic perspective view of the air distribution system of the production hall with information about dimensions and quantity
The service energy demand fort he production hall is more than four time smaller than for a comparable reference object. The primarily energy balance including the demand for construction, service and deconstruction of the building, for a building utilisation phase of 17,6 GWh in 50 years is only around 28% of the reference object which has a demand of 63,4 GWh in 50 years. The saving of almost 46 GWh primarily energy is equivalent to the emission of 10.300 tons CO2.
Air well for the outside air, inlet of one of the two earth to air heat exchanger (earth tubes)
Air outlet for the pre warmed (in winter) or pre cooled (in summer) outside air in the floor of the production hall after passing the earth tube and an additional heat recovery heat exchanger.
Vent in one of the sheds for the exhaust of the inside air. The buoyancy effect is the driving force for the sufficient natural ventilation in the production hall
The main measures for the realisation of the sustainable low energy production hall can be summarised to specific Methods, Strategies and Technologies:
Methods: Integrated planning process Simulations of the building construction and service performance Strategies: Reduction of space heating demand Passive cooling The foundation plate of the building was Daylighting insulated underside with recycled glass Renewable energy use gravel Technologies: Solar Thermal Heat Recovery Nocturnal Ventilation Ground Heat Exchanger Decentralised Rainwater Treatment Ecological Materials
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Appendix 5 Physical Data 4.5 Physical Data
From: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) 144 (editor); Climate Responsive Building Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical Regions; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993
Appendix 5 Physical Data
Appendix 6 References Illustrations 4.6 References Illustrations
Illustration title page: Photovoltaic installation and Windmill for the production of energy on the rooftop of the administration and seminar building of the Korean Federation for Environmental Movement (KFEM) in Seoul, South Korea. (Schuetze, T., South-Korea, Seoul 2001) Illustration 1 -3 : Nitrous concentration., carbondioxide concentration., methane concentration. (Greenhouse Gas Division Environment Canada. Available at: http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/ghg/1990_00_report/sec1_e.cfm) Illustration 4: Table: global warming potential. (Greenhouse Gas Division Environment Canada. Available at: http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/ghg/1990_00_report/sec1_e.cfm) Illustration 5: Earth mean energy balance. (In: Kiehl and Trenberth, 1997: Earths Annual Global Mean Energy Budget, Bull. Am. Met. Soc. 78, 197-208. Available at: http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig1-2.htm) Illustration 5a: The green house effect. (In: Gluecklich, D., Jurrack, U., Neuhaeuser, M., Richter, A., Schauber, U.; Principles of ecological building; Faculty of architecture, town and regional planning; Bauhaus-Universitaet Weimar, Germany 2001) Illustration 6: Urban population. (Compiled by UNEP GRID Geneva from United Nations Population Division 1997 and WRI, UNEP, UNDP and WB 1998., available at: http://www.sdnbd.org/sdi/metadata/geo2000-figure/) Illustration 7: World population. (Compiled by UNEP GRID Geneva from United Nations Population Division 1997 and WRI, UNEP, UNDP and WB 1998. Available at: http://www.sdnbd.org/sdi/metadata/geo2000-figure/) Illustration 8: The impacts and cost blocks during the planning, construction and utilisation phases and the opportunity to influence these. (In: Kohler, N., Moffatt, S.; The new Philosophers Dream: Life cycle analysis of the built environment, Canada, Germany 2003) Illustration 9: The Sustainability Triangle, connecting ecological, economic and social dimensions. (In: A New Global Paradigm, adapted from CIB Working Commission W82 Future Studies in Construction) Illustration 10: Treelike outline of the analysis of a sustainable building. (Bourdeau, L., CSTB (Centre Scientifique Et Technique Du Batiment); Sustainable Development and Future Of Construction In France; France 1998) Illustration 11: Cascade model of planning principles, concerning the needs for a new building property and the selection of building products, page5. (Ministry of Transport, Building and Housing; Guideline for Sustainable Building; Germany 2001)
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Appendix 6 References Illustrations Illustration 12: Construction of solid concrete buildings. High rise apartments in Wonju, South-Korea. (Schuetze, T.; South-Korea 1999) Illustration 13: Construction of solid stone buildings. Residential and commercial buildings in Kairouan, Tunesia. (Schuetze, T.; Tunesia 2000) Illustration 14: Construction of a steel frame building in Osaka Japan. (Schuetze, T.; Japan, Osaka 2003) Illustration 15: Construction of a timber frame building in Osaka Japan, exterior view. (Schuetze, T.; Japan, Osaka 2003) Illustration 15a: Construction of a timber frame building in Osaka Japan, interior view. (Schuetze, T.; Japan, Osaka 2003) Illustration 16: Overview different types of vaults. (In: Joffroy, T., Guillaud, H., architects researchers, CRATerre-EAG, SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology); The Basics of Building with Arches, Vaults and Cupolas; Switzerland, St. Gall 1994) Illustration 17: Overview different types of cupolas. (In: Joffroy, T., Guillaud, H., architects researchers, CRATerre-EAG, SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology); The Basics of Building with Arches, Vaults and Cupolas; Switzerland, St. Gall 1994) Illustration 18: Small geodesic dome (non solid structure). (In: Stulz, R., Mukerji, K., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology); Appropriate Building Materials, A Catalogue for Potential Solutions, Third Revised Edition; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993) Illustration 19: Construction of a solid cupola in India. (In: Joffroy, T., Guillaud, H., architects researchers, CRATerre-EAG, SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology); The Basics of Building with Arches, Vaults and Cupolas; Switzerland, St. Gall 1994) Illustration 20: Arch constructions out of branches and earth, a finished residential hut and granary during the construction phase in Rajasthan, India. (Schuetze, T.; India 1997) Illustration 21: Grid shell construction with paper tubes of the Japanese Pavillon (Architect Shigeru Ban) at the Expo in Hanover. (Schuetze, T.; Germany 2000) Illustration 22: Suspended roof structure of the Football Stadium in Seogwipo on Cheju Island, South-Korea. (Schuetze, T.; South-Korea 2002) Illustration 23: Straw bale house construction. (In: Straw Bale Flyer; Eweleit, S., Meinhof, S., Hansen, L., Germany, Hanover 2000) Illustration 24: Primary energy demand for cement and straw. (In: Unger, J.; Stroh als Baustoff, Zu schade zum Verheizen! Tagungsband Strohbau Symposium 2001; Germany Illmitz, 2001)
