Unit III Nuclear Physics

Dr. Amita Maurya 3. 1 http://sites.google.com/site/puenggphysics/

UNIT - III
(Nuclear Physics)

3.1 Nuclear Structure
3.2 Static Properties of Nucleus
3.3 Mass Defect
3.4 Mass Energy Equivalence
3.5 Binding Energy
3.6 Nuclear Models
3.6.1 Liquid drop model
3.6.2 Shell model
3.7 Nuclear Reaction
3.7.1 Nuclear Reaction Cross
Section ()
3.7.2 Q-Value of Reaction
3.8 Nuclear Fission
3.9 Chain Reaction
3.9.1 Critical Size
3.10 Nuclear Reactor
3.11 Nuclear fusion



3.1 Nuclear Structure

From the scattering of alpha particles,
Rutherford concluded that the atom of any
element consists of central core called
nucleus and electron moves around it. The
entire mass of atom and positive charge is
concentrated inside the nucleus. The mass of
the electron is insignificantly small. The
nucleus is consists of two particles, proton
and neutron. Their masses are nearly same
Mass of proton (m
p
) = 1.67161 X 10
-27
Kg
Mass of neutron (m
n
) = 1.67492 X 10
-27
Kg
The proton is positively charged particle
while neutron is neutral particle. Both the
neutron and proton in a nucleus together are
called nucleons. The number of proton in a
nucleus is called atomic number and the sum
of proton and neutron number is called mass
number. The stability of nucleus depends
upon the relative number of protons and
neutrons. The n/p ratio for stable nuclei is
always greater than 1.




3.2 Static Properties of Nucleus

3.2.1 Nuclear Size (Radius)
From the scattering of alpha particles,
Rutherford showed that the mean radius of
an atomic nucleus is of the order of 10
-14
to
10
-15
meter.
As the volume of the nucleus is proportional
to number of nucleons (A);
Volume A
3
1
3
3
1
3
1
3
3
4
3
3
4
A R R
A c R
A R
o
=
|
.
|

\
|
=

t
t

R
o
is a constant and has an average vale of
1.4 X 10
-15
m

3.2.2 Nuclear Mass
Nucleus is consist of neutron and proton i.e.,
nucleons therefore, nuclear mass will be the
sum of mass of nucleons

Nuclear mass (M
N
) = Z m
p
+ (A-Z) m
n
As the mass of proton is approximately
equal to mass of neutron therefore,
M
N
= A m
p


3.2.3 Nuclear Density
All nuclei have same density.
Nucleus of Volume
nucleus of Mass
) ( nucleus of Density =
3
3
4


R
Am
p
t
=
3
3
1
3
4


|
|
.
|

\
|
=
A R
Am
o
p
t

( )
3
3
4


o
p
R
m
t
=
( )
3
15
27
10 4 . 1 14 . 3 4
10 67 . 1 3

=
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3 17
/ 10 1.48 m Kg =

3.2.4 Nuclear Charge
The proton is positively charged particle
while neutron is neutral particle, therefore
the charge of nucleus is positive, while the
atom whole is neutral
Therefore nuclear charge = +Ze
Where e is charge of electron

3.2.5 Nuclear Spin
Spin quantum number =
Spin angular momentum

2
3
) 1 ( = + = S S S

3.2.6 Nuclear Magnetic Momentum
T eV
m
e
p
N
/ 10 152 . 3
2
8
= =



3.3 Mass Defect
The difference between the measured mass
M
N
and mass number A of a nucleus is
called mass defect. Let Z be the number of
protons and (A-Z) is the number of protons
then the mass defect is
N n p
M m Z A Zm m + = A ) (

3.4 Mass Energy Equivalence
Atomic Mass Unit (a.m.u): 1/ 12
th
the mass
of C
12

atom is called atomic mass unit
(a.m.u.)
gram
10 023 . 6
12
12
1
a.m.u 1
23

=
Kg
-27
10 1.66 a.m.u. 1 =
E = mc
2
E = (1.66 x 10
-27
) x (3 x 10
8
)
2

E = 1.49 x 10
-10
Joule
E = 931 x 10
6
eV ; I eV = 1.6 x 10
-19
Joule
E = 931 MeV ; 1 MeV = 10
6
eV


3.5 Binding Energy
The energy required to break up the nucleus
into its constituent protons and neutrons and
place them at rest at infinite distances from
one another is called binding energy. This is
energy equivalent of mass defect.. It is
represented by
b
E A
2
c m E
b
A = A
Binding energy per nucleon =
A
E
b
A
= A

3.6 Nuclear Models

Various models were proposed to interpret
the properties and behaviour of nuclei.

