Mis Unit 2

Systems Informolion 60 Monogemenl Dime 3,4.
2 Sr,siness ht di plan
SS5TEH DEvEtoPH
g Nl'
ThLrs, s1 a pcric'd. fle ,
mirnagersat strate It manxgers. is becau of the
in functions dn orgxn Dime 3.4.3 Techrticol
dimension Different tvpesof information are fron, its business ncds of The rnfrirmalion hienrchyz conr'o ,t,n ;{o.e qt oper:norral i ii-f.r"n' 'lr ire alro to required performdiffcrent levebf I managers different as bee! di
various aspeclsof cts of dre database. of this dimension in respotrrc f fircludethe capacitvo: dar.lbrse, dimension, rvhich arlconside rhe database, Technicaldimensionis covereduncle! designof tionship, etc rifte, security,validitY,datn int system' managemen! and systems underd1etopic of database infofmntion A :i.5 SYSTEMI DEFINITION 'Th. lvord svstem' rs used quLleofren in our everydaylife We talk about an educalionalsysrent' qvi-crn'nd <o on comPuter solarsvstem. sy(rem. circularory ,..1;,;."f.y.,1n.."c"n."r'c .ysrcm. '"i1*:;i";"; or rrc a collection elements feanre, wlilch all thesesvsiensshare,is drat thev preci'e' 'r svstemmrv b defirrcd ,i; ."qui."a e*l' r" u" 'o!e sPecificand t",;;;';;';;;,"ve For,examPlqa bullness a to of ioined together achjeve common obiective secuons' parts (divisrons) departments' ". ""..t "l.rn.ntr, as can be considered a systen rn which the nrgnnir"tion clearthat a system it.is goal ln suchan orlanisarion' for u'rji,, ioi,t,a,ogether a conrmon whichcan be idcnrificd oI "t".) "r" iitl''er it coltsists elemeDrc ,"t of i;'""i' ,'l'i"i',ry
3,6 KttiDs Diftercir linl {it ibslri (iiJ dfrcrn l iijl (,||]) r
(iv) L'r,!._,I
3,6,1 .I.i.isrr
"tr".i'u1",1 of "l..ent'; purpose a go4l' " ol ,r't"Lr"a a *al otherbccbuse a common
(;lhst]aur) ,]0cl (physicAl), An
3.5.1 Multiple Meoning ol the Word'System' dris 'Thelrl)ove trms ln acrual is Pfaclice' reflI findsirc usage of definit'on a system in generalised 'system' ul ihingsto iiffcrent pcoplc means-different Tlie word ,livexeways. i" ( system?', is yotrr Ls "i"'ty office xskedwhat ",r.i "r."rlru in sirperuisora chairman\ ,iri",ir,,. il an office .1llf.,-,î boss?" k".p vo,,i fil,, i" 'o'h a wav as to takeonewhe' wanted vou. .bv ;';;;;;";'il;;;;y;i, order'llf a '1 keeothe frlcsvear-wise rhenactivity-wise alphabetical in and i-ri *"r" *"',ra be: rhe in manaser an orsanisarion, reply lvoulclbe in a 1i"1,,î.1""u". r"-*,"Jil, a svsfem' svsren's about6 comPute! whenaskcd "-a,J,i". Similarlv, JIii","".'."""*, p.i"inlng to hi' svsrem
On rh,r o rh,
:" i?d!fi *liil"d;,'.',,TT$:,.,lrulffw i;H.:l';h::t:il;'iJllf '^"i,t ""j':i: standsfor thekii'rdof a svstem thjterm'system' and analysis design, tysrems ii""Ji.lipri""
"r we dealwidr' involv$g syscems with concerned man-made we system, aie usually info.matjon In ,n nngelnant in and inp,rt,procirses output,as represCnted Fig 3'3'
3.6,2 Deiorn
$'hichprrloms A prr.rbabitist Though bc|, thc
i rie. :;:
n vodel ot u sv,t".n
Informoiion System ond Concepts6l Oeregarded a setof enlides elements as or inreracting amongthemselves il ^ ÎI:: iy,r:e]n.-* ptocess ir ceftarn manner ro cenhininpu$ ro produce certain (objecivei)in"adefrrircrime ourputs pcriod. The concepr raultipleinpursand ourputs of may be represenred shownin Fig. :.4. as
differer)! rfl(,Lm
lnpul Oulpul Oulpul
of i,iLrs,rspccs
Fig, 3.4 Sysrem lvith MultipleIrpurs and O!tputs
3.6 KTNDS sYsrGMs i OF

Differenr rcnr kihds of sysrem" krlJs m:y be understooJ as: (i)abstraoand physical .vrrFh" abstract bhvsi.,l sysrenrs, cationnlsysteNi
ir lererminrsric prob.Jbilisric and sysrems, rilrtopen closed and sysremb, and (j9)user-machine systems,
nuy be defincd
3.6,1 AbstrFct ond physl.ql Systms .11"r*oed a, abstracr sysrems physical .y,rcms. and rherecanbi misundcr*,rntlirrss :':,::t-:il_h tilks ,bour rI,one person an information syslem a sr)!of concep;s, s,.or,characreflstr a9 idea cs (rbsrract) his lisrener arld perceivesas ar ir
c o n t e r p . t r rr r h er e a i
:an be iclenrified
(pr,y,.,r)_ J;;;;;"i";:,;;i ,i";1.;,r".;;; ?fiT::ffld'il:nJ.1,fi,1j?,:,:.",,i$ I n a yo r n r r y n o r h a v ea n v qorld.Fo-ex.rnpre.:.r.rcnr

:1i ;?::tj"X1,:;T{:,",,:if1,jfl}""', whichrn ' derry is arr:rrgemerr auo,,r ofidcr. c
--On dre oiher hand,.physjcalsystemsare glerally concrere operational sysremsmade up of.
l findsits usage pcople in ffcrcnc lf ri.ri or.1er' x ' rlould bc in n ysrcln, sysrcms a , Ill, IV etc.i 8
-*l=;^;f,,,.Wru:f/,""".?:i+*i:ff"
.y,rern;nd o.\er,. compute-
3.6,2 Oeterministi.qnd probobillsti. Systems

A determinisric systemis lonein which the occurr"n"eiol nll eu",.rt" known wirh is cerrainry,ln such descriprionof rhe syrremstate a,ra parricular point of dme of irs sl",.i operanon,rhe :"ll,tll:,i .,:::,*b.-l-._jl:,lt Anexalere .;cha ,).,J_,. ;;;;;;;,.;;o;., 0,.,,,,,, of :::l pc-Iorrn.e),icrlyJ.co.djnsro r \Fr of Estructrons, lr:.1,.red wl-i,l.pcrrurub cxac y accordrng a set i lrr probabilisticsysremis one in which rhe occLlrence A of eventscan,.r t- perfdly predic ! e d . 'thorgh cannor b i o!gh the behaviour sucha system bedesciibed i.r., lhe behavioLrr such systemcanbe des.liU.a i of can ln of probabili!y, cerrain o.oU"U;ti a degree oi error rs alrvaysanached to the prediction of the bfhavlour of is atrached oI the svstem.I exampleof sLrch An a tem rs a set of insftucions ol hstrucrions given ro a person who _r" nn, follnw ih" i, sivento person *Lo -"y no, r"l.'*',t," i,*.*".1, **ay :f:.-.ls. l-,:::
gren. Anodrer js example a wareho'se i,, *,',""".6r""" s . . e np o r n ro r r i m e ., h e r v e - a s e e m , ",itd .h e l e n s r h . ; j m ; , , ";;;;;;""i,#;.:#':,": d :n r o 1."1."p...*
""
"-.",
_.., *"
62 Monoge+en lnfo-no'or Svslerrs contcnts al the next poinr in rime could not be per{ectLy Ptedicted ln our daily life, we usuallv '..,r<ru fu.1.rr' , ruL,' prV*o r.r.. ;y;.en,'. 3.6.3 Open ond Closed Syslerhs information, material, An open sysrenis one that intera$s with its environmentand fius exchanges are includingrandotnand undefinedinputs.Open systems adrpn\e or energywith the environment, .s to favour tlieir continued in nature as they tend to react with the environmentin such a way; so in rn drerr organr'.'riurr are .ri.rerce.5.rch cysremr \clf-orgarrsrng. rlre sen.ernat rhey change (e.g, plants, cells, etc.)areppensystems. ro condrhons. livingsysterirs humans, All respoo\e ch3nging the Tlicy strempt to mainrain equilibrium by homeost3sis, processof adjustingto kepl the sysrem in which is sensirive changes cultgmer tastes, ro operatingwirhin prsscribedlimits. 4.n organisarion its p|cferences, adjusts ils ptice6, +hanges likings, dislikings, demands,etc,, and in consequence procluct mix or looks for new matkets,is an open organisation.All organkarionsgssentiall)'ire opqn sysiems they cannotwotk in isolation.Thus, the systems .ls analystusullly dealswith adaptive, tn A closedsvstcmrs onc which does not inreractwirh ils environment,Suchsvstems ousrness" are common. ThJs, the systemsthat are relarively *0rta, ,,. r"*, but relarivelyclosed eyslems (which actually systems isolaredlrom rhe environmenrbu! not completelyclosed,ar'etermedclosecl system rrftansa relativelyclosedsystem),For example,a computer program is a relctiveiy 91osed previouslydefinedinputs and provldesouipurs too io a previously it and processes bccause accepts defined rvay. In orhe| wqrds, we may say that a relatively clodpdsysten js one whiah conrrols ils inputs, and outputs rnd is protectedfrom rhe environmentaldlsturbances, 3.6.4 User-Mochine Systemg systens.It is difficult to rhurk ai:e Most of the physicalsystems useflnachine(of human-machine) of of ir systemcomposedonly of peoplewho do nor utilis equipraent somekind $ achievetheir gcrLrls. user-machine In systenrs, both, i,e. humin as well as machineperfornr sonreactiviticsin the (m'ry be com :rer lraldw,re Th machineelemenls :rccomplishurenr a goal (e,g.decision'making|. oI pf :re relatively closedAnd dererdinislic, whereasthe human elenrents the systenr and sofrware), do probabilistil. doubt,sonre sy(emsthat arepurelymechanlcitll exls!,btrl rre openand No sm!ll ^f combrnatrorrs hunranand people. Various t[re)'d(eusualll a par! qf a largersystenrnvdlvrng Foi inslancein a system) computei plays a maior lole and Iluman simply the |rachinc are possible, nonirols the rnachineoperation. At rhe other exlreme, the machineperforms a supporting role while d1ehuman perforps dre signjflcantlork. The division betweenfuman and nachjn will rhus vary trpln systmtq system. ] it. Tlre !1sq! difficuJrio sp irbit|irrilv,d srmihrsrurl! producrion s, gorngpf0ccss Fjg.3.5.
Eachsyst,ror c
Block Box l'he lrirrsiornr However,Lhci callcd a bltlck
3.7
SYSTEM RELATFD CONCEPTS
3.7.1 Boundqry lnterfo.e ond Block Box Boundory

rlie users needto deine or deseribe s)"teq undersrud,v ln order to focuson a particuhrsysrem! m:y exrst eithe! physicallyoL l"his is donc with the help of a boundary.The boundary of a sysrem
3.7.2 'y.ler
q
I Informotion Sysiem ond Concepls63
,rti,n,Draterirrl, Le rrr rr adrptivc oritinisition in
i]r. sysrem, use The ". "'"ray "i concept. enabli.. ,y.r"., ,r" l:9-d_uctron a sysren, of a boundary gorng process,as "."iyr,-i"-a"f,* Ir further enables ro lookar rheptoblem a whole ro sctup him ""_ as and trll"r"r. to look ar i$ various srrb_sysrenu. boundary The hr, l..n a.pi.t.A i,, il:. "on."pt
T"'lll'lr1Ti;'n|;:",11i?"". "*ai"",,v",.system, incrude one may *.",,**i"r" :l#,ijl #li:,'"TjJ::iJi:.:".:*:ii,Xl srmilar study mayexclude either matenals firirl.a go"ai; UJ?". ,"'"i, raw ""jli"'l'r,'il;.:I o,
;,";,3::{]i:r'ii*:fq:ti';:T,!rytx,:",,-{::}:il::::;t sJ's'lem.case, .'r'. Intrrat app,*" ::iT,:[:
lnpur theSystem ro rr rrc rclnrivcly ( \ \hi c hx c t u r l l Y
O L r t p u t k ol n aS y s l s m h
Fis. 1.5 Boundrrics
bavesub-sysrems which,in nrm, aremaderlp of units.The inrerconneclions and l1:f-:f.:""."" rnrelicuons anrong sub-sysrems called rhe are interfaces, Thxiisslro*n;n O,r,r.n,
(o Lii:li.Lrh dli1rk
Inrorlacetnrerconf ec|ons ar rte dounaary , Fig. 3.6 Intecldce
8/oclBox
cl hnLran siLlply rLrpportingrole
*1"," p."i.*., ,L-.", Ii,:,"'jl:,,1:_'if.,,: (d rco r DrJrr( " _. r)oxsv3renr. (onceDr: b,.r.k bor hr, b"en :lu(rr;ed lhe ol rn FtA .
oetineo n4ri --El-prooess(tfansiormarion) detined not
Thetransformarion pipcess certain in sub,sysrems, especially rhelowesr at lpvelmaynor bedcfined.
.lo o,,rp,,s known. u,. Sucrii,u*yi..
a.l,.a, i"
oolnedourpur
Fis. u,jr, uo* ,.,