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Appendix 6 References Illustrations
Illustration 25: Techniques, materials and typical lifespan of biomass roofing. (In: Hall, N., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology); The Basics of Biomass Roofing; Switzerland, St. Gall 1997) Illustration 26: Energy consumption in the production of building materials in Brazil. (In: Mascar, J. L., Claro, A. and Schneider, I. E. (1978) A Evoluo dos Sistemas de Construo com o Desenvolvimento Econmico: uma Viso Retrospectiva. So Paulo: EDUSP. In: CIB, UNEP IETC; Agenda 21 for Sustainable Construction in Developing Countries; South Africa 2002) Illustration 27: Bamboo parquet and interior at Columbian Zero Emission (Zeri) Bamboo Pavilion at the Expo 2000 in Hanover (Architect Velez, S.). (Schuetze, T.; Germany 2000) Illustration 28: Columbian Zero Emission (Zeri) Bamboo Pavilion at the Expo 2000 in Hanover (Architect Velez, S.). (Schuetze, T.; Germany 2000) Illustration 28a: Bamboo in Japan. (Schuetze, T.; Japan 2003) Illustration 29: Modified traditional clay house in the rural area of Kumasi, Ghana. With tin roof, modified building corner out of natural stones and cement mortar as well as inappropriate cement plaster on the existing clay wall in the background. (Schuetze, T.; Ghana 2002) Illustration 30: Traditional house with spark eroded clay wall and new tin roof in the rural area of Kumasi, Ghana. (Schuetze, T.; Ghana 2002) Illustration 31: Advertisement for cement in the rural area of Kumasi, Ghana. (Schuetze, T.; Ghana 2002) Illustration 32: Comparison of a typical production hall (reference object) with an advanced production hall (construction project). Influence of the three life phases of two halls for the production of train cars in Kassel, Germany. The reference project is built according to the legal building codes. The building envelope of the construction project is highly insulated and has been built mainly from renewable materials (airtight timber construction). (In: Grossmann, U., Validierung des Lueftungssystems einer Produktionshalle (Dissertation), Hanover, Germany 2002) Illustration 33: The department of Architecture at the Technical University of Hanover in a converted commercial building (a former printing plant) with increase of a new top floor. (In: Deutsche Bauzeitung 5/96, Stuttgart, Germany 1996) Illustration 33a: Residential buildings in a former roman settlement in Umbria, Italy. The houses were modified, refurbished and used for almost 2000 years. The modifications of the building envelope and the use of different materials (baked bricks and natural stones) are well visible at the faade. (Schuetze, T.; Italy, Umbria 2001)
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Appendix 6 References Illustrations Illustration 34: building in Osaka Japan with destroyed wall surface, caused by precipitation water, too small roof overhang and too low foundation. Additionally the clay wall has been covered with cement plaster, which is not appropriate regarding construction chemistry and therefore shows cracks and falls off on several parts. (Schuetze, T.; Japan, Osaka 2003) Illustration 35: Inappropriate reparation of an old mud plastered timbered wall with cement mortar at a house in the rural area of South Korea. (Schuetze, T.; South Korea, Wonju 2003) Illustration 36: Comparison of strength values of fast growing bamboo with relative slow growing spruce. (In: Dunkelberg, K.; Bamboo as a building material, elementary skilful applications using examples from South East Asia (dissertation) in: Institute of lightweight structures (IL), University of Stuttgart, Prof. Frei Otto (editor); IL 31 Bamboo; Germany, Stuttgart 1985) Illustration 37: Efficiency of the material bamboo. Comparison of the energy balances for the production of different building materials and the relationship to their structural durability (e.g. certain stress capacity) informs about the sustainability and shows the efficiency of bamboo. (According to: Janssen, J.J.A.; Bamboo in building structures; Thesis Eindhoven University; Netherlands, Eindhoven 1981. This document can also be downloaded from the web at: http://alexandria.tue.nl/extra3/proefschrift/PRF3B/8104676.pdf) Illustration 38: No baby learns that its output is as worth as mothers input. For other species human economy must learn to keep its material in use. (From Althaus, D., Germany, Detmold, 2002) Illustration 39: Construction of a traditional timbered building with roof cover out of rice straw. Those kind of constructions can be dismantled, transported and build up at another location. All the used materials, generally natural stones, timber, clay and straw are regional available. (Schuetze, T.; South Korea, 2001) Illustration 40: Clean deconstruction site with a lot of reusable components. (In: Landesinstitut fuer Bauwesen (LB) des Landes NRW (editor); Schuetze, T., Willkomm, W.; Wiederverwendung und Recycling im Hochbau, Arbeitshilfen fuer die Realisierung umweltvertraeglicher Materialkreislaeufe; Germany 2000) Illustration 41: Refurbished parquet and doors at an exhibition of reusable components. (In: Landesinstitut fuer Bauwesen (LB) des Landes NRW (editor); Schuetze, T., Willkomm, W.; Wiederverwendung und Recycling im Hochbau, Arbeitshilfen fuer die Realisierung umweltvertraeglicher Materialkreislaeufe; Germany 2000) Illustration 42: Construction of a timbered wall with old and new components. (In: Landesinstitut fuer Bauwesen (LB) des Landes NRW (editor); Schuetze, T., Willkomm, W.; Wiederverwendung und Recycling im Hochbau, Arbeitshilfen fuer die Realisierung umweltvertraeglicher Materialkreislaeufe; Germany 2000)