3.6.1 Liquid Drop Model
This model was proposed by Niels Bohr in
1936. This is based on the external analogy
between the nucleus and a liquid drop.
- The nucleus is considered as a droplet of
dense liquid composed of sub droplets
of nucleons.
- The close packing of nucleons, density
and short range forces are similar to the
drop of liquid.
- The molecules in the liquid drop are in
random motion and frequently collide
with each other and the nucleus posses
the same properties

Similarities between liquid drop and
nucleus.

- In a stable state, the nucleus is spherical
in shape just as the liquid drop is
spherical due to the symmetrical surface
tension.
- The force of surface tension acts on the
surface of the liquid drop, similarly
there is a potential barrier at the surface
of the nucleus.
- The density of the liquid drop is
independent of its volume, similarly the
density of the nucleus is independent of
its volume, i.e mass number.
- The molecule evaporates from a liquid
drop on raising the temperature of liquid
due to their increased energy, similarly
when energy is given to a nucleus by
bombarding a nuclear projectile, a
compound nucleus is formed which
emits nuclear radiation immediately.
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- The nuclear force is short range force,
similarly as that of liquid drop in which
intermolecular forces are short range
forces.
- When a drop of liquid is allowed to
oscillate, it breaks up into two smaller
drop of equal size. The process is
similar in which nucleus breaks up into
smaller nuclei.
-


- When two small drop of liquid is
brought in contact they combine to form
a drop of bigger size, the process is
similar in which two lighter nucleus
combines to form a single heavy nuclei.

3.6.2 Shell Model

This model explains the stability of nucleus
also gives the nuclear magnetic momentum.
According to this model the neutrons and
protons are grouped in shells. All the shells
are filled according to Paulis Exclusion
Principle. These nucleons move inside the
nucleus in a fixed manner in its fixed orbit.

This model also strengthen the existence of
magic number
Magic numbers are 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126
etc.
- Nuclei with magic number of
nucleons are particularly stable and
are abundant in nature.
-
2
He
4
and
8
O
16
are stable, can be seen
from binding energy curve. Thus we
conclude that nucleon number2 & 8
indicate stability
- Sn (Z = 50) has ten stable isotopes,
more than any other element, while
Ca (Z = 20) has 6 stable isotopes.
This indicates that nucleus with
Z=20 and 50 are stable.
-
82
Pb
208
is the most stable isotope.
The three main radioactive series
elements decay to Pb. This shows
that 82 and 126 are stable.
- The binding energy curve has small
peaks showing extra stability for the
following nuclei.
28
Ni
62
,
38
Sr
88
,
50
Sn
120
,
58
Ce
140
,
82
Pb
208
.
-


In order to obtain the magic number, we
consider that there is a strong interaction
between the spin angular momentum S and
angular momentum L of a nucleon. The
spin S can be either parallel or anti parallel
to L. We assume that the energies are
different in the two cases. If we write j = l +
s, we get two values of j as j s. For each
value of j there will be (2j + 1) different
states corresponding to different projections
of j , thus there will be (2j+ 1) nucleons in a
state.

The shell structure is applied both to neutron
and proton separately. This has been
successful for giving the angular momentum,
magnetic momentum of nuclei. For
8
O
17
has
one neutron outside the closed shell
structure. The ninth neutron is in 3d state
with angular moment 5/2.

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3.7 Nuclear Reaction
When energetic such as proton, neutron, etc
shot as target:
1. The incident particle may be simply
deviated: Scattering
2. The incident particle may be
completely absorbed without
emission of any particle: radioactive
capture
3. The incident and emergent particles
may be different: nuclear reaction

3.7.1 Nuclear Reaction Cross Section
()
To characterize the probability that a
certain nuclear reaction will take place,
it is customary to define an effective size
of the nucleus for that reaction, called a
cross section.
It is basically an effective circular area
which a target nucleus presents to an
incident particle undergoing nuclear process.
Nuclear reaction cross-section is defined as
t o
N N
N
= o m
2
/ nucleus.
N
t
= number of target nuclei per unit area
N
o
= number of incident particles striking
per second
N = number of nuclei undergoing reaction
per second

When N
t
= 1, then
o
N
N
= o m
2
/ nucleus.
Hence nuclear reaction cross-section may be
defined as the ratio of number of nuclei
undergoing reaction per second to the
number of incident particles striking per
second, when the target nuclei per unit area
are one.