3.7.2 SysiemDecomposition Anysy$encanbedivided into smaller systems knownassub*ystems n sLrb_system further and can bedivided slilt smatler inro systems calteisub*ub_syscems, which,in turn. crrnbJdjvidedh!o sri
trer pLrysicallyol
Informoiion Sysiems 64 Monogemenl size are This continues until the smallest sub-systems of manageable The smaller systems. pfobss of and concept sub-systemsan important of is aspedandis basic theanalysis design information to when considered a whole as it a sysrems, because is difficult to comprehend complexsystem The qyslems for and is Therefore, the sakeof convenience clarity,a system dividedinto smaller The process dividingor factoring system smaller inlo systems knownasdecomposition. subis of a a usualLy form hierarchical strucures.'lndre hierarchy, sub_ ,y.temsresulring lrom this process (thesystem in aboveir). This is shorvn Fig. 3.8. A typital system one element supra-system is of
decbmpos in ex-rmple : sysrFm of ron .s depicted Fig. i.9.
T /
I
l.
Thccorccp
onnrgri rh" ,
should evollc
3.8 ELEMIN
lb undcf!fihd pl,ocessed !virh
Fig. 3.8 Hjerarchicol Relations of.Sub-systems (B!s Syslen noss 0rganhallon)
P { Markeling roduclion Financo
I
(Saes
Pronollon iilarkelng Ressarch
sub-sub-sub+ys16m {Advsrlsns Publiclry t";i",Jr.' . Fig. 3.9 System Deconposilion Fisurej.rijl IDpur Drr) be Datais delirre<ir OutpLrt dcfi is
.y'!ern i5 lhc proc".' of de:omposrrion <mal.er rnro systems u'ed botl Lo analy'e rn exr5rrng and ro designand implementa new system,On the basisof an objective,the systemdnslyst has to constituresthe so dr.rrv the boundariesand defini the interfaces that fie sum of rhe sub-syslems
3.7.3 lnlegrotion o{ Sub-syslems it HoweveL systoms {or rhesakeof clariry. only A sysrem dividedinto smaller is dictates role bf the sub-systenr. the
the whole which dccision-mrtrirg.
Inrormolron Syrtem ond Concepis 65 (jze, I he rrillerDre rign of information :lcrccl as a rvhole. rilcr systems. Th Ltosirion. The subhiemrcily, r subiiig" 3.3. A rypiial
:--l
l,l:f#1truru:*:i;J*1.1._;*lil::ii_iir;ii"T,,,,.J, il:lj':.,j;.'?*;,i:,m*,:l:r,lij:f,',,i*i,"li",l",illi'l.,lJ,::fi ,r,; J',i,.'*r,"ri';,r".','#: :T:ir :l:,:.o,*,*".'ni irrhrough il:,1H,#iil:iT':,fi,,:T"trJ unferstand irs --1 p,.,,.
been ;JfiTfil;l]'i: Tljlito portrayedr1g. i" i.ro,
3.8 EIEMENTS o,
F i g . 3 . 1 0Systcm a Whoh (Integrarion a3 of Sub_sysrenN) Tbe conceptof inregrariondraws arrention or syslemrs a svsrm.whi.h u"u.,,-" ^^ ,:",-tli ltilttary importanceoI rhe whole systcnr. The
rr. int.!,,iiion ,#,y,*'u,r,o. oi',i,"J
o rtt[
sLown below as
To undentrnd a gencralsysrem, ler us rake an .ynm^t_ ^r ^ ^..^,--- j example- a systenrin which cerLarn? of pfocessed olriil rs wirh t'heohip..',," .^ .^-.,--, ," ,--!". "n
j:fi:fl.{::l;: "bn",i"" i,i.i"r,i"#iili#o:.il:,T:ljl#f!:i lln:'::il.',,l#. p"*"."

Classily Son,
E,foclivens6slot Dscis on
Fig. 3.11 DaraConversioa A _
urr i. de'rned simbols.fact..jigures rs or relar or,-asvsreF.r.s operarion. Uurpuri' delined ,h. rcc,,r. ^- _-,c ^r
r rte rbJ.e,y.,.,.. ..,,,i,.'a"" r, :;:j',u."ll;
havin* inpu!, processor outpur irserencnrs. and as il::i."i;lijin::T::"ty^pical.sysrem
:;lii,.lt";.1i1.$::, lt:,j#i: :::5;,:.".,;i;jt*ml;il,i;;:;:::;#; Tj:l::: inro, or to be the resulf : l;.1:lr:i::.illFl;:;:;.:;;*.?;:;.'iffiil1'',i:',::#;:iJ:i"
;fJi:i;:i[::fi::il';?;:':::,:ll,rl":,llr"-F;;,,i;;r;,';;:';;i'l,il,i, ITti:::j:"%::rj::t :1";j ij,-.,, ill:l.li,:;:'':Jh:T#; ,';;#;"-;._';i:iil,jii,.;llii"i,lll.lii::T;11jij"j:, ;:::,,"",",,.*ij:,.;,,-'li::i; decision-making.
isrhe end of :J:::j;ij""tlT*,j:.;i:."i1",:t:,"-"t",-,-"t1.":.o.utpur resurr asystem, rhus and it
66 Ma-ogerenl Info-noror Syst"n's activity lhat converrsinput mto otrlput The actualclassificarion is The orocess the transfbrmarion or its lorting, sunrmarisingard calculatingby people by themselves tlirough some of the iata, functiorls, machines, processing the data. Peopl, of (e.g.rhroLrgh represents conputers) other rneans theseact as plocessors. orlanisarions,and combinationsof opernrions, and are lhe terms bl i.e. and output are common to all systems Theseelelrrents, inpui, processor, in terms of theseelementsAnd dleir \0e nray define any system rvhich all systemsate descfibed. of prope(ies. !flhile describingthe elements a system,an attempt has been made lo explain dle from.thi descrlption However.ir shouldnot-beconcluded proiessgrin a simpleand in a generalway, of as ln rre wirhin the proce,,o- ;s simple deprcted. frft. iLis becru'e lhe cumplelr/ il."r ' pcr.rLronr a can be illusrrateilin sinple tLrat oftre orocessor rr rs alsoknown.lsa blockbox. This comploliry of system. The black box or processor our earlierexamfle of a data Ptocessing rl,ay by considering the dr8 systcmdescribes Iollowing opfariors. Thougir, in1 They are raril
control, Thesetrvo s controlis defir specificalh, fee
(j) Classification, (ii)Sorihs, rnd liii) Summrris;rg, (iv)Cllcuhtion.
shown !ig,3,11. in has Thc process been (FiF.3.12), as san1e syslehmay be undersrood havingfo r sub_systems the In simplerterms,
Sodsd Dah
Da l a
3.9 HUMI{lt, Humcr is an ill
and sub-Syitems Fis.3,12 DataPlocessin8
become extrenlely whicl) at frrsrglanceappearto be srnrple. of Thus, nrc,st the systelnptocessors, in conDlexwhen theyare sdudied detail accurately and pleciselyalqoleadsto complexity the Li,rbility to clefirie constrainr or bounda{ies For example,it is difficult to\decidethe boundariesfor a personne|infprmation in the processqr. thi que{trons, whether shouldrnclude sub-sysrcms it on One mav firrdit difficultto arrswer svsrem, No and scheduling placemen!, discidline, safeiy, ol tLiining,recruiting, Payroll,labourrel.rtions whoseconcept oJficr. drftersfrom that of a personnel view of the sysrem doubt top manag.n',errris records,recruitmentand seleciorl,Neither of theseviews of the ,yrtem nrry includeonly personnel is incorrect;they'only indicate the alternativeways of defining fie processorThis complexity oi deflnesthe lloundariesof the systcttt can be overcomeif a systemanglystor designer rhe processor to so as si,ecificallyas possible; rhat limits maylbe placedon the sub-systems be srudied' . ihe ;elationshipof iniut, proces and output have beenshown rn Fig 3 12 hrpur, processand to as parameiers. pafinrerer defined J consrant whrchproPernes ir A outr;ur are alsocilled systenr .'re ..r'j ",.'lL'c. .r'cr beo.
(i) seNo,'yr (ii) Proccsjio (iii)ltcspolr$
r.c.ihc brsin.Tl) ffogjssng ot s|lr Il1o{eli dcpicrcl
Informoiioi ond System Concepts 6Z r.lclassitcation !uougn some -, Though.rnput.processor
(o explain the his ilescrip!ion thr;complexity 1r'd a sirnplc in
::.J,T:. "r,
"i:i:;;']li::'*0":"' lJ:"f;XiJ.'J"&:H:l[T, ro cusLomer, the the orherwise ;ll"J:i:f,:]rri.i:il"i; """rernain-in permit system "";;";*Ii:l:'",T;,',.,rm:::l; dre ro equilibrium i; J;i;4;;; .;,;;"?eat*t
",
ll::.",f":f:::
and rlrey-aredynam,. ourputar, rather .n""r!" "ô ";;i,,0,.,1,1,i1&:l;'.9.n':rurt""rj:Tffi"i;il,i1 tt'" to .*"'toi'or outiur'"ii" '*'i"i"'va*'e*
,,.,a
i,er leedback conroloccur and togethir arediscussedone and 4s tlleters rs conlrol, feeclDAct< as firnctron rhar ouipotlvi,t, o .oJ"i'* ,,lna*a. uo* ::i_:1:lc a l":.tr:,oa c krhe.tysrem s p e c . l r i: l ye d b j s r h e f u n c t i o n r h a t p r o v"o_p","i i. r-- e s-"'*"*" r u o n d n r f F , t . " i , . ^ o rntorm oelweenoutput .rndthe predcrrbed siandards(Ior conrrol ;. '-:-' and delivels.rhisinfouarion as inputl iDro rhc process whichrt., ^,,.--, ...^^ ^,--, n" ]rl3l..) Drocess tfnni frori wlrirh rheo'tput wasobraa "'"11_1,i.li:".1," svstenr runciiorr that compafes con,pafeq ourpu!, dirrpu!, a pre-determined to ro ore.derrmine.j ..""i,I"':::::l':] i. i^l:j:l:':l:k correcring Jevlarion cont*f is achieved ;;r#il ,"ii#;; by ;" rhe Deiween ourput standard, feedback "ond"rd. and The .t"nieoiiitulr"J,Ji" ir_.ili: E "na "ont,ot
il;;;ff ;;;: ::T{:'il:l:::f.T:1.:',:'::.'ll':::ll'-i:**: #;:H';:i}::'"""iffi:
,;;;;;;;,;;;;;;;"i;Jffj,:'ff:J::,f1i,T,::l: *::::l:r,:i,.::,,:f-S11111on,.wricr
riirirr.3.12)
Oulpur
Fig. 3.13 A Complere System
3.9 HUMA\As AN TNFORMATTON PROCESSTNG SYSTEM

HLrmaD s ah i a
which consisrs of
lon processrng systemcan be understood following componenrs:
$e help of a slmple model,
(i) Sensolv receo 1iaPut"1, (ij)Procelising unir, " nd
liii) Respcinse oueur,

te11sory leceptars in.hd sk1n1 etc. These recepror captMe sriDuli, which nllry be visual, rears, auditorl,tactile.and from,the envronmentnd rmnslrrirrhem ro the pro.essing,mit, r.e.rhc brain. The proiessing 'rhe b a:n u.e, a vrnery o' .p,\r.rt:.ed piocc.\rnB c(nur ....(. mmory unirs ro handlp differeni ol procesc.ng nemor) funcri(n.. Ihe .e.ul-sur , rnd {0e( rL pfocessing.of stinruji by ,brain are tc\a,s. onputs. su.h a. de.r,ion, rrken .,nd rr",<.pLrforn,:d. llreseresutrsmay alsg be in the 'orNl p!ysicalmovernr..speecl.rnd orher -rpon,e,. Jhc model depicted Fig.3.14. is in
rjrcduljng. No
.omplexity of ,iicd.
SD;-C+
jqafe",
\J
otevc"r'oTr'-ent ?^,:"",f JL/ sil..te.u^ :r' *7*,-^, q h'fu'f

Concepl o at-
,'
--t,rtL!-l,ute'd
"***: ,
;;
ar^-,;o* *
o ..\pôpa ^lyLv tcta_cL4.-
Yql^ ,^*":',:'
::'*t:3n'x
" +*
'pt+1ztt
: :
* :': *::!)! -YY.f:;'{ 1**