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Appendix 6 References Illustrations Illustration 43: The material separation is the most important recycling condition. Collection of scrap metals at a building yard. (In: Landesinstitut fuer Bauwesen (LB) des Landes NRW (editor); Schuetze, T., Willkomm, W.; Wiederverwendung und Recycling im Hochbau, Arbeitshilfen fuer die Realisierung umweltvertraeglicher Materialkreislaeufe; Germany 2000) Illustration 44: Cement blocks made out of recycled bricks. (In: Landesinstitut fuer Bauwesen (LB) des Landes NRW (editor); Schuetze, T., Willkomm, W.; Wiederverwendung und Recycling im Hochbau, Arbeitshilfen fuer die Realisierung umweltvertraeglicher Materialkreislaeufe; Germany 2000) Illustration 45: Scrap timber, a raw material for derived timber products. (In: Landesinstitut fuer Bauwesen (LB) des Landes NRW (editor); Schuetze, T., Willkomm, W.; Wiederverwendung und Recycling im Hochbau, Arbeitshilfen fuer die Realisierung umweltvertraeglicher Materialkreislaeufe; Germany 2000) Illustration 46: Soft fibre boards, made from scrap timber. (In: Landesinstitut fuer Bauwesen (LB) des Landes NRW (editor); Schuetze, T., Willkomm, W.; Wiederverwendung und Recycling im Hochbau, Arbeitshilfen fuer die Realisierung umweltvertraeglicher Materialkreislaeufe; Germany 2000) Illustration 47: lawn grid element, made from recycling-plastic. (In: Landesinstitut fuer Bauwesen (LB) des Landes NRW (editor); Schuetze, T., Willkomm, W.; Wiederverwendung und Recycling im Hochbau, Arbeitshilfen fuer die Realisierung umweltvertraeglicher Materialkreislaeufe; Germany 2000) Illustration 47a: Volume to surface ratio of differently arranged building units. (In: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); Climate Responsive Building Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical Regions; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993) Illustration 47b: Volume to surface ratio of different sized cubes. (In: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); Climate Responsive Building Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical Regions; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993) Illustration 48: World map with the 4 main climate zones. (Schuetze, T. (nach Olgyay, V.); Germany, Hamburg 2000) Illustration 49: map of hot and humid (tropical) climate zones (a). The modified Koeppen classification uses six letters to divide the world into six major climate regions, based on average annual precipitation, average monthly precipitation, and average monthly temperature. (Available at: http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011700a.htm) Illustration 49a: Typical house shape in a tropical climate. (In: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); Climate Responsive Building Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical Regions; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993)
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Appendix 6 References Illustrations Illustration 49b: Typical pile dwelling in the warm and humid climate of Paraguay, located in a in a temporarily flood zone. Well ventilated structure with elevated living space and a big veranda, protected by a roof against solar radiation and rain. (Willkomm, W., Germany 2000) Illustration 49c: Multi-storey buildings with big windows and steep roofs in the monsoon climate of the east African islands (e.g.: Lamu and Zanzibar). (Willkomm, W., Germany 2000) Illustration 49d: Optimal ventilated building of churches in the hot and humid climate of Tanzania, with wide roof overhangs and shorter, closed east and west facades against low sun in the morning and afternoon. (Willkomm, W., Germany 2000) Illustration 49e: An administration building in tropical Rio De Janeiro, Brazil, with individual adjustable lamellae functioning as shading elements, vertical orientated at the east and west facades, horizontal orientated at the north faade and no lamellae at the south faade due to the location on the southern hemisphere. Big openings in the faade and multi storied air spaces allow a natural ventilation of the rooms through shaded and partly greened terrace areas. (Willkomm, W., Germany 2000) Illustration 49f: Two climate responsive buildings in the tropical climate of Takoradi, Ghana, viewed from west. The left building is protected against the sun by horizontal vertical orientated shading elements integrated in a well ventilated structure in front of the building envelope and the spatial structure. The building on the right side is well protected against radiation from the south but has no fixed shading elements against low sun in the west. In case of sunshine there are rollers installed (visible at the first floor under the roof) which can be temporarily used to shade the openings. (Schuetze, T., Ghana 2002) Illustration 49g: West terraces and windows of Japanese apartment buildings well protected against high sun by roof overhangs and low sun with flexible but not building integrated bamboo mats, during summer. (Schuetze, T., Japan, Osaka 2002) Illustration 50: map of arid and hot climate zones (b). The modified Koeppen classification uses six letters to divide the world into six major climate regions, based on average annual precipitation, average monthly precipitation, and average monthly temperature. (Available at: http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011700a.htm) Illustration 50a: Typical house shape in an arid and hot climate. (In: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); Climate Responsive Building Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical Regions; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993) Illustration 50b: Compact and closed buildings with minimised window openings and thick massive walls out of earth for big phase shift and amplitude attenuation in the hot and dry climate of Morocco (e.g. with cold nights, dependent on the elevation above sea level). (Willkomm, W., Germany 2000)
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Appendix 6 References Illustrations Illustration 50c: Narrow shaded alleys and courtyards in the desert architecture of Algeria reduce solar radiation absorbance of buildings and occupants. The platform roofs do function as sleeping places during the hottest season. (Willkomm, W., Germany 2000) Illustration 50d: Market alleys and intermediate space between buildings shaded with pergolas and tendril plants reduce the radiation absorbance in hot and dry Morocco. (Willkomm, W., Germany 2000) Illustration 50e: Illustration of a traditional building type in Arab countries with a wind catcher (or scoop), low tech evaporative cooling device (evaporative cooling) and a double layered roof. (In: Stulz, R., Mukerji, K., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology); Appropriate Building Materials, A Catalogue for Potential Solutions, Third Revised Edition; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993) Illustration 50f: Underground building in Tunisia with immense phase shift and amplitude attenuation by the ground and 3 to 4m thick ceilings and relative low construction effort. (Schuetze, T., Tunisia 2001) Illustration 50g: Double layered roofs at a Hotel building in Morocco. The white plastered outside layer functions as a well ventilated solar radiation reflector. (Willkomm, W., Germany 2000) Illustration 51: map of temperate climate zones (c). The modified Koeppen classification uses six letters to divide the world into six major climate regions, based on average annual precipitation, average monthly precipitation, and average