3.7.2 Q-Value of a Nuclear Reaction
When an atom is converted into another by
disintegration process, this disintegration is
represented by an equation. In the reaction
the mass and energy is conserved, as the
mass and energy are related by Einsteins
mass energy relation therefore the difference
in masses of products and reactants results
in absorption or emission of energy called
reaction energy or Q-value of reaction.
Consider a nuclear reaction
D C B A + +
Let M
o
= mass of target nucleus A
(assuming stationary).
M
1
, E
1
= mass & energy of projectile C
M
2
, E
2
= mass & energy of product nucleus
C
M
3
, E
3
= mass & energy of product nucleus
D
Applying the law of conservation of energy,
) ( ) ( ) (
3 3 2 2 1 1
E M E M E M M
o
+ + + = + +
Or
Q E E E M M M M
o
= + = + +
1 3 2 3 2 1
) ( ) ( ) (

As Q is the energy balance, hence the above
equation ca be written as
) ( ) (
3 2 1
M M M M Q
o
+ + =
This Q is librated or absorbed in a reaction.

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Case I: if ) ( ) (
3 2 1
M M M M
o
+ > +
Q will be positive and the reaction is
exothermic i.e., the energy is librated in
the reaction.

Case II: if ) ( ) (
3 2 1
M M M M
o
+ < +
Q will be negative and the reaction is
endothermic i.e., the energy is absorbed
in the reaction.

Case III: if ) ( ) (
3 2 1
M M M M
o
+ = +
Q =0 This is the case of elastic collision.

3.8 Nuclear Fission
The splitting of the nucleus of an atom into
parts lighter nuclei often producing free
neutrons and other smaller nuclei is called
nuclear fission. Fission of heavy elements is
an exothermic reaction which can release
large amounts of energy.

In 1938, two German scientists Hahn and
Strassmann showed that when uranium is
bombarded by neutrons, one of the
radioactive element produce is an isotope of
Barium (
56
Ba
141

). They found that barium
was accompanied by a radioactive isotope of
the gas Krypton (
36
Kr
92
). This division of
nucleus is called nuclear fission.
The process of this nuclear reaction:

When
92
U
235
is bombarded by slow neutrons
it forms an unstable compound nucleus.

The compound nucleus splits into nearly two
equal parts. Three neutrons are also released
in the reaction.

Q n Kr Ba U
o
+ + + +
-
1 92
36
141
56
236
92
1
o
235
92
3 n U


3.8.1 Energy Released in Fission
Large amount of energy is released in the
fission because the original mass of the
nucleus is greater than the sum of the masses
of the product produced in fission.
This difference in the masses is converted
into energy
According to Einstiens equation, E = mc
2


Energy Released in One Atom of
Uranium
Q n Kr Ba
o
+ + + +
1 92
36
141
56
1
o
235
92
3 n U


Actual mass before fission
Mass of
92
U
235
= 235.045733 a.m.u.

o
n
1
= 1.008665 a.m.u.
--------------------------------------------------
Total Mass (initial) = 236.054398 a.m.u.
--------------------------------------------------

Actual mass after fission
Mass of
56
Ba
141
= 140.9177 a.m.u.

36
Kr
92
= 91.8854 a.m.u.
3
o
n
1
= 3.025995 a.m.u.
--------------------------------------------
Total Mass (final) = 235.829095 a.m.u.

Mass defect = 0.2253 a.m.u.
Energy Released = 0.2353 x 931
= 209.8 MeV

3.9 Chain Reaction
The chain reaction is self propagating
process in which a number of neutrons go on
multiplying rapidly almost in geometrical
progression till the total fissionable nuclei in
the material are fission. A neutron striking
a U-235 nucleus initiates the fission
process.
In practice not all the neutrons produced
in fission participate in further fission.
Some of the neutrons are lost as a result
of capture by U-238, by other nuclei in
sample, or escape from the sample.
Out of three neutrons are produced in the
fission of U-235 if one is absorbed by an
atom of uranium-238 and does not continue
the reaction. Another neutron is simply lost
and does not collide with anything, also not
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continuing the reaction. However one
neutron does collide with an atom of
uranium-235 nucleus and initiates fission,
then the chain reaction will continue. If
each of the newly emitted neutrons
induces fission in a neighboring nucleus,
the number of fission event grows at a
rapid rate. The process is called chain
reaction