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Ltin iransaction r thatcollectively stlact orphyslcal. ndent ideas 1/rhile aiher achiev to a lief is an abstract lputer ha!dware )t wewill discuss rdevelopmentof nentinformation I11ajortechniques
It receives inpui oui.Itisasystcm : theoPlational anorganlSahon,
ale designedto 'remanagement ecjsionSupport r 0\.IlS) and Daia oi!l irrformaiion ei nunagement ar desiBred to )rSanisaiionfol :ompuier is t]1e al and informal MiS and DPS ysjs and desitn on ofcBIS.
systems, these activiiies mustbedoneexplicltlywith properplanning Whethera systemis small or iarge,Eoftware and docunentation. Deveopflenl development reiolves aroundalife cyclethatbeginswith lhe recogllition A theil problbm. plan is madefor of use$' needs and understandilg are bf solving problem thenasequence Acilvities Pe odnedsteP the and fordeveloPiflS by step. basic that The activitieg phases, areperfolrned or a softwarealei 1) Feasibility Sfrdyr Feasibility study is the first phasein trrom06ri!i (Fandidate system)Thisphase development a new system of a staltswhen the user faces problemin the aunent system (manual a requesi computerised) submits formal and oralready softwaledeveloPment to the EDP departriento! an Outside the company eitherfor a net{ syptellor for rnodifying curlent incharge ihe of system. After receivrng re{uest,the overall team,gystemsfu'\alysi,beginsihe softwale development whetherthe system preliminaryinvestigations determine to develoD !eouested feasible is to ornot, decides the that analyst 2) SVstcms Atrdllsi*When thesystems to thc management agrces requested systeh is leasible and thenext phAse SDLCi5 of coniinue development the procbss, requircments. phaseincludes This determinatioh systemg of existingsystem detailsand collectiiSdatain in sludyingof of orderto find out therequirements theusers, 3) SystehsDesigll:After collectingand studyinS user's This Phaseinvolves the lequirements, systemis designed. and idenlification inputsdata, oufbutrcports theProcedures of io process data. the when the design(prSperly of softraarc: .iir"tip*"it deprrongni, tbc is rccepted the requested by documenred) proFammers designing drtr siruclures wfilingoi ind strrt of and program. pro$ammers theirindividualPrograms test The intetra!ethemintoa srngle syslem. In sVstefis is ihe vj of Testitlg:TesH^g rnost talphase SDLC. this v;ithdifferent techniclues phase, system a wholeis tested the as is toensure thesoftware bugfrec. that
6) Iftplelflefitation:Thetested systemis installedai the user'sPlace aJldimplemented. This is Senerally considered L\e last phaseof SDLC. However, the systemsdeyelopment work con inues until the departmentaccePts candidalesystemille usersof requested rhe nced io b, . Afler ,mplamentariou, systems Maint?nafirc: ir_ order to adrpt the charSint busines. re"d5. maintained Maintenance sometimes consideledasa Phaseof SDLC, is noi but it is an essential parLof a soffwarc projectthatnever ends
rn easytask.In e irlvolved and ll application /asingleorfew . Bui; Ior larSe
7t
The different phasesof Software DevelopmentLife Cycle (SDLC)are ilhrstrrted inFigure 8. L

p R o l E (P t A l t | l l l l A , l a t Y sllls D 0 ! 5 l G N f M L'5 9 1 T 2 0 l ol
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't:1
ii
i . SDtC
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tisft s.l 5!wnPhr.Jols;lrvoi'O0y!topn.rl|.thCrih
agiin. tha so i, *1r_".:î':.T:9:9!: !:reviewed Thjs t dju.yrtun, "o",pi"t"ry a-cccpiedrhe by requested deparb.n;nt,
isth".*'ron,*i,y-,fif,-Iffi termis used soitware in de;elopmenr phases.:w" ii='.r* -iir "il".t
rmay oeposslbletnat candidate It may bepossible tlt candidaie that the system due to anymajormistake fats faib anymajormisrake ri an{ oj th: devetopmenr ph6se.In lhat case,;ny or all of the :::'llled
8,4 $5S
8.3 SYSIEMS
analystis a SIrlamJ onolyJts A systems k faJponribh lordsvglop. ano oojgchvesand ctctermines procedure !o achievethe oblectives, a nenl 50flv/ore. of He is l}re- member key ofbothMISorganisrtion rie softwariproleit and team.He ts a person_wjth uniqueskiLls, e),.penence. personail,y Roh Syrrsn ol Anolyn and common sense. role hasbeenemerging His with advences ri teclmolog)'. 8,3.1 Ro|tofSysTlsANl|YsT Thesystems rnalystplays followrng the roles during elopment c de\ ol system. analysi: The . studies probleins the andneeds olan organisation. . deteqnines howpeople, methods technology improve and can mesystem,
2 9 ?L t A I A GE !T t N f 0 R I t a T tS y S r E t l s . E ol
0!ililes Stnems ol
0@lliod
ir',/orks an investigator extractingreal problentsf|om as by exrsuntsysterns. monitors in system relation loquality, costand time. creare.deLailed r phy.icrl a td logr. de,ignol th- r.rl "y, introduces chanEe theuserorganisation. to understands user's leelings exisling proposed and irbout system, inrerprebtheirthougl-rs drawsconclusrons. dnd presents system ihe proposAl themanagement. to motivatesusrsto participatein developmentand use ol Proposedsystem, appeases partiesinvolvedfor getiing the suppoft in all development implemer tionol candidate an4 ta system. n?t
or Svvars 0ulLrrLrs AMuv

1
Success systeins in analysis rcquires interpersonaland technical skrLls of lhe analyst. systems The analysr mustpossess followin6 qualities.
T L a- , n .r- l- rc" . - ,.. *r- ' -1 - . --' -- v r - . -
. . . a . .
rnynlajormjstake ?,anyorallofthe ternis compietely n, \\,lry'iifecycle,
highlyqualifiefl software leclmology. in aproblem soivqr good<ornm1.mi{ator and havrntenough computer rranagement experience,, capable tackling problem. any of havingque6iioning attitude andinquiringmind.
8.4 CASI S(tilAnto

Wearcdiscussingbelow a.asestudyon'StbckMonitodngSystem'ol anautomobile This will concep of ts company. case beusedto illustrate analysis design throughout chapier ihe systems and
g . n e , r o - i r " a i , o n o , r o r o b t e o f l t a c r u r ic o m p r r r m ng o
c n g d g e d m o . u f o d ! n 9 o l v . r o u s m o d e r . o l* o o r e u . i l h e @ s p o n s l b iy o l m . n u l o d u rn g l i e ! w i t h p r o d u . ,o n rl deporhenr bl ,h compony.Various pdn! rquifed lor m o n ! l d c r u r i ; gp r o c e 5 s r e s r o ' e d i n t h e s t o r eo l r h e o p b d ! . r o n d e p o d m e n rT h e s i o r m o i n r o i nls d e v 6 lo l . h lo.oge ol dlllee.l ports upto o :ertoin minimum l6v (RBordef Lavq4, rhor in cose ot urgefc, ony porr shoud 3o ôl be o!)o{lrock. llsrofedquonllty ony p.d so* beiow o{ b reorderlevel,producuoi dpdrhsnr ocqunes sullicieol o q u o n t i r yo l l h o t p o r r { r o m o v e n d o r F o r s 6 o o t h m d n u l d d u r n gp r o c e $ , n o . e s h o u d . o n s l o n t l y e i n o b p o 3 to n t o s J p p yl h e r e q p e d p d d s r Thesrorecrk perlqms lhe folowig ocrivires: b l e v eo l e o c hp a n l l r h en o c ko l o p o d l q l l s o o w t hs e ' e $en rheproduction dopodmenr ro order'lrorpon ogo,i. hos d t S o m e r i m ew h o r m o r a g e m e n to c d e s o p u rd i e q F D n s, n ploc of old pod, rh cei< ho, ro moLe oppropndre .ake. h - p c i ' e 9r s ' W ' 0 . o , p o - g e r o o r o l . - \ nock 5 phy,ca ry sod o.d onte, drd rehoveri irom rlre p o n r e s i s r e fT h e { o r m o ro i p d t . e g l n e r 5 s h o * n I (2) Nondllng ol DdiLyT.oisdcrions v W h e np 6 d u c , i o nd e p o r h e h rt e q u i r o s . r i o u sp o n 5 ,1 1 e p.odud on suFedisorrequeslssrorecled ro n5ue hen 'Ihk requen G itrode lhrough requsilion slip or !ho!r i w re m F s u e 8 . 3 .S l o r e d c a 6 t c h e c k s h e i h e r q u e s t e do i e r . l e ^r s n l l e ! o . o , r o ' I t h e r c q u e so,t h e B s eh s c h e c k s r h e . q l e t e oq ! . d , ! 5 i i, o r e s e îin r h 6 s o c k . l l i r s n o ' p r e s e n t r e . h e . s k s , h e p e ^ o nr o n o d i j yr h eq u g n r i r y r h e . e q ! r t o n s i p o i d . i n mod licol on, he lsuesihe nod lied quoirirvoi lhe pon 11
tifiesactivities sofhqareproject ce, personahty
tion. gycaninlprove
ll lMainlandnce f ?od Reotsler o to d{k mi ntainsthe pod rgkter by kepn! deroied n , o f m o r i orn g d i C n g a r o l s p d n r ,w h i c h . r e r e q u n e d b v n monulociuri.sol scooleG de o so keepskock ol reorder
'
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( ' " ' o . , r , r .Acr , l s , t h oo i r " ^ 0 . ' , . ( ; ) r' s
Sysieh Deve opmenl Approoches 231

c on d1eblsis of ern sPecifications
10.2.1 Wcterfqll Model

Vrterfall rrrodel, refratirxodet,which follows the.SDLCtsysrem wtlrch iottows rhe.SDLCtSysrem Development Life Cycle)approachbecame popLrlar popLrrar n ivlusJ.rhe modetlrire. rhar_rhe v/usJ. phases organrsed i Lincar Order.In orhcr wora., rne rre in wu,u., ,ne puf ol outpufof one pha.e becomes pha<ebecomes.rhe rhe inpur for tbe nexr ph4.e. V.rflouspnasec input rbe Dha.e.Vrflous onases t,.rve1tre,.lvhnrn irrv" .1tre.roy Dccn lainedundera general Eener:lmodlof system mn.J"l^F av+",- developmenr, warerfaiimodeiis sho*n in tiiu. ,].-.1^--.--. ,The----..!-il .Tr-
10.1.
sric pfeparation, r,, involving all \tion lnay be the I in sssuringthe ir is not propeLly
lur)ull!] approach) sysrem visualised a livlng organisrir. sysrent rhe is as The rakes bifrirj rcacl thematuritysrage throughadolescence ultimately and iies'irs rratur:al dJeth. Lin;tofiohs Wate dll Modal of
(i In d)e wircrl3ll model.everyphase con'defedis n ct,(rincr i, pha\e,r"..rc.1 _.rnbii<.r,,mr trom rhe rcsror rl.re next phase. elaborare, modelassumes thc r.equirenrcnrsr To the that ol systc|n bc froTerbefore desigrr cxn rhe begin\. fcr a newsy.tcnr, Brr derenr.irrrrr rc(.rrr.urUr., is'a drffrculr procets thc userhimselfdoesn-r irow .r s.-el rnr,rrnr..ri,.ri ,ts ,rqule.r. rand rlus ro r|c.zerhcnrheforedesrgn not pracnc.r', r. Iii'frcczirg rhe fcquiremenls usual.y requircs chorcc hrrdwaret., bc .ratie.l-Juwcvrrl rhe of ,rr dre caseol largcprojects, which nlight take a few yearstb be complered, the.irj:nla|l(eo . hirdwir'e rechnoiogy mny become ob,olere evenbcforedrc.ystenr..cco-.es nhrsrc.rr. triil The.nrodel qcessesrh;rt requitemenrs tJrc shouldbc conrpetelycpec,fr.a leforc rl.c 1,"s,,,,,,.g or rr)crexr phrsc.]Jurrn somcot the riruations, nrighrbe dcsifnblc irst deveirpLrpar.t it ro
tu nrAkedesirable
rlrc systefl which , unril the sYstem
Delnlllon
l'red as a f.ocess it ,r! effectively,n Sralis to produce a isrs activities, of
Iis.-10.1
The W.terfall Model
232
Monog-.ment nformotlon Syslerns oi dr svsremcomplerelyaud larer enhancethe systemin phases.For ex:inrpte,systms developed ge|er:rlmarketing. br rnc lv) Rev;se Lrslrg p ot( tle thes4tisfrctiof It is moresrilr The proi,;t1
10,2.2 Protoiyping 1n the prot.tl'pirrgirrprorch. n prototypeof the syslefi is developefl, rnstead rhe conlprete or . \ " r r A r . v . . r . . . . . . r J . ( t( n . e . / . r e r .. r - o d , , e , n o , r n c l L , r.]re lL l r r e q u i r - r . . e n rr. r n e . o ., , r \ ' . r ' . \ r . l , , . . \ F . l , r r r h e c r o J : ro n . r l . m e r n o ro f . r , r e . r : . l e , " . o p , n ; , < e c J : i o ., 0 . 2 7 l)f.forvpxrgis used in rlrosesystems, rvhich identificatiorof req'ireme.ts in is difficulr and rcquifemen mrr changcdufing !h dcvelopmenr process, This modeJrclvocates clcvelopment rhe
Sldrl
(jl Abil:ry (il) Lolrir (i1i) The rbi Ilowelct g
OL r i c k Design
B ul d i n 0
Sccond, ts ir
F n g e lrh c n
10,2.0 lfcl"ut
sloP
nrodificnrior:s c consideled d ilr