monthly temperature. (Available at: http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011700a.htm) Illustration 51a: Typical house shape in temperate climate. (In: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); Climate Responsive Building Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical Regions; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993) Illustration 51b: Architecture on the Greek islands with compact buildings, narrow shady alleys, small windows and flat roofs, which are functioning as rainwater collectors for cisterns in an almost dry, so called Mediterranean winter-dry-zone. (Willkomm, W., Germany 2000) Illustration 51c: The buildings in the Tuscan city Siena in Italy have sloped roofs, because the winter rain is more copious than on above mentioned Greek islands, but narrow shady alleys and compact buildings protect against the same main climatic problem, the summer heat. (Willkomm, W., Germany 2000) Illustration 51d: Arcade Corridor on the south side of a building in Venice, Italy. A comfortable site during low winter sun with warmed walls in the back and the sun in the face, while comfortable shady and cool during high summer sun. (Willkomm, W., Germany 2000)
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Appendix 6 References Illustrations Illustration 51e: Arcade Corridor on the south side of a building in Venice, Italy. A comfortable site during low winter sun with warmed walls in the back and the sun in the face, while comfortable shady and cool during high summer sun. (Willkomm, W., Germany 2000) Illustration 51f: Old timbered farm house in the costal area of North Western Germany with low and sloped straw roof well protected against strong winds and rain. View from North West the main weather-side. (Schuetze, T., Germany 2001) Illustration 51g: Old fisher house in the costal area of Western Scotland with natural stone walls and sloped straw roof well protected against strong winds and rain. View to North West the main weather-side. (Schuetze, T., Scotland 2000) Illustration 51h: Old fisher house in the costal area of Jeju Island in South-Korea with natural stone walls and sloped straw roof well protected against strong winds and rain. The big opening in the south faade allows comfortable ventilation and shading during the warm summer, allows passive solar utilisation during the winter and can be closed during cold nights and strong winds. View from the south west. (Schuetze, T., Korea 2002) Illustration 52: map of cold climate zones (d). The modified Koeppen classification uses six letters to divide the world into six major climate regions, based on average annual precipitation, average monthly precipitation, and average monthly temperature. (Available at: http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011700a.htm) Illustration 52a: map of polar climate zones (e). The modified Koeppen classification uses six letters to divide the world into six major climate regions, based on average annual precipitation, average monthly precipitation, and average monthly temperature. (Available at: http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011700a.htm) Illustration 52b: map of highland climate zones (f), with differentiated description of the specific properties. The modified Koeppen classification uses six letters to divide the world into six major climate regions, based on average annual precipitation, average monthly precipitation, and average monthly temperature. (Available at: http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011700a.htm) Illustration 52c: The Eskimo Igloo a sustainable building with optimal surface/ volume. It consists out of the insulation material snow and has a low located tunnel entrance which anticipates disperse of the uprising warm inside air. (Willkomm, W., Germany 2000) Illustration 52d: A house in the Swiss Alps with low roof at the northern side and insulating snow mass. (Willkomm, W., Germany 2000)
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Appendix 6 References Illustrations Illustration 52e: The South faade of a school in the Swiss Alps with thick insulated walls and big insulated windows for the utilisation of the winter sun. During the summer hidden rollers (Visible on top of the window openings) can be pulled down to shade the openings. The construction is a contemporary timber construction orientated at traditional building design. in the Swiss Alps with low roof at the northern side and insulating snow mass. (Schuetze, T., Switzerland 2002) Illustration 53: Energy costs in a model office room. (In: Energy Research Group, School of Architecture, University College Dublin; Daylighting in Buildings; Ireland, Dublin 1994) Illustration 54: Examples of different daylighting devices. (In: Energy Research Group, School of Architecture, University College Dublin; Daylighting in Buildings; Ireland, Dublin 1994) Illustration 55: Light directing components. (In: Energy Research Group, School of Architecture, University College Dublin; Shading Systems; Ireland, Dublin 1994) Illustration 56: Adjustable external louvres during high & low angle sun. (In: Energy Research Group, School of Architecture, University College Dublin; Shading Systems; Ireland, Dublin 1994) Illustration 57: Adjustable external louvres, protecting again direct sunlight and open for diffuse and reflected radiation. (In: Energy Research Group, School of Architecture, University College Dublin; Shading Systems; Ireland, Dublin 1994) Illustration 58: Internal mirrored louvres, protecting again direct sunlight and open for diffuse and reflected radiation. (In: Energy Research Group, School of Architecture, University College Dublin; Shading Systems; Ireland, Dublin 1994) Illustration 59: External device using prismatic component. (In: Energy Research Group, School of Architecture, University College Dublin; Shading Systems; Ireland, Dublin 1994) Illustration 60: Redirecting Light with heliostats and light pipes. (Schuetze, T. after Bomin Solar, Hamburg 2003) Illustration 61: External versus internal louvres. (In: Energy Research Group, School of Architecture, University College Dublin; Shading Systems; Ireland, Dublin 1994) Illustration 62: Transparent Shading System (with prisms or mirrors). (In: Energy Research Group, School of Architecture, University College Dublin; Shading Systems; Ireland, Dublin 1994) Illustration 63: Variations of different external shading devices, appropriate to different designs, latitudes and orientations. (In: Energy Research Group, School of Architecture, University College Dublin; Shading Systems; Ireland, Dublin 1994)