Neutron Multiplication Factor:
The condition of chain reaction is
determined by availability of neutrons and
expressed in term of a multiplication factor;
K of the system.
generation previous in present Neutron of Number
generation a in present neutron of Number
K =

Case-I; When K >1 i.e., number of neutron
present in a generation is greater than the
number of neutron in the previous
generation. The chain reaction will proceed
explosively and the size of substance is
called SUPER CRITICAL.

Case-II; When K = 1 i.e., number of
neutron present in a generation is equal to
the number of neutron in the previous
generation. Thus the neutron population is
constant, the chain reaction will be self
sustained and the size of substance is called
CRITICAL.

Case-III; When K < 1 i.e., number of
neutron present in a generation is less than
the number of neutron in the previous
generation. The chain reaction will stop
gradually and the size of substance is called
SUB CRITICAL.

3.9.1 Critical Size
Fission occurs throughout the volume of the
reacting body, and neutron leakage takes
place through the surface of the body. As
neutron produced is proportional to volume
and neutron leakage is proportional to
surface area, Uranium is taken in shape of
Sphere.
Consider Uranium is taken in shape of
Sphere of radius R, then
Neutron production rate
3
1
3
1
3
4
R C R N = t
Neutron Loss rate in non fission,
absorption
3
2
3
2
3
4
R C R N = t
Neutron Leakage rate
2
3
2
3
4 R C R N = t
C
1
, C
2
, C
3
are proportionality constants
For reaction to continue
3 2 1
N N N + >
2
3
3
2
3
1
R C R C R C + >
3 2 1
) ( C R C C >
) (
) (
2 1
3
say C
C C
C
R =

>
The above equation implies that the larger
the size of the body the lesser the escape rate
as compared to the production rate.
Therefore there is always a certain size
called CRITICAL SIZE is required for
maintenance of chain reaction.

3.10 Nuclear Reactor
Nuclear reactor is a device in which self
sustained nuclear fission reaction is
controlled to produce the heat energy which
can be used to generate electricity. Many
useful products are also produced in the
reactor like neutrons, isotopes etc.
The components of nuclear reactor are:

Reactor Core: This is the main part of the
reactor in which the fission reaction takes
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place and energy is liberated. The core
contains fuel and moderators.



Reactor Fuel: Fissile materials are used as
reactor fuel. Naturally accruing uranium
consists of 99.3% U-238 and 0.7% U-235
can be used as fuel. Practically Enriched
uranium having 3% of U-235 is used as fuel.
Another fissionable material is Pu-239
which is artificially produced by U-238.

Reactor Moderator: In the fission process
fast neutrons are produced. These fast
moving neutrons has low probability to
induce fission. To slow down the energy of
these neutrons moderators are used.
Moderator material must have high
scattering cross-section and low reaction and
absorption cross-section also the atomic
mass should be low. The commonly used
moderators are water, heavy water, graphite
and beryllium.

Reactor Reflector: The neutron produced
may leak away from the core. To prevent the
loss the core is surrounded by material
which reflects back the neutron in the core
such materials are reflectors. These
reflectors are made of nickel and the inner
lining is of the moderator material.

Control Rods: The rate of the nuclear
reaction is controlled by the control rods so
that the energy released in a steady state.
Cadmium and Boron are used to control the
number of neutron in the core. These have
high absorption cross-section so they absorb
the neutrons.

Coolants: Intense heat is generated in the
core this heat is removed using coolants for
safe operation of reactor. Water, heavy
water and liquid alkali metals are used as
coolants.

Shielding: Thermal and biological shield is
required to minimize the harmful effect from
heat and harmful radiations. Thermal shield
is made of steel walls and biological shield
is made of 2 meter thick concrete wall.

3.11 Nuclear fusion
Nuclear fusion is the process in which two
of lighter nuclei combine together to form a
single nucleus. In the reaction large amount
is energy is released but the reaction occurs
at very high temperature.

4
1
H
1

2
He
4
+ 2
1
e
0
+ 2 + 2 + 26.8 MeV