, , Fig. to,2 prororyp Modl
of r drrow-rwrypforo(vpe r( giveuro rhe u.er lo rrerp ro .rndersrand his,her (J, requrreineurs. L.-e o.r)c ot tecdD.cli. .r-ru)l rysrenr devcloped. rhe L The model,in ge er.al, hai ihe follo*r,rg fou, srefs, (i) ldenlify the user's bos/c jnformorionfequirements In this,step,lhe user idenrifiesbis requirenrenrs rhe form of in 'fhe outputs required lro:n the sysror. infornalion analysr, rhe basis userexpectations, on ol eslimates cost;f a workableprororype. lhe (ii) Develop the initioj prat'atypesysten
rnodel undcrs is s|ownin Fi!, :l
rs dcveloped rhenjninLrm in possible tnnelfhe ,p..,t .f b,ildi;;;;til ,1",r.ii",.".y o* prun)lype rherrrarn rs consjderarion "r i I (iij Useof ihe prctatype system refinethel,!r.o ,"q,""rn*u to ]"heiniriallyclevelopcd prororype delivereo the userro allow him lo gainhands-on is to experence .rv,d)rhesysrem identifyfurrherrefinemenrs/changes ro ,"q"ir"d i,r fi. qr.otor;;.-"
Her'c,lhe iDiri.rl pfo!orypesystenr, which meersltly.user\ basicinformarionrequirenrenls developed. is It
Th,s mod.ll: isrel.ttively trsic
b(!The rrod
t(,1l)
[y
't q
Syslem Developmenl Approoches 233

lifpleJ
(iv)Revise enhonce proto!/pesysten on! the
i the complete '| trlents(]1d1e s". fjs. 10,2). * difficultald tf development
user, appro""r, notrl i::"'Ii'-r:"-ll::,:{:b. la[ger. ll rs,rnore sutrab for "'oi dilficuh identify requiremenrs. "o'"..ri;;J;;iT,;"ii;.s.","",,"".,. e organisarions it is. where to user
approach the following hzs .lhe prorot'yping significant adva'tages rhe <leveloprnclt e in o1 sysren,
de*ner Flkes the necessary chanses/refinements poinredour br rhe useralrer ll,:I.'.l1a protorvpsreps $ing the l:k (iii) and (,') a.e repeated asainana againiitt the proto;pc rsrefinerr to p.ototyprng
'tty out, ideas wirhoutincurring ,.(i)Abilirl ro largecosrs. Lowerovcrall devetop64n,.or,, -,t* ,.i"i.J.-,, .f,insefreoucnrlv. ,/irJrrc irDrtity eera tuncrjonjng ro sysrem rheh:rnds rre,,"i q,:.J<tv. inro of .,rui a major criri.ismof lhis approach becausc its jterartve I --l:l*:tj is of Darure. lnrs applorch ;::.:ri:"r:1T.j:y""]lrltions,MoleoverJitmaybecornea4LrneDdingpro".rrof,"rii"n,"n,,uun,.u I ntay take too muchtimp,effort and nroney. becaLrse prototypes ,:sually complere a-rel nor systems manyof tlrc and i ,.:.,i.d,]:l:-11::,:ltiLised
tni'a'auitor"qu*t"il;;"';:;;#;;iliiJjillli,i;:'illi ; i::X*J::,:*::li::iTrij:,'Jtvpe
I Inan iterative enhancmenr model,rhesystem dfveloped increnren15 eich rncremcnr rs rn nnd rdds cap,rbiliries rJre ro sysren.,unril tLr|J.vsrern a.".r.p"J. ,rd,,i,,o"...,,. thc , ::1,:.,::]..t1:".1 can br dore,areach srep_ begin To wrl.. or)1 .r sub,er thc ouera r..ru. . .. of .l:1,l::jl"f: 10.2.3 lterdrive Enhon.ementModel
fir;-j i: ilj.l,j:t
I followingloul
.'J.'Tl-:[.::':.l1X,Jl*l.l1"i:;::,:iJ5iTj !T;{T,",i"::1il,1:,1':fnamely, i,nplemenrarion dei;gn,as to have onlythree phases, analysis, anct

Desien, [0"'*., f tmrtemenr,rmnremanr, 1 ] ---l Anatsis, Ana r, --l ys oessn" [ | --l 0".*^. r,nr.,.,t. y.. onu
Fis. 10.3 The rreradve Enhancenenr Model Tnismodclha. an obvious.rdvanrage jr car rp,utri- berrer rhar restrng, re\finp as eic,r rnc.cr)enr r:''"":,," re\rinsrhe enliresys-em. ir ri,ew,kirrt moair. qr.^. a. p,ototyp,n;, .l'::i:iy Ir-e Incrernenrs "i Drovrde feFdback rhr userwLr!l- is usefLr aerermirrnS rinrl e1u-errrc lo lor rhc r, ol the sysjed. Thus, iteradve enhancement model comb,ne< ;. ;.;.i; ;,h;;;,n,ro,ng nno rhe r",rrerfallmodel "? Howevsy.;1.'r"s'u. enhanremerr modelalso suffe< from rhe rolJowrng ti-rrirro. . r i ) J h e m o d e ld o e . , n o rg i v e a c o m p ' e r e y . r e m . d r h u sm a n i s r o f r t r et l e t . r t .r r y r o r o c Incorporzrect Lhedevetoped in sysrem. js (ii)As th!__model basedon .modi{y"it-again: approach,it may be time"consuming and is nor cosr-iffective.
234 Monogemenilnformoiion Sysiems 10,2.4 Spirol Model

The spinl nrodel rhemostrecenr is sys(em Jopmentmode1, whlch has beenproposedby Boehm. Thrsmodelsuggests the ranousacrivL{i involved in systemdevelopmenr thar should be organjsd
whiciris rhel requesl valj is thisphase in\,

lnvegtrgation r A Slstem:Lna Soundarics. N sI dqurremenr fneetrhe ir for obftctive.Systr
like a spiLal. This modelprovides framefv,k for developing process) a which ii guidedby rhe a rislrlevel the project. of Thismodel, t$e nameindicates, cyclicin natureaird is shownln as is Fig. 10.4.Eachcycleof tlle spiralconsisrs four stages represented one quadranteach: by The dinrension angular represenrs progress the development rhe in process, whereas radiuso( the rhe represents cosrinvolved. spiral the
r.e. 1erequtre, Ststenilnpler 'Thesysrern is system tmplcm,

Dtomtollng,ey leveloI efficier , Therqnre se systell'l, Thcsez model, erc..No sysfein,who d developing s1 .r
Englnoring
Fig. 10.4 SpiralModel
The first slageis concerned widl d1eidenrification the objactives, of variousdevelopmenrll slternatives constrains develop informarion and to an system. EvaluatioD yaliousahernarives of andidentific{rion lhelisk is Lrndeftakenrhesecond of in srage. rhethird srage, level In ptototype neir is developed verifiedand rheresuhs theprcvious and oi srages revre*ed are and plannin!for next is . rt(f:1ron donein drefourthsrage. The spiralmodelis :noreruirablefor higlr-lisk projcts. smaljplojecrs, modelmaydbr Ior rhis bc tinre-and cosr-effecriv. Nowadays, anorher technique, known as the FourrhGeneration (4GT),is alsobeilg Technique tused qLtickly to develop infonlariousystems. Thrsrechnique makes oi a nurlber of softwari use dcvelopmen! rools.Thedeveloper only ro specify lew characreristicsthe sp{tware a high has a oI at lcvel.The roolsthenauromrrjcillydevclop codefor the givenspecilicationsl model, the This no (luubrrs qLlck bu( irs success resrictedby rhe capaciry the available is of 4cl-s. However, dre modelt1lay useful smaller be for projects. It rnaybe noredthat dredifferenr approaches discussgd aboveareused supplementary as rarher rh.rnconrplenrenrary ipproaches sofiware ro developmenr, Depending uponrhe'nirureand size ol thc projecr dreriskinvolved and therexr, combination morerhanonemodel(Hytjlid Approsch) a of rriy bean aPproPflite sfrategy, SUMMARY
System clevelopmen! is regarded as a complere process consrsrjng of various phases, namely, invosrigation, analysis, design, consrrucrion, implenentarion, and maintenanc. Sysred invesugauon,
IEVIEW QUE]
1. BricIIyexplair 3. I"Iowdo dreS 4.Whyis a sysrcl Wher and \Vl J. Discrss i dre nrthods? ASSIGNMENY
RETERENCE
DavjsJ Gordo! B
n1 rl
The algorithrns. f
I
I t.t RQUn?U,
clctc Itcquiremenr (SRS) thc :jt3rr is mostdifficult.rr( rheuserand rhe d determiDa!ion is: drL$ro bridge thr (i) It briclecs (ii) ft rcdLrc!s (iii) lr bccomc
Systems Anplysis ond Design

Leorning Objectives
Afier studyinsihis choplr,you should be oble io; . . . ' . define syslemonolysisond sysrmdesisn, lndersiond lh6 oim ond processof 5yst6mono ysk dnd sysiomdsisnj describeih shoiegiei 1o delermins informoiion rquircmenk, r . d " s r o _ ds t J c t J ' e d s l s t 6 r o r o r y s r o o ' s j s d e s c r i b eh e p r o c e s b f c o n c e p t u o l n d d e i o i l e d y s t e m e s i g n , l o o s d
ANALYS|S : SYSTEMS
r r.l tNtRoDUcltoN
( Req!rilcnrcnt
to analysts krror,v r Syste,rn enaiysrs nr.rybe under:stood a process collecingand interprering as of fabrs,identifying Requirenlent iDvcr problenrs usingthe ir)fornaiionro recommend and impLovements the systenr. ornerwofos, in Ii I dnddoculrentcicl slstemanalysis,meins identificarion, understanding exaoiningrhe system achieving and for pre. purposc. t[e r In goals/objecrives the system, ditefmined of System analysis carriedout with dre followingiwo is rs nveshgnhon iu
(iito know how a sysrem cu$entlyoperales, and .]' !o iderrrjfy users' rhe requrremenrs proposed in rhe sysrem. Brsically, system cnalysrs .r detqiled ir studyof all inrponant$usiness aspecrs undetconsiderarion t (b) the dr trr v,l trrrdthe exisring sysrern, rhur, ihe srudybecomes basislor the proposed and (Lnay I a system be ru,,Jifrcd nnrlrogedrer sysrem). or new System analysisregarded a logical is process, emphasis as The {d) rhe pcrfofn ?nthisph.rse. on invesrjgationknowhow thesystem currendy rs to is operating ro deternrire and ivhnr mustbedoneto solve problem. the The system phase very importantin the total fevelopment analysis is ellorrsof a system. The Lrscr berw;re ot rheproblem maynor knolvhow tolsplve During may bur ir. sysrem rnalysis, drs | 1 . 2 . 1U r d e r s t ! (syrrem developer work' wirhrheuser deveiop l{gicxlmodel rherysreur. (y<en dbsigner) ro a of A amlyst,because his technical of background, moue qrjicklyro progfam may roo desisu maKe !o rnc prematurely system physical, which is nor desjrable may affecrrhe ulrimarebuccess dre and of systenl. orderto avoidthis,thesystem In analyst mustinvolve userat thjs stage getcomplere d1e tb (b) the steps, v information abourthe sysrenr. canbe achieved a logical This if modelof the system developed is on drebasis a de.tailed of study. Sucha study(analysii) shouldbe doneby using various nrodern rook (d) dre frequcr andtechniques, as daca such flow diagrams, pf datadictionary roughdescriptions me rerevant and
'
ct
rinarjrod_uct system.an"r",.r., orthe *, :]c,ôji!T,strhe rorrowing pages discuss "u"tJ"l"l;"t:::.H:r::; wirr (Ieterminar.n J;;;;;."[ui.",',"nt. .na llliJfi""1i,,l,,iiJlljl;,lte
I1.2 REQUIREMENT DETERMINATION narion. which rs }:ql.irei;1 .lere-ih ,u",,n.. ",-,:lT:o rs : palror ,oi *",. ,.qu,r'".n.n, ,,",,
i::"J:;:*::ri:.#"i::",,,ff u::**,1ij il::::{i{,:!ii j:;l? ;*y,i"i:fur;"n* jiil:i!: *i::"",.",:11 it{,ii5::fijtrr[xi*l*$,1*;r, :ilfi i:,,?,:i ;:i:T'l',i:";ii:J:iff:i::Ji;:;:;T",,*t-*i?..h:T|,ljdi""r
"ll?i.t".,i,ji:;:,11T[x"#"T:,::::*
,,:lJ:i#'.:i:
the and dcveJr,per 3sI br.j user the bvacrins
dcrelopmenr by ouercomins and cosi errors ,nisun.rersranding< rJrc early in a basrs reference vaiidarion rhe linal of ,,t,,) for of ancl il[",;,Tr? {ro<tLrcr rtrusn*s as r ,
t ,r l.1crs. iderftifvins
n ln othel^wof4s) (ir'rchlevlng pre.
1 iollowrnB rwo
1"13.; ::
,nd docuhnred Iurrheranalysis. for Variot
rt':::*:,','..:ffi*tfu s:i ;: {{,I,F.*::ilfJ.:J;j.* ::ll "tl.ff:j:{: x{hifi i[:il;"*::

. dr rhe perforlndnle conoolsufed in Lhesrsrem. Let us discuss theseactivitiesinfmore derail.
j:ff:i!ff.':1fi:,::ffi:il ti:;li#** irui :ii::;*; :;; nu tliTiTii ::;':;

cerr:llrproblems or feqruresand reor:irert
deternlinarion .Requireinent namely, requiremen! anucrparjon, """rtr" t-,^l::^"-.1-.1,":ties,.
r der consideration (tn:lybea s)steu1 ,crss. The emphasis i ind to determift The I of r system. slell1analysls) il, ,r c til,slcnt.A cystem clesign makethe to lgc to ge! complcte :n ls devel6ped on ors of dre relevant
'-Y'rrremeltspeclfrcatron' whrch rs the lescrrprion thc leatures a propoi,a.yrr.,n."'-""'" of for (eqlurenlent derermjnadon, infect, js to leara a]pdcollect the information aborrr lar rhe bpsic p.oce*.,
J']"i:: jffi*iT::,..",r"'.''lli:n::'':U['i::1i',i,,'l: ii:
";$.,*.":;,,,*,J':fo,li: :l:i:i;nx,'::Xl;:11 "":::;:..,,", _..u,

rs collectedtegarding
l l . 2 . t U n f e r s r o n d eProa6ss rh
Process undersrandrng be a can ps, which and where they are performed, nd user of fie iesulting informari
240 Monogemenl Informoiion Sysiem
11.2,2 ldentily Dqto Used ond InformotionGenerqled

Nexr ro process rrnilersranding, Informalion analystshould an iind out wirar data is usedto pertorm eich acnvrty. lor exanrple,jn an inventory systemrrhe buder nay require data describing the quantity of an irem, supj)liername, item tost and demandIor the irem, To know when to plaie an otder.rhe buver would rko,tike to get rhe rnformadon regardinsteadtime.The inforrirauon generareo 'l::,1*',:'il:"".": 's Jjso requi,edro be sarhered, suchinformationnay be usedby managers as li In,many dccrsron,rnakrng ncrivities. For example,dala abour inventorysysten also provides .j lormJtronrbour w..rehousins! srlesand cash Iou de.lrrons.
1l,3.1 Intervic Theirtefvicw i5
f1,2.3 beterminettequun.y, Timingond Volume