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Appendix 6 References Illustrations Illustration 63a: External shading devices for different directions and building locations on southern or northern hemisphere. Horizontal blends on the southern or northern facade, vertical blends at the eastern and western facade. (In: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); Climate Responsive Building Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical Regions; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993) Illustration 64: Schematic sketch of idealised and realistic geometry of capillary and square-celled honeycomb structures. (In: Platzer, W., J.; in: Solar Energy Vol. 49, Directional Hemispherical Solar Transmittance Data for Plastic Honeycomb Structures; Fraunhofer ISE, Germany 1992) Illustration 65: Principle of the light directing effect in translucent insulation material. (In: Platzer, W., J.; in: Solar Energy Vol. 49, Directional Hemispherical Solar Transmittance Data for Plastic Honeycomb Structures; Fraunhofer ISE, Germany 1992) Illustration 65a: Samples of different TIM Materials. (Braun, P.; Germany, Hamburg 2002) Illustration 66: Solar gain factors of different glazing and shading devices. (In: Energy Research Group, School of Architecture, University College Dublin; Shading Systems; Ireland, Dublin 1994) Illustration 66a: Combination of effective natural and artificial lighting. (In: Krishan, A., Yannas, S., Baker, N., Szokolay, S. V. (editors); Climate Responsive Architecture A Design Handbook for Energy Efficient Building; India, New Delhi, 2001) Illustration 66b: Automatic lighting control for efficient use of artificial lighting. (In: Altener Program Europe (Editor); Mid Career Education: Solar Energy in European Office Buildings, Technology Module 4 Daylight and Artificial Lighting; Europe 1997) Illustration 67: The Queens Building De Montfort University (UK) building uses the stack effect of chimneys to ventilate auditoria and classrooms. The design of displacement ventilation and temperature stratification was predicted by saline bath simulation. (In: European Commission Thermie Project to reduce energy and improve comfort and environment; Energy efficient building technologies explained, Information Dossier Number 8; EC 2000) Illustration 67a: Wind induced cross ventilation (top) and temperature induced ventilation through an inside courtyard (bottom). (In: Krishan, A., Yannas, S., Baker, N., Szokolay, S. V. (editors); Climate Responsive Architecture A Design Handbook for Energy Efficient Building; India, New Delhi, 2001)
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Appendix 6 References Illustrations Illustration 68: The stack effect described in the illustration can also be induced by placing vents near the floor and under the ceiling. Adjustable shutters can be used to regulate the required ventilation effect. (In: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); Climate Responsive Building Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical Regions; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993) Illustration 69: Black coated pipe as solar chimney. (In: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); Climate Responsive Building Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical Regions; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993) Illustration 69a: Floor plan, section and perspective view of a multidirectional windcatcher in the Middle East. (In: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); Climate Responsive Building Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical Regions; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993) Illustration 69b: Material and surface conditions concerning the grade of absorption and reflection. (In: Lippsmeier, G.; Building in the Tropics; Germany, Munich 1980) Illustration 69c: Passive cooling strategies. (In: Energy Research Group, University College Dublin, European Commission Thermie; Bioclimatic Architecture; Ireland 1997) Illustration 70: Passive direct cooling by vegetation and porous clay pot filled with water at a courtyard house. (In: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); Climate Responsive Building Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical Regions; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993) Illustration 71: Passive indirect cooling technique in a wind tower. (In: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); Climate Responsive Building Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical Regions; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993) Illustration 71a: Passive indirect cooling technique with collected rainwater in combination with double roof, natural ventilation and shading can control the indoor thermal environment adequately without electricity at a Japanese house in Tokyo. (From: Kuroiwa, K., Kamiya, H.; Lecture at International Rainwater Conference; Germany, Mannheim 2001) Illustration 72: Direct hybrid evaporative cooler at a window opening. (In: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); Climate Responsive Building Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical Regions; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993) Illustration 72a: Principle of evaporative sorption cooling process with heat recovery for building construction. (Schuetze, T.; South Korea, Seoul 2003)
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Appendix 6 References Illustrations
Illustration 73: Use of natural ventilation in conjunction with earth coupling; if natural forced ventilation is not realisable, naturally conditioned air and ventilation with photovoltaic powered fans are sustainable alternatives. (In: Krishan, A., Yannas, S., Baker, N., Szokolay, S. V. (editors); Climate Responsive Architecture A Design Handbook for Energy Efficient Building; India, New Delhi, 2001) Illustration 74: Roof pond for radiative cooling. Opened at night for radiative cooling of the storage mass and insulated during the day for cooling of the interior. (In: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); Climate Responsive Building Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical Regions; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993) Illustration 75: Passive solar strategies. (In: Energy Research Group, University College Dublin, European Commission Thermie; Bioclimatic Architecture; Ireland 1997) Illustration 76: Flatbed solar water collector, based on the thermo-siphon principle, on the roof of a residential house in Osaka Japan. The storage tank for hot water is equipped with a mirror to reflect sunlight on the absorber field and hence to enlarge the geometrical collector area. (Schuetze, T.; Japan, Osaka 2003) Illustration77: Flatbed solar water collectors, based on forced circulation system, on the roof of a remodelled existing housing estate in Berlin are visible on the left hand side. On the right hand side Photovoltaic (PV) systems are installed. (Schuetze, T.; Germany, Berlin 2002) Illustration78: Roof pond for passive solar heating. Opened during the day for solar heating of the storage mass and insulated at night for heating of the interior and protection from radiative cooling. (In: Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); Climate Responsive Building Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical Regions; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993)