Informatron shorlld alsb be collecredto know how olren rhe adivlty js repeared anil rrrevolumeoI rrcn]5 be lrrndled. to 5rtnrlarly,ming doe, affecr wry anaiysrs rhe ev.rlurr. cer.rarn sreps carfrirr in **',, rn orrrerwords.rininr. frequency and votumeol Jcrivrfies impoiranttu,rs .o' are :j,lii.
system..\l!hougl (l.rrN applicarion exphin drc svstc thi FIowever,
11.2.4 Knowthe Per{ormonce Controls

acceptable mannet During sy!rernrnvesriganon, rpformaoonis garhered mainryflom personnel and wilren documen$ . rfom wrrhrn rhe organ'sationt envrronment, which includesfinancialreports,persohner oocunenrs rno vaflous orrer typesoi docunren$ljke transacriondocuments, manLrals, To ler information erc, rbour dre exrern.rt environment, sources the includevendors, variousgovernmi-nrjand private .gcncles. newspaperS journals, ahd etc. It must be understood that the.personaJ managerial attrjbures the individual of rrlanager rne ano orlianisatlonar envrronr)lenr whrch decisionsare made affect the information requlenrents i for the proposedsystem. The personaiattributesmay be a manager.\ knowledgeoi,nforiiaoon sysr"ms, nranagerial style, his percplion.ofj formadon neds,wherias organisariona) nrlty include n:ture of the company,IevcJ managlmnrand stricrure of rhe orslnisatron, "nuiion-"nt'fo"# of As already mntioned. sysrem inrjysis consisrs wo main acnrnies. of (i) Studying the busincss operationsto undersrand the exislins system. (ii)To make an analysis the informarion gatheredro det.rm]ni informarion of requjlenen$ ol lhe managerin fie proposedsystem. ln order ro.srudt.rhe business oper.nronsof rhe organisationpnd thus ro know the exisring sysrenrancl rnlormanon requjremenrsfor the new system, an information analyst collects the irnd then makes an anatysisof the coileded informaiion by usins .efiaih anal)sis i:::::".-
system.controls enable analysts undersmnd business to how functions be mainrarneoan can m
(i) \i'h,,,n ti ( i i ) \ Y h . rt o (iii)Wh,rL to (11') \Vhcrc !( (v) I{orv ttt (vi) I-Io\v. t0 irtcrvic$ ug i
1 1 , 3 , 2Q u o c t i r
1l0u in!crvie\\'s.
-re di'c-.<edbelow
In order to collectinformation as ro *u{1ihe exisring so systedl and to determine infomation requirement,, are different there strari:gies, w$ichcould be usedfor the purpose. ih.r" ,,rn,.g,.,
rr.3 srRArtcfEs REeI'REMENT FoR oN f \DETERMTNA nfecnat;A
9o1",
Il 3.3 Record f.ccordrl irrv it
SysJems Anolysis ond Desisn 24l l'1.3.'l Interview ;Lti is usedto perform ) drtn describiog " rhe r(rviwhen to placean infornation gencrated .bc used maoagers by r.rLcmalso provides The inrdrview is a face*o-fale method use
:l iud thc volume oi fiLn s!ep9 carfylng rn rc inll)olran!lac$ t0
th" t:le. ro rnswer quc5riunn$i llrrcr', '-Lw ..ir.uysrs oiscoverrrerr cs. ro . r.. of mrs",.,a.ll-l_oj,']"." expecLlroDr..ind jnclicaLious of r.,istaiice ,f.,"papo..J.y*."oqxucrsranolng. unrerlisric even a ne anatysrinusr plan dre inreryjews and must know clearly in aclvance regafdingthc toljo\,,,in!, ssr {i) Whom to irlrefview? (ii) \vhen !o jnte|viewt , r r I x v l r . rrt. . r , k ? {'v) \t/fere ro hold rhe interviewl
ifrj*fr irifl n#lH:H[iilf i1pilh'-:il#Til';*r'# .",trni::;lli,;il*T,1,,,",*if;{d[::'"',:i:f,i:,il:f'liii,".,

uhoror d
rayfprrnar be or ru"*l.nn**::i,*i:$;:;;.",r:"::j:!:i,!;:,fi:,T inron,,r,"a ir..".i,i*.,J";ffi.Tilll,*:i""1LflHl::;ii:,,ti:il:I :t,;1y,:"i".*"1 r ijh,i,.;li fi i*$!ll:lq"*:J:;: [:fl,'*1*H']';::..,,', :i:,
b1!uiintsined in ,rn rri.w|t!rcn docun]ents )cfsolnetcloc meDts _i_o r. gct infornadon :frrmcnt:rnd pflr'ate uaimanager rrd rhe oi requjrenrcnts lor i jo r'rationsystcmsl cnvilonment factors i oigsnjsation.
(v)Hiw ro begrn inrerview? rhe (vi)Ildw to coriclude interviewl rhe

i' r+arq! asan arrlnd rr is importanr rirar .,,^htewiewrnS analysrs beralnediD musr successnrt InrcrvicwinB. r5also nDorrar This
dcpencls orc,.e skr),;?,i,;;;;;;:;'";..iTi ff:fi."JJ[ii::,:1ilt*,,,""ffi"i#"

qriestionnoire 11,3.2
a,quesoonoarre termused is a foi alrnosr an rle Ltse oLrestionnaire" of ar"'"-,'-r""" llv"lll'":i:ll::-:*tlo,"stg whichindivjduars
,ior fcqtriremcnts of
) ino!v d1c existihg
r r . r l r s rc o e c r s h e
inil certain arrrlysis
i;;;;t;.;" I:;, ::i:l rcspond ;:,:i::::,:1":;:1., il,.;:i::iil;:ll:f,fi,:,li"':;::11. f:',;.lS::"1,T;:j,,njljf:::::y'":il'.',1i11,1",1,1llliJ I::"1;:": [';:i,t5lrj::...::l:li:';Tl"':.i'JiiiJ';:1"",li;'iilii'l ;.tii13 il'i:ll"i;LlIill"":;*.d+i::;:::':!d1#;::::"]il:fi:li:i:'ii;,ill;il :.TrlrT:*#t:il:.;.t.1, ': :":ii li'5i,'TLi;li":: i: mj:lt_*t,difti, j',,'^rx::::*,,tj: ':ff ;;"#i;:;::;':i:l:*':*"'::::"::li:t;;li.;.:;;ii;'::',:::x$,:H,: ffi .TiT:: :i::l:.1',i; .*:tn:::.:r:jT :".:"'::'l:lfi::lil':fi::|; :l ::,',1lif l:::::l::,:::":.n"1,,."ry,,,i""ii?"'";',i,:;il:.Trl,"ji?*J"::tff:l
Quesdonnaires beresled modiriecrperlhebrcr(sround must a.d 1;fi':1.oJ,l,:X.:"j|T:i:ires ,'s rnd expe'rcrlci,t,. *ro.rair,s" of
11.3,3 RecordReview
crmnle infbrmarion K o r d r e \ . e s r s : l , o l . r o u n r . r e v : e w o r o c Dentatlonn n1 , . _ _ i - - , . - - ^ - : a u D e . r r , , ks nlain purpose is to establisb qLranrrtrtive reeardine vol,mee rr""^,,"--r-. sc. These srrategies mrornrarron ,-. ,,,,r:l]:!4 d,,l ,s users..Kecords/docuoenrsjnclude w,trenpo/rctnrrnu,rls. may regul:rrons stanca r oo D e r z r . rp . o c e d u r e . and r g r . e o b 7 r h . o r g : n i . r r rr , ,
1:r;::l;',,:l;:.r;;:i:ti:;i::ljli:;,,1i;'#ir"i,.'l:"rl;::'i:,;;";:
242
Monogerrenl l-forrol;on Sytem
fol ind manuals Jormsare uselulsources Procedures, and a guidefor managers orherenrployees. is systemThe main limitationof rhis approacb rhrt the to the the analyst srucly existing ll and system may not be complete up-to-date mal be notedhere on documentation the existing systemOne view,which the viewsregarding studyof rle exisriqg rhat thereare two dif{erent syslem, learns one system, tha! throughstudyof the cxisting is favoursthe snrdyof tlie existing misrakes again rhe sarr]e to and aboutits shortcomings may usethis kn{wledge avoidcommitring of inhibit, genercnon newiders rhe Ihat a argue, it such strldy, whereas vjewwliichis against the jn lt logicwhrchis contrined rheold system $ dre towards sagre and may biasthe developer viewsseem ralid. It crn only l'e upon the two views fowever, borh the dilficult ro comment if systen, any'to knor'i'mote shouldstudythe existing here suggested that an infolnation analyst thewhoieof thesystem. abour 11.3.4 Observollon i '
A DIrD consisr 'lhere are four

li) Sqllaltt It
iir) Arror, li r
ci,,t"ru,r, t!;i)
o( Anorher nrformation-fathering root used in systen studies is observation,ft is d1e process 'llows Observ'rion to people, objects occutrences obtaininformstion, and and rccognising noticing is ornfiru ,i'g" i,,folna'rion,' wi'ticl-t difficult to obtain by any othel fact-finding nrethod.Thrr is most useful when analystsneed to actually obselvethe way documeritsare hardle(l, appioaclL
Lhe followed.As an obseivef, slepsare actuaLly pioc"sses carried out lnd whetherspecified are liL<ely listenthantllk ro hehheis mote fbLlorvs setof rules.Whilemakingobservations, .r cnalyst may and is The cxercise tinre-consuning coslly Alsothobserver not beableto getall thelequired pbservaljbn 3nd elecuonic Nowadays, of aboutsoineintricacies the syslem, ilformaaoi. esoecr;rllv of rools widely infonnation-gathering becausi theilspeed as beiug used nronirorinc nreihods.rre of ,.qu,r.',',"n, thesyslenr' iniJimaoon meyn.t be suflrcrelrt el,c*ing foI. o,," .,ppror.h "ny lrcr.iinding, of only wlrrch been drscussed represenl oncaspe.! )y't Dl abovq rechnique< have Thc . c,rurlys Varroq. as collected dlscut5ed follows are lhe toolsfor organrslng details '.
rnd efhc'ency. N to use a cohririnationof all theseapproaches study an existingsys(enr, I Thi analystsLrsuclly
(iv) O/c,7 R.rcr,
I t__
(i)lrocesses sl (ii)The direcrir (iii)Xirlrcn r prr
(iv)Thcnaure c
Nr r.c srnucrunso ANALYsts rools

.sh-Lrcturcd tools hlp the systemanalysrto docurne{t rhe sysrmspecificition of a systurl aDalysis ro lic built. The nrain tools which are usedfor the purposehre Siven below. (i) Data Flow Diagran (DFD) ii D.rrr 1-rrcLior'rly (iiiF&'$trtrSft+ish (iv) Decision Trees (v) Decision Tables 11.4.1 Dqio Flow Didgrom (DFD) of Drta Florv Diagrrn (DFD) is a graphical represenration the logical flow of data. k helps form. expfessing d1esysterr'sreq!irementsin a simple and understandable 'h and identib chart. Its aim is to clarify the systemrequlreme]rts k,rown as a LrLrbbie is a1-.o
A DFDshould h difficlLk un( nnd rc A DFDshon,s r clcmcnts llorv drnt DFDis verv.ellc,
sonre srmboiic fcpr Thclrain disadv Forexrmplc, col ol an orgrnisllrion.
the programs system in disign.It decomposes requrr thar rurajor transfoinarionq rvill become . r c - r f r c , L i o n 'w nt o r l . e o * e . r " v e lo l d e r a i l . . do
E m l l u y ed r r r , n
arerecerved cnrp b)
for r rsciul sources is rhat the frfich nrr)/ Dnoreoltefe . Onc vierq rttich s)1rcDl, ore learDs nl!ilr, Lnre n)istil(cs nrion of new idcas It rc,rld systenr. h lirl, It crn only be arrr', know nrore to
Systems Anolysisond Design 243 or., cerie" bubbres jo:nedby,iinesreprcren,jn6 or *"?"1?::1.'* nr.,in d.r., r,oq i,, tl,e ,l\," n. In."e irc Io,rr l.rnbols usedin a DFu. wrrcrr.:reoeprcred below (l Sd$tet It represents source/ilesdnarion systemdata, ol
(ii) Arroa,:It iclentifics dataflow; it is a pipeline rhr.ough whicht]rc darallows,
of t is rhe process Ol)seLvation allows ili,rg mcdrod,Thir nlcntsnre hzindJd, the \s irn obsc(veL, ro listcndrq[ tilk. g:t nll thc L'Equired dnd nic oirsorvhtion ol ,rL',rc rhdr speed crrstLDg systenr, as ri rhc systen,
,lif irspect l syslen o
::i:'lf:!:!|::,::i:?;T: j.:,T';'1."1i:x11,,1," jTJ ""' :.j.:"n: ff,.:,,,

t I v t e 4 K c c t a 4 g l c tl t r e p r e s e n r s a dara srore.
i lrro outgourg
A nuirbei of rules arc ro be followed in drawu ls
a DFD:
licxtionof a system
, ep,,,n.d ,,il,ilT:T:ili:::;,i:.,:i: " ," jili,}ilff ;:i,xl: "to,...t. desrin?,ons i, [,,,irii..,1.r..i.*,, darrflownames u. l;,,i r.".,."Pi,r;*a. Jr _,*" r,).* ":ji::,^*.,i."?lli.i,,d
^ uru snoutdnave no more dran 10-12 processes,
o.*" ilJ:lrlH"il,Tiil:"..;fl.,:l:il:,J:oJ:ili,n. rron, ,jlIli"l;i:ri:: ,,i, ':wi,."'rp.;..i,;;;r:o6.;'r"fi;;::i,iT and errroriehr. ,,i;ll.i"!]

egrrc proc. Y';';J,i:"#'i,,::;:,:3:1'::*l'":fr:lii":;;:ronr .xo,o.ion re r"i'Tt?:8r}.,cr,1
Namesh :l ii"..:.*,houl.1 U.ramedandr.,mbered.
in rf data. It helps nr,rnrsand idertiFi scs rhe requircnert
; :i :',i,:: i,:::.l:T.i: :":, ..";"';;;'.";;'"'l:ff :::l ::': ;:::;::1l i;'iJ?';Ii j:::""miiili: .d,:il:: gg,'j',..11:,1 jiJ"i" ,.il:.*::
orar orgahisari
DlD.i.,veir effeoive, whe.lrhe required gn is dh design sone nesymbol]crepresentation qommunicarion.not ciear and the user and rhe analystrequire symbollc repre\enrarion ior for Themain a rarge n:moero, irerJtronc ofren rre Fqu reJ.o.,r,,\, t an accurart and comptere:::?l'*" :'"i": soludr!n. ror exarnple, considerthe caseoI)a
as having even 12 willmake a DlD and difficultto trnderstand. comple_\ A DFD sliowsrhe minimumcontenrs of a d4ta store. Each.data store shouid cottaln all rhe rlernenrs flow ir rra .r,-.t ii.-'' rhr{
244 Monosement
n System
Empyoe o
updatBd Data Fig. 11.1 A DFD fo! payro plocessnr& Micro View , lund conrriburion, h stored an inrermediate (data rc,) in file store), whichis r:equir.ecl processlrg for in the subsequcnr nrondrs.
A DFD drsplc,y. drr:r.flow a rop-down rn appforch. drcwa DFD,startwidi a macro Dll) Io r^vervr..v (xftodeir jnlo mrcro rn.t Lhen DfDs. Figure I1.2 rllustrares nrerhod. dre (snk)
I L4.2
Ddtd !
Ir supports do xnd:uolystrs ir
Thererre mrrir Saary Sahry \i) Data I.,lal lii) Dtt,t Stl1l liii) Dukt lht. speciiicxtr The following ( i ) T h er e r n (ii) Muhiple (iii) Assisned (iv)Thre sln 1v)Consiste! (vi)Ider,!ificx (vii)Aliases n
Fig, 11,2 A DFD for payrollprocessing: Exploded View \7hi1eexploding a DFD inro lower levels,continuiry and linkage is mainlained .,,,din ,nember DFDs.Thi( is ichreved nurnberi-g by ejch circteiprocc,,ine sreolby adopringrhe n u r , r r c f l n q . v r r e e . s . t . 2 , J . . . . e a c hf u n h e rn u m b e f e a . J . r . t . 2 . nr. d t . 3 : . . ' . - and srill furdrer r U r b ee d J 5 L t . l . L t . 2 . . . . F j g u r e J . 3 i l t u r r r a r els ep o r n . . l t -
DATA D.ICTI ONRRV
A c{q.[oc{icfron a}ut i}
xgo$b} a @,tlod;.reol
t d*
. d-bocGclal-0" d,^r'"olne-\.Do4n)a)it .u a ^tt of "Yr-*\ GAcl a(cDr"cltedeftOhoru $ ilJ DFDs,d'qIA' eLe'vne-rAA

A,tut ct-cutp"o-b'uculrJ .
I
i-^-" FS Wgpet't" d-ocumerrfobov'" u 'bphl*'Y^'

c-dliott 8t a.lr o crrn pt{t\J eA" Comrnoni
6'e!'r ee-n <tnl-
J"*
ng Co uoI ent d' e

-lelttLs a4d-
".t^n
urltrgt
F)!b
n(l .,. or f-t"nrh "
a*'tL Lt ys<-e'c'+tu a,r, 'prr'ouicto-z

cto.tA e)tnr.en7o. ?"1 Vcur_iocr.r I
'
!
ced$u
ilhue' axe' rncdnLV 3 i)-eru 6t [aIna-t I utu a d&taL d.rc-td0

anct co-TinoE
tfxuerE
or
'. O Ocrrc,lement &i dJ dl're srnallegt orub pr0te-' 5r- crr.ecornlzosea
dd=r"
@ Oofr $rocl..,.re.s .dL la :

chandole-d a> a. ovu'b.
o (*"?
d"It
enrr o I eYn
ruD't\î9 aJraf &oI9 .SforA: Oota .fir.. a-^,tur.* l" f j-'e-0-g'"1 ti Aqll Sko cL-u-rar 'i'l'^., rur-o on, cl,Dlt dod; SVr;c'Lr-'a' dE Yeot 1trr.oo a*-" de dair,,
Oof^
o*);\.,,,"
| 8osi. Poy< = 1006- 7 Ac.epr enployo nom
= HF.{ 5ao /,."''
Do wh Aî = 'Y" \ \ Accep'mployeonohe A.cper oiher drotk \Pispoy "conrii! {Y/N)?'
"'"or*o ,o/.= tooo BVz laaa

//tRA ./::", = 15OA
*ns Atseet
r;
_ot'08a,$0rp0iolThreIF!ol5,0hmtuh .
8.9.2 DrcrsrorTrr
Doririon1lro Jhowt tfioolhfiolivo !ltionr p"rform6d lhgbdilj on ot.ondilionJ.
L#
Decision is a diagram shoking fie altemarive tree for a:tiolrsrhatcan beperfolmed a process in dependjng upondifferent oicondiuonr set The deiision tree resembles fallen tree,having a root and many a branches, root is on ihe left sideand the actions shownat the The are dght sjde. Thisheejsveryeasy construct illustra in Figlire8.15, to as ied
lhtr6 8.15, DelrhiTi!!lo,Rlqlsr kr. d P0'l lor
Although,decision treeis an excellent tool for skeiching logical the conditiolsin a plocesp, not suitable complex itis for conditions, to due q largenumbe!of branhhes. complex lor conditionalstatemenhs, detision
rirhloc.r. hiaL-r6,1 I
I 8.9.3 Drcrso\TrsLEs A decision table a table fepresentsreletionship is lhar beLween condition. and actions. consists It offou!parts -condition stub,conditlon entrt action stubandactiofentryasshownin Table 8.5lTh diffelntsteps to
l i ' r , l a N A Gl E t N r 0 R M Ad s i s l E M ! t lT 0T
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Tbll0 0eirhr ! lor 8.5, I0b Req!sr iro6 Poi lor ol

ConditionsondAction3
3
PoriC6de ersls ^ srore Requosi ParrQuonti! s prese.r
y M o d t i h e q u a n i i r l n R e q u its n s l i p o
iv.rnctions thatcan 1tsci o[ conditions. i a foot and.many ls .re Sholrn ht the :rrccijn Fjg1lre 8.1S.
PodiolDc(llonToble
makea decision tableare'lF' (a) Writedifferent cond itionsjn condition siub part and different 'THEN'actions actionstubpari, in @) Divide the condltionentry and actionentry parts into as many columns thereareactions numberthese as and colufirns, (c) Put 'Y'.or 'N' in dachcolum! oI conditlonentry part, dependirg uponthevalidiiy of bach condition. acrionenrrvpart. dcpcnclLnt td' Pur'X in ltleapproprialecolumnof upontheactionitaken validityof oneof moreconditions. on
complexbranching Dcisiontablesarelbestsuited for representing I srp I
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Porl5olSRS
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ntQutRlMHtff sPtcFI(AT10tl
and'jchCI$ l":''"'l1ll1:ult:::l1l!:15
phase,all the 01 compleiionol analysis
rmentsalespecifiedon a
docunent. document, called SoftwareReouirements fication(SRS) qRS phase. formsthebasis $e next Thus, is fte outputoI analysis of SRS phaseoI SDLC, i.e.,Design Phase. It is a medium through which the
therequirernents users. analystunderstands ofthe

ching the togical
8.10.1PTRTSoFSRS
c0N.ijiionentr),
The malor parts of software .cqurrements specfrcauondocumentareas I tlows: lrh'i;l ihdoe Rlqurremirri . | ,^ fnlctional Rtq ircnc,!/sj This parl of SRS.ontains r generrl descripiionof inputs and outputs along with theii dtailedformats. validity ofdata and other Atl the processinglogics calculatidns, tike operaiionsmustalsobe specifiedin the functional requirements. This part of SRS contains those Petlornance Reqltire rc11ts: which are relhted to the performanceo{ the system. requirements
P R 0 J EPT A l i | l0 , A N A t Y s I D0 ! S r G0 F r ! . 3 1 5 IL 5A N l
For example, 4umber of uaeG/teminals,.number/size of files, responsetimel number of operai{onsihat can be performed (throughout). ett.,areper[ormance requirements. tct txtemnl lfttcfale Rpquircficnts: All lhe Dser iomma nd s along w rfr explanations ofefformessages djjplayed by !hesystemdrc spe:rfied in e\temal interface requirementspa-t SRS. of The characte;isd( of 5 hardware required to run the softwaresh?uld also be specihedin this Dart. \d) DesignConstraints:Ihere cetain factoElike hardware limitations, are operatingenviroffhents,standardsthat musi befollowed, secuiiiv procedureserc. that constrainthe design of software Thqse restricrions re either required by the user or requrredlo be put bv a ' the designer.These factorsmust also be spicifjcd in jesrsn constrninrs paft oISR5. :
8.10.? (nm,lcllRtsl6 orsRS

The softwarerequilements speclfication document shouldhave fie loliowingmaincharacteristjcs: SRS An shouldbe; a compiete, mustcontain requirementsj i.e., all o consistent, mustno! contain i.e., Gconsistnt requirements: a unclerstandable theuserorinother analyst;_ by . modifiabl aspcrthe needsofthe users; . unambiguous, every requilementmust havb only one i.e., meanms,
8.rI SYSIEMS Dtstol{

the analystfocuse6 the designoflhe system on when tie requirement speci6cationsre ready. a
designphaseis to producea modelof the
0srrotvrs D$tet or Syslr/,r

Themajorobjective sysfem of designis to developthebestpossible dsign .rsper (he requirements workingenvironmenr operaring nnd for the system The besi possibte designshouldhave the fo owrni
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Prepa thefeasibility tudy report. re s urverneoralpresentaionrhete.tjtbrtiry of srudy.

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)ystem. 3::.Tff therespons,bt" Idnury ^1"-::""* **" ,"a a"l"dlil,"ir,i feasibilitJ'. "ii*,,, "
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Lhe.rnaly+ the.".rig".i ;, il,;.;;;;if suggesrs r"" il#:;i" arerequired. analyst rqltired. The genilally pursue, gen
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, s/slems Anolvsrond Desig- 249
sYsrEMs DEstGN'
l
rorrr(Jbc iil(enro i(ion srubind d)e thc condhions in l)l!.
account,.dedictions 1 atrcndance,,lebve . l. 'o"J",'"".*il"#;;,,|r#îlH:iiT:l

I datais availdble,in what fornr, when ir is suppiiedand by whom.
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derrgned wrrh rhc followingnaur objecrive,.
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r 1.5 DESTPN OBJECTTVES
Thesystenr sLoul,l be desrgnecl such a way that it may be learnt and in operatecl wilh eAseby rhs users. Thus.rhc dccign shouldbe user_orienreo.
i,Flexibility , are dynamic nature.Therefore, sysrerr in a mrlsrbc responsrve rrre to l:.1::,::::-ll,r.:llllons, rh.rrrBe inevrtalrly reqr:ested its users. by Efliciency
be efficient,i.e. ir should perform jobs withtn their spccifieci rirne.The efficiencyof , be neasurbd in rerms of rhe following palarnclels,
liJ ThrctaEhprtt is the abiliryto haDdle specified Ir a oumber jobs per unit of time of (ii) Resto,lse tma: The abilirv ro resoorcaoa request [o lesporld ry madeby the use,*irhirl a giu.n ti,rrc
N N
the abiliryto pndertake complere withn a grven job rhe tLme limit,
N
N N
'il:t,:'i::?,'il:;i:,",::i conceprual design phlsicaldesign, j;,i;'.i: two phases and ;:ff respectiveln ilT:TJ;il:::,"i:i,:::];:i ff ate ako calJed il:j tr:jj exrernal dcsign o gener,' design inrern,l ard de.rgn jeraled'd-sigr. o] ].6 CONCEPTUAI. DESIGN -1.*,:,, de<rgn sLase rhar;trernarjve ove ,t Mls de":sns (o,,ceived a-e a,,d rhe 1,.! i_'^ I :h: oocrs.serecreo th syslemanatysrin consultationrvith by the top managelnenr. rhe conceptual. Io design, feasibilityof meetingthe management rhe objectives iL. UfS" il f.. Urooa_ ".r..*j "na "
,: retjab itn physicar securiry dalaatld thedelection prevention or ano lii:"1:fT:j"1,,": of data. of fraud and abuse lTdware
n l 2 5 0 M o _ o g e - r e n_ r o r - r o l i os . . e n
brush picture of the systemis painted. That is whn conceptualdesign is also kporvn as gLoss design,highJevel design or an overall MIS design,which becomes basjsfor dre detalledItlS a design.In other words, a conceptualdesign is a prerequisiiefor the detaileddeslgn.Concepmal aesigninvolvesdre follctwingsreps. p 1,1 ef.ne -ntle,D (ii) Setslslen objectjves (iii) identify consrlaints (iv) Delermine infornration needs (v) Derernineinformation sources (vi) Develop vnrious designs (vii) Docunrent e cpnceptualdesign (viii) Prepare report A brief discussion rhesestepsrvill make the conceptclearer. of I 1 . 6 , 1 D e f i n eP r o b l e m T|e first step in conceptualMIS design is ro clearly undersrandand define d1e froblerrr to be solved.It should be noted here rhat theseare no! only the current problenrs, which are of concetnl rather MIS design should be relard ro long-rangeplanning for the organisationso as ro solve fLrme ploblems. Furthel MIS functioh is supposed soive dre ptoblems relaringlo information to needs !he business fof olganisarion. Thr:s information needsof the olganisarionare io be identified and u|derstood in this step,which can be deterrnined undersranding mission,objecrivesJ by rhe itrd strirtegic operrtingplansfor the business. ind
(i)E-rrcrnrl (ii) InteLu.rl
posed iforn n'ir
1 1 , 6 . 4 .D e i e r Ior i gooddes\
(i)\Vhr! rtr (ii) Itcnrrof abourtJrcirinfo rlcpenr'1iug r or inlbmrnLion ucr r0spolrsibili(i(s !
11.6.2 set Syslem Obie<tivbs