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Appendix 7 References Literature 4.7 References Literature Adriaanse, A., S. Bringezu, et al.; World Resource Institute; Resource Flows: The Material Basis of Industrial Economies; USA 1997 Altener Program Europe (Editor); Mid Career Education: Solar Energy in European Office Buildings, Technology Module 2 Passive Solar Heating; Ireland 1997) Altener Program Europe (Editor); Mid Career Education: Solar Energy in European Office Buildings, Technology Module 3 Natural Cooling Ventilation; Ireland 1997) Altener Program Europe (Editor); Mid Career Education: Solar Energy in European Office Buildings, Technology Module 4 Daylight and Artificial Lighting; Ireland 1997) Altener Program Europe (Editor); Mid Career Education: Solar Energy in European Office Buildings, Technology Module 5 Active Solar Heating; Ireland 1997) Altener Program Europe (Editor); Mid Career Education: Solar Energy in European Office Buildings, Technology Module 6 Auxiliary Energy Services; Ireland 1997) Background Note for experts meeting on Sustainable Building and Construction; Cities are not Cities: Need for a radical change in our attitudes and approaches to manage the environment in cities; France 2002) Baggs, J., Baggs, S; The Healthy House; Australia 1996 Bourdeau, L., CSTB (Centre Scientifique Et Technique Du Batiment); Sustainable Development and Future of Construction In France ; France 1998 Brink, F. E., Rush, P. J.; Bamboo reinforced concrete constructions; U.S. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory; Port Hueme, California, U.S.A. 1966. This document is also available at: http://www.romanconcrete.com/Bamboo/BambooReinforcedConcrete Feb1966.htm Bundesministerium fuer Verkehr, Bau- und Wohnungswesen, Bayrische Architektenkammer (Hrsg.); ECOBIS 2000 - Oekologisches Baustoffinformationssystem, CD-Rom; Germany 2000 Bunn, R.; BSRIA (Building Service Research & Information Centre) ; Sustainable building services in developing countries : the challenge to find best fit technologies ; UK 2003 Carrie, Fr., Andersson, P., Wouters, P.; Improving Ductwork A time for tighter air distribution systems; AIVC publication 1999 CIB, UNEP IETC; Agenda 21 for Sustainable Construction in Developing Countries; South Africa 2002 CIT Energy Management AB, Sectorial Technical Expert, RUE in Buildings; Life cycle assessment for building services systems a survey; carried out for OPET Finland; Sweden 1999. This document can also be downloaded from the web at: http://www.ecotec.com/sharedopet/password/rhrsum13.htm
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Appendix 7 References Literature Commission of the European Communities; Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the energy performance of buildings; Belgium 2001 Confederation of International Contractors Associations (CICA) and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP); Industry as a Partner for Sustainable Development: Construction.; UK 2002 Daniels, K.; Low-Tech Light-Tech High-Tech: Bauen in der Informationsgesellschaft Daniles, K.; Gebaeudetechnik Ein Leitfaden fuer Ingenieure; Muenchen Germany 1999 Decker, E. H. et al.; Energy And Material Flow Through The Urban Ecosystem; USA 2000 Drack, M.; Bionik und Ecodesign, Untersuchungen Biogener Materialien im Hinblick auf Prinzipien, die fuer eine umweltgerechte Produktgestaltung nutzbar sind; Dissertation; Austria, Wien 2002 EASE, Education of Architects in Solar Energy and Environment, section 3.3; Environmental Impact of building materials Edwards, S., Bennett, P; Life Cycle Thinking and Construction Products; UK 2003 Energy Research Group, School of Architecture, University College Dublin; Daylighting in Buildings; Ireland, Dublin 1994 Energy Research Group, School of Architecture, University College Dublin; Shading Systems; Ireland, Dublin 1994 Energy Research Group, University College Dublin, European Commission Thermie; Bioclimatic Architecture; Ireland 1997 Energy Research Group; The Climatic Dwelling Teacher's Resource Package; UCD, Ireland, Dublin 1995 Environmental Technology Best Practice Programme, Government UK; LifeCycle Assessment, an introduction for industry; UK 2000. This document can also be downloaded from the web at: http://www.etbpp.gov.uk; www.tangram.co.uk/TILife_Cycle_Assessment_(ET257).pdf European Commission Thermie Project to reduce energy and improve comfort and environment; Energy efficient building technologies explained, Information Dossier Number 8;, EC 2000 European Commission; Best Practice Project Yearbook 1997-2000; European Communities 2002; European Network on Construction and City related Sustainability Indicators; City-related Sustainability Indicators State-of-the art; EU 2001 Finkbeiner et al.; "Analysis of the Potential for a Comprehensive Approach Towards LCA and EMS in Japan" International Journal of LCA. 4 (3); 1999 Forschungsgruppe der Bergischen Universitaet Wuppertal; OeOeB Bewertungssystem fuer oekonomisches und oekologisches Bauen und gesundes Wohnen; Germany 2001 Gauzin-Mueller, D., Favet, N.; Sustainable Architecture and Urbanism, France 2002 Gluecklich, D., Jurrack, U., Neuhaeuser, M., Richter, A., Schauber, U.; Principles of ecological building; Faculty of architecture, town and regional planning, Bauhaus-Universitaet Weimar, Germany 2001.
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Appendix 7 References Literature Gottfried, D.; A Blueprint for Green Building Economics; USA 2003 Grossmann, U.; Kennedy, M., Schuetze, T.; Erfahrungen mit innovativen Erdwrmetauscher-Lftungsanlagen, Germany, Hanover 2001. This document can also be downloaded from the web at: http://www.solarbau.de/monitor/doku/proj03/dokuproj/ewt-bericht.pdf Gut, P., Ackerknecht, D., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); Climate Responsive Building Appropriate Building Construction in Tropical and Subtropical Regions; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993 Haekkinen, T.; CRISP, City-related Sustainability Indicators State-of-the-art; Finland 2001. This document can also be downloaded from the web at: http://crisp.cstb.fr/PDF/reports/stateofartmaaliskuu.pdf Hay, J. E.; Facilitating the Uptake of Cleaner Production at National to Enterprise Level: Making Smart Use of Decision Support Tools, Learning Opportunities and Information Technologies; Japan, This