Flaving defined and understood problem besolved, sysrem the to ihe analysr, co+suJtation in wirh rhe sr.mLrsr rhe sysrem set obiecriver. While setring rysrem objecrives, olusr bc kbpr in mind it thrr the valueof':rninfo(mnrion sysrenr in the benefits irs users. hes to Thus,rnere efficiency rhc of system would nor serye purpose, the Howeverr is very dilficult ro set rhe feal objectivcs ar ir of inforLnation system, oftenthe objcdves an information of system se!in vdgue ale rerms, for Quite 'havemaxjmum 'reduce 'piovidequalit! cxanpl,(keepdcculate recolds', efficiency', costs', infornation','pay salaryto employees due date'.No doubt,serring spccific by is of objectives difficult,but it is,veryimportant, that system so objectives providea measure perfornrnncc may {f oI the systenor to design information an system helpachieve objectives. irs Thirefore,sysrenr to shouldbe stated, lar as possible, quantitarive in objectives as ratherthari qualitarjvo terms,lor example, gomeof the already givenobjectives may be restated 'pay salaryto 100 per ccLrt as employeei dre Iastd1f o{ rhe nronrhi 'pay 100 per centof invoices by before due date',etc, I 1.6.3 Identlfy Conslrolnls Systerrconstraintiare also known as problem bor.rndaries resfticions.I(nowledge the or of is consrraints essential, it helps designer consider limltarions restrict desjgn as the to the that rhe ol dresystem. otherwords,constraints ln linit freedom acrion designing system achleve of ln a to the objective. rhelightofthe consrraints,consqant In a review obiecrivesnecexary. of is Thus,esrab|shing constraiurs helpensure that the desisn is]reatxtic. ivill
Thisis foLrnJ an
takcn judlcious clerrlythu inforr
I1,6,5 Dotorr design ItlS, ' of Though somr ol informrtion,
o lluown as $oss MIS I fhc derniLed lcsign. ConcepruaL
^: Jysaetn consrlaintsmay be classilied under
Syslems Anotysis ond Design 251
two
nanlrry:
,(l)Ixternal Exrerhalconstraints, the name as I i"ai..*. -- ---- ,' , constrairlts poseduy .*,".,r,,-,1" """,,1;:::1, ":,"].::i111 to.thc orgrnrsaton.For cxample,
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11,6,4 Detrlnihetnformotioh Neecs
::::ff:"1"i1ili';i"iii:#,:#.*;:"-f:f
I
irnportant trre inrorn,'ationol roknow rear nceds
n:::i;:'m'j;.1;;;;;;;Hi.iil:i#i"i.";:.ili:;:',1:'::ff;,li,J
(h{ lroblcn to be il. \ rfc ol concefn; i i . \ s o : r st o s o l v e rini! to infofnlx!ioD .rLr to bc idcntified io . objectives, cnd /i\ x{/hrt rhevwanr our of.rn rnformrnon,ysrenr; rl-l jr)llcntsof rnformrtron rlrar;rre ueeded achreve prc_o(rcrln:r((l ro rJ.c .r.Jc_uve5 , Bur. user-rn.lnagers ,.areiy are specrfic ,
jl"1i:li:ii r;i::;, l: :ii];i;:'"iti:i*i rrrji ll*h:irlif l!i:r"l" :.;:,1.'; rrornrrL r",r," o,need,. d,,;,';e;;"-i.,r,::i:',;,*;:.Hlr:i.J:tl;nl:f:.i,r:lf:,1:;
wltll r al] sultirOon hc kept in mind Lst crc cfficiencyof the of :rl objeclives an tefms,rcr !r v1lguc ','pr:ovide uality q is )ccilic objectives performance Lrr'r oI 'IhcreIore, syslem . rlilrti\,e teims.For iy ro 100 per cent
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t 1,6.5 PFtermine Informotion Sources

Jls(as cterr undcrsLrnJrng:nd lustrs a clearuudersrandi wholisLic . r,
of I(irowledge the ol :suiccrhe dcsigd the s!!nr to .rchreve 1. j-lrus,establishing
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analysis. .r i,r".-",i",,i,f soqrces
l':i'llT:ff :i:' tJill;:j,1 ;'il[H'',"":fl ::: :l;l*m*i;lli:.'-": :t1m l; ::1T:1 :i:, llt :llt,';1;ili:;* :#x.,J:';:l1,.i..Jr,t,t ;xi"yii :1.:11*::;i:.'':::i':;"ll':,::."t:.:1":1;'1,;-;;;r;;.-:;'i:: '1.-;l#;
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System Informolion 252 Monogement may The ExterllalRecords; internalrecords bein written{orn,like Iiles,inputs \1)Iht:etnaland orpllnned systems, of reports,docurnenration rhe present and outpurs,correspordence, pLblicrrions. governmenr statistica. c' trdde ivhereas mry include erc., extArnal sources ' rJser-man personnel may be 3n gersand operating Pefsannel: and Ciperatizg l\i) Managers requiremenrs an of inpul, outpul and dataprocessing for inportaqt sourc understanding inrerviewing the . involves gathering dara fron this soulie I-Ioweverr ihfonnationsystem. ' managers operating properplanning and skiLl. personnel) whichrequires and
Tire folloruin Suppose.r Pr threeof folrr P ot designs Ole ol specificatiors
of eachloonl. I
I
ordaing cosl
h C a f i y gc o s l
'"f -e
o e / e:
Snnilirlycot Irdia.Hendofii a rs,fxcing cfisil to Nr?IvllS b.- d( o9dc* fronr cu depa M:rrl<etbg !erpemal irrvcrr Iorecas*iti de miry Pro deslgn n! the rcgionle !llc tlanslrlit ot ser departmelrt
Sources Matrix Fig,11.8 Infor ationNeedsAnfornation the and informarionneedsare determined, nbxt acrivityis to Oncerhe informationsources whichis a caribedoneby usinga marli* diagram, n{edsaud sources, This the rnatch informarion process. Figure of and for integ/ation sub+ysiems in the restof the systenr'design vnluable deyice management of in the 11.8illusrrates usof a matlix diagram oneof the sub'systems the marerials sysrcm, I 1.6,6 Develop Vorious.Designs / A tternanv co
ihe designsl Eosi Economic
of dre analysc shouldbe ableto conceptualise overallstrucfure the infofrnation By oow,a system givesttsan ovcrvrcw design mentioned, conceptual As he slstern, or sheis goingro design. already MIS, which rs of design Iikea skeleton qhe of of or a sketch ihe strucluie theMIS.Thus,conceptual it design. be more concise, nray be said drar if To guidesand restricrs torm of the decailed the then deiaiLd design the flesh.At this stage, conceptuil is is design rhe skeleton, lhc ioncepruaL points,infonnarion f1ows, channels informirionand roles of would definethenraindecision desigrr ol cdmbinatrons ahernative works out broadfeasible Here analyst of Lrser-rnanagers. dre sysiem MIS various,conceptual designs proccssing, and cor,rrnunication outputto generate input,storage, the to whichareconrpared select are conceptual designs to be developed Morc rhanonerlternativc one,which , oprirnum
(i) meets rhe requirenrents of rhe users/ofganisation, nnd I ii, rs cost cffecrivc.
E Pe ofmonae Erch allcrrrtl\
B Operoiionoi lor eachnlrefL of thc drrLribrs 11.6.7 Docr
ryslerns Anotysis Design 253 ond , li1(e {iles,inputs
infcrviewing tho
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Iloor aDd__one room on rlre first floor fc
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coneerned BefoLe srores. reeommendrne tr,', rl'erni ve desrgns. fjlowing crirerionmay "pir*,i"""..ffiiffi, il,iii:,fli,'fi:f:;fi The be adopted a basis as
Economic Sosis A prelinrinarycosr-benefit analysisof each of rhe designsis na.le.
tlrc infor'mation i$e MIS,wlich
Po.formonce Eosis
rrl lvlls designs. Lri:d select to tlre

Thefinal selrctedconceplualarrernadve documenred is in specificteims. Tbe documen."uonor rhe or.-o,u.rld-rc,. rn\o ve.:
254 Mcnogemeni lnformotion Sysiem (i) Overall sysreru f1ow, (ii) System inpurs, (iii) Svstem oueurs, Rnd (i!) Orhcr docuurenrati()Ds actlvltysheet Iil<e and sysrem descriprion, erc. l '1.6.8 Reporl Prepdrotlon
11,8 DETAITEI]
Having docLrnrenred concepnraldesign,rhe next step is ro ger an approval of tbe nrunagencnr the (uscf) as to srafrdie rletailed so clesign activiry. Thus,a proposal givingdre costto be incullednld possibleorganisatirrnal changes preparedfor rhe oanagemenr.The r.eport$us preparedshou|l is bricfly nrenrionthe problem, rhe objectives, overali view of the system, an jusrifications selecting foL orc nilrllative overodlirs, time and orherlesources required devetoprDg jmptme|ting fpr and the ' ) _ r . n . D o ( . , r r r r r r r , , n f r l , e. y - r e n s h o u l d l s oo e r p p e n d e I n r t r cr r ) n c x o r e l .b " g , u - , r n , o , a d volr.rrecl drc fepoir.The repo thui .ubnrrred, rpvrerecbr rhe rot) rn.IrJgcmcnr arilefenr is or t'. . -Lrni\rr.l. Ir .rpprove.'. dcr.riled ,ysremdesrgn rhe acriviry s Jnderrrkcn. I1.7 D E S I G NM E T H O D S
becorn p i design to irulise,:l lrc cil is design to prcirrl ircmefi! l)rtr rcq( (i) tfojcct Pl:l (ii) Involvcrht (iil) Defx)e thc (iv)Inpui/OLrtl: (v) Feedbncl( 1 DxrabiseI {vi) (vii)Pfoccdufc (viii)Design D0 A bLiefdiscirssi, 11.8.1 Proic(l proccsish( dcsign desigrr is demiled fdllow+rp nndc k dclrilcddesign.rr{
Thele a number merhods clesigning of for informarion sysrems..Following blief clescriptioo is a fre
o f s o n l eo f l h c p o p U l i f
Droble6 Portitianing 'fhc methodis based the principle on of'divrdeind conquer'. thrsuretlrod, In insti:.rd solving oI rhe en!ifcproblemrt once,rhe pLoblem dividedin!o smallltranageable is (modulbs) parLs rhir canb! solvcdsepararely. This p|oblelTr parrifioning methodeims at reducing cotrplexi!y' bccarscei]cll nrod.lecan bc dcveloped, coded and tested relarively inclependenrlyrheother.s. of Also,'raurte,rance is nrininriscd cachrnoduic if can bc modified separately, Srructured DesiSn In this uretlxxi, a srr!ctlrrcd charr is creared, whrch can be sedro rurplenlent system, rite The cha( depicrsmodulesdefining each module by rhe specificfuncdon, The linr is ro produce i stlu*ruc whcrLthc nrodLrles mrnrnumdepcndence eachod1r h,rvc (decoupliug); havea high /evelol on arrd !ol1rsL.rn, ftecnrng.rildte \tn!enienrs within a moduLe functionally are relatecl. Varioustobls like florv-charring, clataflow diagrants, structurecharrs,structured English,erc.,are usedin I srrucrured des'gn, tap-uownuestgn 1i)fofrrul.rrc (ii) Dfi'rcd'e (iii) PreprLc.r u (iv)Scheclule Ll (v) Pfcp,ue I i
The top-clown design b:sedon d1e is corceprof a system whichsLrggests a sysrenconsisrs rhat 0l sub-sysrems which.have sub+ystems fieir own.In orherwolcls, lystemnraybe of {components), a tcrnred a hierarchy sub-systems, highest as of the levelsub-systerl coriesponding rh! totalsysiero. ro Accor'dingly, rnerhod this involves identilication the of-rhemain components rhe syslen, of deconrposirig lnro theirlorve evelcomponen$ irerating $en and until rhedesirecl of detailh level
It alrcmptsro snloorhenrhb path of sysremdesignby srafting at rhe rop and designing rhe broad Inldules firs!. Ar each srage)adequatealrenrion is paid ro subslquenrilrerfacing so flrar as rrre systen expandsfurrher, modulescan be added wirhour rrouble.
(i) Get r l:ecdt of tbc pfoj (ii)l'ake corre,
| 1,8,2 Involv6
Syste designersLr
@
b
!' tt.a
'
Systems q/vsrs uessn 255 w/JLcLrD Anolysrs Des Ar ond ono gn 255
of dremanagenrent t ro bc incurred and prepared hLrs should icarlons selecting for r(l implemenling the
rrc of oe grvenln a L(JptuaLragemeDt ot
r"p",i a;i;J;l,*TilT,iTH::"I: Jhi;::t*ir::;:r1" I'tql ;:',i;t?l'::,yj',.*i:;,:*.*r:'lr* tff:i:"l."C! 9"-r" ,.ir'.i",;i3l lf:;:f:.,illl',fifiJ::;: trr"',," "r,:",u". i.,a. sy. lJj::'i;: ft:lfi ll:"'l:l:T^p::'j:.:,:t;,.rh^. I; ;::l' "r,ii ec, cn, requiremeot', l;:"1; ii""il;r;i l?li:;:;stru :::l*:iiy*,'#;' ""?ili.::,:i.;i:,i# :ilu Derailed arlg" system "; iril;il ffi::; Ptann,ng Control and
derailed MIS design. The E ues,sn become'"puts ro dre deraitedd""';|i'"'.':::::.,.T:il:ients :eecilied
{rutr.ro sysrEMDEsrcN -.1,.tpruat desisn ilserf in is.nor endof rhedestsn rhe 1'-i11*/r-"1i'."ar a Dasrs. rhe 0,o".,., ,,u,". ,, rpr
", bv the.concepluni
".,*,
(jjJt4volvethe User llii) DFf,n" tn" Demitcd sub-systems (rv)Irlpuc/OurDur Desisn
.1i] lloi..,
Procedure Desie; (viii)Design DocumJuration

is r brjefdescri!tion
iilmffiHf"* (vii)
e,-".^ i5v.atv
A brjefdiscussion eachof rhese on phases givenbelow is ,8.1 broiecrptonnlng jnd Control ln ordertL ensure elfecdvetr an
rskjadof solving the ,. ,.1".\,..,.." l" Lo;ity bccause eirch . r, AlsorrnalnlenaFce
l.],:,11J::''il:'i#T fl::l:;l':r:':;::;'.*i,lil::;,;T:'::i:;,;,1:.1 ::iru;:;":li:.,:r:rut.Jtii"i11f;.i"_iff:11""1;'i1

detailed designare given below.
i de,ai,cd ::,:fi1,:ij,X'5:i,X:f':l,'Jiil'.:'*i'l:jT'::::;iy:::.:1"_t'tieporran,,ha! c,onpl.re proiect. rr,r.i.r.,i.