document can also be downloaded from the web at: http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/data/100.doc Hay, J. E.; Facilitating uptake of cleaner production with decision support tools, learning opportunities and information technologies; New Zealand. This document can also be downloaded from the web at: http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/focus/cp_uptake.asp Hullmann, H., Weber, H.; Porenbeton Handbuch; Germany 1998 IEA International Energy Agency, Energy Conservation in Buildings and Community Systems, ANNEX 31; LCA methods for buildings - IEA Annex 31 Energy-Related Environmental Impact of Buildings; Germany 2001 IEA, International Energy Agency; 2002 Annual Report, IEA Solar Heating & Cooling Programme; USA 2003. This document can also be downloaded from the web at: htttp://www.iea-shc.org Institute of Environmental Studies, The University of New South Wales; Education for sustainability, Integrating environmental responsibility into curricula: A guide for UNSW faculty; Australia 1999; This document can also be downloaded from the web at: http://www.ies.unsw.edu.au/Documents/EducationForSustainability.P DF Institute of lightweight structures (IL), University of Stuttgart, Prof. Frei Otto (editor); IL 31 Bamboo; Germany, Stuttgart 1985 International Labour Organisation; The Construction Industry In The Twenty-First Century: Its Image, Employment Prospects and Skills Requirements; Switzerland 2001 Janssen, J.J.A.; Bamboo in building structures; Thesis Eindhoven University; Netherlands, Eindhoven 1981. This document can also be downloaded from the web at: http://alexandria.tue.nl/extra3/proefschrift/PRF3B/8104676.pdf Joffroy, T., Guillaud, H., architects researchers, CRATerre-EAG, SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology); The Basics of Building with Arches, Vaults and Cupolas; Switzerland, St. Gall 1994 Kammeier, H. D.; Sustainable Urban Development, Policy and Planning in Asia: Aspirations and Practice; Presentation at the IGES-KEI Workshop Seoul 2003; Thailand 2003
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Appendix 7 References Literature Koenigsberger, O. H., Ingersoll, T. G., Mayhew A., Szokolay S. V.; Manual of Tropical Housing and Building Part 1 Climatic Design; England, London 1974 Kohler, N, Luetzendorf, T.; Integrated Life Cycle Analysis; Germany 2002 Kohler, N., Moffatt, S.; The new Philosophers Dream: Life cycle analysis of the built environment, Canada, Germany 2003 Kotaji E.; Life Cycle Assessment in Building and Construction; Europe 2002 Krishan, A., Yannas, S., Baker, N., Szokolay, S. V. (editors); Climate Responsive Architecture A Design Handbook for Energy Efficient Building; India, New Delhi, 2001 Ladbury, S., Cotton, A., Jennings, M.; Implementing Labour Standards in Construction; Great Britain 2003. This document can also be downloaded from the web at: http://www.lboro.ac.uk/wedc/publications/ilsic.htm. Landesinstitut fuer Bauwesen (LB) des Landes NRW (Editor); Schuetze, T., Willkomm, W.; Wiederverwendung und Recycling im Hochbau, Arbeitshilfen fuer die Realisierung umweltvertraeglicher Materialkreislaeufe; Germany 2000 Lengen, J. v.; Manual Do Arquiteto Desalco; Brasil, Rio De Janeiro: Casa Do Sonho 2002 Lippsmeier, G.; Building in the Tropics; Germany, Munich 1980 Lyle, J., T.; Regenerative Design for Sustainable Development; USA 1994 Manahan, M. M.; Trends for Environmentally Sound Building Technology And Materials; Philippines 2003 McDonough, W., Braungart, M.; Toward a Sustaining Architecture for the 21st Century - The Promise of Cradle-to-Cradle Design, USA 2003 Ministry of Transport, Building and Housing; Guideline for Sustainable Building; Germany 2001 Minke, G.; Lehmbau Handbuch der Baustoff Lehm und seine Anwendung; Germany, Staufen bei Freiburg 1994) Moffatt (edit); IEA Annex 31: The Environmental Effects of Buildings; Germany 2000. This document can also be downloaded from the web at: http://annex31.wiwi.uni-karlsruhe.de/ Olgyay, V.; Design with Climate; Princeton University Press 1963 Peuportier, B. (Ecole des Mines de Paris), Kohler, N. (University of Karlsruhe, IFIB), Boonstra, C. (W/E Sustainable Building); European project REGENER, Life cycle analysis of buildings, France 2000.This document can also be downloaded from the web at: http://wwwcenerg.ensmp.fr/francais/themes/cycle/pdf/regenersummary.pdf Platzer, W., J.; in: Solar Energy Vol. 49, Directional Hemispherical Solar Transmittance Data for Plastic Honeycomb Structures; Fraunhofer ISE, Germany 1992 Public Technology Inc., US Green Building Council; Sustainable Building Technical Manual; USA 1996 Santamouris, M., Asimakopolous, D; Passive Cooling of Buildings; Greece 1996 Schuetze, T., Willkomm, W.; Katalog praxisorientierter Umweltkriterien fr kostenoptimierte Hochbaukonstruktionen; Germany, Hamburg 2002
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Appendix 7 References Literature Schuetze, T., Willkomm, W.; Umweltauswirkungen nachtraeglicher Veraenderungen an staedtischen Wohnungsbauten; Germany, Hamburg 2000 Schuetze, T., Willkomm, W.; Planungskriterien fr Nutzungsvariable Gebaeude; Germany, Hamburg 2000 Schuetze, T., Willkomm, W.; Klimagerechtes Bauen in Europa; Germany, Hamburg 1999 Spindler H., Glicksman L., Norford L.; The potential for natural and hybrid cooling strategies to reduce cooling energy consumption in the United States; U.S.A. Cambridge 2002. Available on the World Wide Web: http://www.roomvent.dk/papers/p517.pdf ) Stulz, R., Mukerji, K., SKAT (Swiss Center for Appropriate Technology) (editor); Appropriate Building Materials, A Catalogue for Potential Solutions, Revised Edition; Switzerland, St. Gall 1993 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (DTIE), International Environment Technology Centre (IETC); Energy and Cities: Sustainable Building and Construction, Summary of Main Issues; Kenia 2001 United Nations Environment Programme, Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (DTIE), International Environment Technology Centre (IETC); Energy Management and Energy Efficiency in Eco-Design, Architecture and Construction Building a Sustainable Future, Summary of Main Issues, Kenya 2001 Vegesack, A., Kries, M. (editors); Grow your own House; Germany, Weil am Rhein, 2000 Vereinigung zur wissenschaftlichen Erforschung des Planen und Bauens in Entwicklungslaendern e.V. (gemeinnuetzig) (Editor); Trialog 71 A Journal for Planning and Building in the Third World 4 / 2001; Germany, Darmstadt 2001 Wallbaum, H., Denk- und Kommunikationsansaetze zur Bewertung des nachhaltigen Bauens und Wohnens; Germany, Wuppertal 2002 Wallbaum, H., Buerkin, C.; Concepts and Instruments for a Sustainable Construction Sector; Germany, Wuppertal 2003
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Sustainable Building and Construction

Sustainable Building and Construction

2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE MEASUREMENTS TO REDUCE GREENHOUSE GASES IN BUILDINGS.......................................10

3. APPROACHES FOR THE REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GASES IN BUILDINGS ...................................................................................................14

Sustainable Building and Construction

Sustainable Building and Construction

Illustrations 2: carbondioxide concentration

Sustainable Building and Construction

Illustrations 3: methane concentration

Sustainable Building and Construction

Illustration 5a: Principle of the greenhouse effect.

Population and climate change

Sustainable Building and Construction

Illustration 7: World population

Sustainable Building and Construction

Basic Principles of Sustainable Measurements to Reduce Greenhouse Gases in Buildings

Emissions Environmental Quality

Approaches For the Reduction of Greenhouse Gases in Buildings

Sustainable Building and Construction

Sustainable Building and Construction

Sustainable Building and Construction

Sustainable Building and Construction

Sustainable Building and Construction

Sustainable Building and Construction

Illustration 18: Small geodesic dome (non solid structure).

Illustration 19: Construction of a solid cupola in India.

Sustainable Building and Construction

Sustainable Building and Construction

Illustration 31: Advertisement for cement in the rural area of Kumasi.

Sustainable Building and Construction 3.2.1.9 Durability

Tensile Strength z 900 1.484 3.843

Bending Strength b 660 763 2.760

Shear Strength d 67 198

Concrete 0,8 Lumber 1,0

Sustainable Building and Construction 3.2.1.10 Maintenance

Sustainable Building and Construction

Sustainable Building and Construction

Recycling of building materials

Recycling materials made of residual building materials

Illustration 46: Soft fibre boards, made from scrap timber.

Recycling materials made of industrial by-products

Climate Responsive Building Design Introduction

a) as single bungalows b) as row houses c) as compact 3-story building

Illustration 47a: Volume to surface ratio of differently arranged building units.

Illustration 47b: Volume to surface ratio of different sized cubes.

a) cube 3 x 3 x 3 m b) cube 7 x 7 x 7 m c) cube 20 x 20 x 20 m

Sustainable Building and Construction

Sustainable Building and Construction

Sustainable Building and Construction

Hot and Humid Climate Zones

Sustainable Building and Construction

Sustainable Building and Construction

Sustainable Building and Construction

Sustainable Building and Construction 3.2.2.4.2 Arid Climate Zones

Illustration 50: map of arid and hot climate zones (b).

Sustainable Building and Construction

Sustainable Building and Construction

The Temperate Climate Zones

Illustration 51: map of temperate climate zones (c).

Sustainable Building and Construction

The Cold Climate Zones

Sustainable Building and Construction

Illustration 52: map of cold climate zones (d).