::::ii:'j.o : ,.," rrr,t:rct,.n r.e I
Prolect P/lnning
)c sysren. chad The a 1-';*luce structure h.rve highlcvclof :r l. \rarioustoolslile Lrsed a structured il
llr/ tbe projectrasks, (iil) Preparea netwod<diaglam of
i 6bjectives. ,{l]r-renne rheproiect I"ild"S

all evenrs and activiries as ro specjfysequential so ;ind par.rllel
hv,Schedule worl<as per rle requiremenrs rhe of rne uset. rv'l,reparei budger rhe proiect. ior +oiect Confrct
a sysren,consists ol rs)a system nlayDe i ro thc rolal systm, :rts of the system, LeJ.leveL detailrs of dcsisning broad the ,cirg so that ai the
'.,., cor r,,"' rre recrive,_uon *i.'-.."q,;,"!Xlo:'j'i"';::il,it,J:::i"'

11.8.2 lnvolve:fhe User lIj..T.9::,**' g a t n n e r rs u p p o r r a n d a c c e p t a n c e . t In this oh
r i l C . e t .r c e d b . , c k r ' r e . : c r u p " r f o r m a n c e o f r h e p r o , e c r w r r h r e , p e . - , o , , n , . . . o . r r r d * o , . r l a of al or the protectand compare wirh r ir
rhat w;,i b; rhey not ";;l;:;;;;;;;;;::#l"liili,ii:i,""1llil,lliJ;ftrT;;},lj"T[i:l:T]
.ee.rrdrns musr iniolmrheu.e-s rhe.ewinformaoon sy,renoejnrdeveroped.,,,o
'l 256 .Monogemhntlnfofnrotion System Ir conlrdr \o r( lo obrrin ilform"tion for Lhe n.e des.gn rhe ,y rem.Th! will atso\elp rtrnag .q of rrL,rn.e c rarge,rno would ro ouccrsqful rmp'e-nenrrnbn (lresv.rem. of ;e "rs.rre
Detinilion ^l1,8.3 Deloiled Sub-System In derailed system design, every.sysrem to be brokeir needs downto ascerain ncdvjljes a1l requjred ind rheirrespective inpursand outpurs. someof the casef, In sub-ry(rejns broadlydefined aLe il theconceptual desig, phase, at thissrage bur theyarespecrtrially deirned workor:revery ro oeral concerning suli-Jysrem. the_ Decompositiorl the systern operarional of r{ activiliesrn general rs carriedout as follows. Sysrenl Sub-sysren. Functional Colnponenl Task Sub-task Operation elemeit
(1i)Ir shoLrli (jij) It shoL,lc I tr.igg1: (iv) It shoLrlc
\ Wherever needed, inregration activiries a sub+ysrem be doneon the basisof an.1 of linro mav orreor moreof the followingcommon fcarurls, (i) Cool on functions (ii)Common techniques pfocedures oi: (lii) Lo'gical rel3tlonships flow or liv) Connon outpuis inpuls I t.8.4 Oufput/lndut Design
Thc fo]lon'irig q lj) \\il)a ,il
$l i l w h u n i
. . l r v r n g - d e f i r r e d - t h c s r r b - " y r c n r r w e l l . b y u a y o f f t o w d r a g r a m s l n d j r r h o r d r g h J i s c u s s i . n w i t n(iii) \Vrdris i .hr 0scrsot rhe A4t5J syirenrdesigners rhe now define rhe spcifications outpursancl inputs for enclr of sub-system, mofe detdil.Thesespecificarions later be !$ed by ir1 wlil Fbgrannrersro acvctoj) pr,)grxDrs rcrurlb pL.oducc ourpui/input. the rnain purposeof an MIS is to pLovide !. dre As . ,rloim.flor ro.Ud decisjon-'nrkrng. rhe user.ourput/infur is one ol rhc Ino(r nl.o :ur ro chari*eristics of rhe inforrnarionsysren,As decisions basedon rhe ourpur from the systemer)J are lnput to the sysrin, sysrenr designers 'rust give this phasethe a|terlrionir deserves. The fo o!ving paragraphs lighlighl thc key poinrsto be considered will whilepreparing and irpuc clcsign. ,output Outpu Desisn Therefln outpurimplicsany informarion priniedor displayed, produced an MtS. At this srage, by rbe following'acrivities plnce, talce (i) SpecificoLrtpurs whicli irre r:equired lneer lhe informAtion needsare identrfied. ro inlormatjou are seleded,and {li)lvlethods for pr:eserrring . (iii) Repofrs, formatsor orher documenrs rhar act as cafrjeroI information, pfoducedby xn MIS, are designed, livcn a high qur of gmfhicrl,tlr L (i) der,rils rlor n {ii) cortcnrs
.,
e ue/\b5he objechue "ra'that \t sltoolol srjn al- imf G^lo.^[ i^d-' a Uj ot' 'g
8 hrol, cl
(lbo utt
t-ri9l& an p a.rt) vcp.a-e-renrI
lD.lr-o d .Pl-ouicL!o\ onr?-.
duu
Qd@
Informdtion Sysiem 260 Monogemeni ABC Pvt.Ltd. 'Custorner O

Dfire:
In ci;s4 b
1 1 . Br.l i
Fis. 11,11 lnprt trom lhe lrser 11,8.5 FeedlrutN< rs cletined slrb-systems, olrtputand inpute.the design{ once agriir involvethe I-hvirg spccifjc,rlly The systern of Llse.tu)get fec.lb.ck. This step will ircreasethe acceprance the MIS being designed. This step wiJI should demonstrat proposedMIS ro lhc usersof dre systerr sulr-system. !he runalyst of drar the der;riled dpsignprojecris .lso r(rssLrethe rop nanagemcnt $e lrserorganisatior progressing pcr pl.rns. as 11.8.6 Pcitqhqse Design is of reliled to caoholhcr,It sefves a dirta Ns A tLrtlbasc ,rrrorJcrly ,rrr:angeurentall lhe records perfomrrn,;e,storageand frrst rerrieval To fcsolrrcefof lhe lvlls of an ofganisariorl, hnve optimr.rm in design a system. of Fof designing a <ii d.rcn, datrbase design in irnponantphose the detailed is .lnrnbase, deslgrer should keep rhe lollowing points io mind, the ur Design
Detiilrl ( de,;ign, i.e

st slent iip
(i) sy (ii) Dr (iiil ht
(n,) Dr
(Y)P! (vi) l'jr (vii)Inl (viii)l,r (ix) D; (x) C(
(i) klenrily dntatables record nll and lypes. vnrious .., -denL.fl rnldsfor erchreble, kcy riclJsfor eachtable nnd reLations rh" berween
(iol.,. (iii) Derenrinc the drLatype dnd width foi e.rch fieldof thetables, (iv) Nofmnlise data tables. , the (v) Properly docunreur data dictiorrary. I t.8.7 Proedure Deslgn
(xi) sy
DocuI}l siinplc.e, wrirrqr ic may pridr SUMAlAI Syster-': a(
sllndiuds or nretllodsdesigned,to increase rhe effectiveiress the I)foceclures rhe llrLes, afe ol infonrrctiou syslen The proceclure!deraiLabout the taslc to be performed in Llsillgthe syslen, as t4ey perlorn Thcy servers ferdy feckonerslor dre designers well as for the users.Sometimes the task of a supcrvisorover oper:r*rrs.There is a wide variety of procedures, rvhich iirclLrde, Tbese are the merhods designedfor data enny, e,g, datr enrry l;) Ddta Enr')t Procedw.es: The actionsto be tal(en by the usersro achievcrhe inrendedrcsults, li)) Runaine l'rccedures: e.g. a pLoceduLe rnay instruct dre user to ioad plinter with a specificpizeof paper. (i\il EtMhalullrtg Procedalesi Theseplocedures help the userin detecting and correcringeLLors. procedures Thr infonnerion is providedrgirdiug l1!) Se,:roir, d BachupPtocedures: ouglt rhese acrionsrccluiredro be txken ro protect tle syslemagains!damage. The lrogrammersget insrructionson holv ro document ly) SoftwarcDoctmenting Procedures: the progLnrrs. \
ReqLr!riur
for lalidr Io orcl
Syslerns Anolysisond Desigil 261 In designingprocedrres, designets should: (at ndcnrandrfe (rrndrrd o. ejr.hproceoufc irfpo.e and qualrry lb) deielopI srsp_b.-.rep diredionfor eachproced..rc. rno /c) iocumenr:l' rht orocedures. | 1,8.8 D6slgn Docqnentqtlon Dttailed delign.srats w'\h rhe performance specificarions given by rhe conceprurldesignand ends wtll r sct ot design eprificarions for rhe constructjonof MIS, The ourp rs fron rhe dcr.llec.l !(rrgl1 i.e,oesrgn design, design r.c' speclflcitttolls. hancled specifiorionsr handed are are oyer tlte progLilnnrefsfot wl.iting overto rheprogrdnnrers w;iti codesto tfinslirc fot jnrc syslemspcrtrcatrons a physjcalMIS. Therefore, syxem.analyst rhe drouldverycLrrchrlly drould very cLrrchrlly
ain involvethe erl.The system 'lhis , srepwill ' signproiechis
I
a lrr6t tc!rieval o designing a
qocument detarled tne des8n. fact. In design documents should consist conprchensiv of detaiLs of alt thedesrgn ph:rses, Des(ln documentatron of detailed design report, generally, consisrs of (i) Sysdn obiectivep, (ii) Desigfl consffairits, (iii) IFputs/o!rpurs, {iv)Datafiles, (v)Procedures. (manual), (vi) Plopbsed (a sysrem summary anddetailed\flow chnf$), Inpur/outpur s!eciications, {vii) (viii)Program specif icarions, (ix) Darabase spciiications, .(x) Costof inslallarion in1plemenradon, and and (xi) Sysrcm condirio.rs. rest
c
rlicy perforn l. data enrry
Docrrmentadon the sysrem of shoujd also ioclude a usef-manuAi and ooerator-nanull. A LLscrmarual is prepared guidcthe userit undersrand+g usingthe sysiem. to and Ihu., it shouldbe simller easy ro understEnd and without any techni!;l ja.gon, Wheren" Nl opcrator rrranu.l is . . wrrnen tor the computer operrtors. Opetator-manual should include an operaroLis view of the sysrern. specJlyrng starttsroprnd restrLr sequences. It should alsocontain procedL:res various which maygurdelhe opFraror rcgarding privacy,nd :nregr o( d,rr" seLurity, iry SUMMARY 'system lnaly\isis deraiJedrdy f allinpofran *L a o r t r , " . " , p . , u . o f " r r - u - e , y , r c n a.. w e , , . lhe exrstingsysrelTr. Tlrus. rhe study becomes basjsfor ,a. proposedsysrem.ln thrs processor a system alallsis, emphrsis placedon '\VHAT musr be done to solvethe problem,. is The fjn.l p r o c l u cJ f S y s r e m r a l v . i , i < a ( e l o l s y s L e me q u i r e - e " rd f . r . p r o p o r e dn t J - 1 . , r . o r v , r e r n . t a r s , i Requirempnd dereminarion, vrhich is an important actiyiry,in syirem analysis, is a means of rrandating rhe ideasgjven by rhe usersinto a formal documenr.Sysrern analysisensuresthar rlre sysreT analysr understands rhe users' requirements a c,learway ard rhus recruces in rtre comlnL'ni.arion gap betweer rhe u"er and rhe developertr ied,r.e. !he JeveJoprFrr-",r t.r overcoming ellors and mhunderstandings earlyin rhe developsEnt and beconesa basi for reference for ralidarron rhe Iinal oroduct. ol In order to study the ixisting sysremand ro determinjnforn?rion reqrirenenrs, lherc are severalstmtegieswhjch could be used for rhe purpose.Thesestrategies may include rnrervreris,
:c clocument
12
lmpfemenfotion, Mqintenonce, Evoluotion qnd Security l$ of
Leorning Obiectives
AilerstLrdyinri chopie,yorJ ihis shoutd abteto: b . leqfl implemenlotion procedur bs followsd implsmenlihg io tor o newly-developed
'
:::'-::l:i1-i::"*"-
3;:;:*11::::l:':'" exrsirng orgonisotion;
opp'ioocheso ,ewrv'deveroped o neworgonrsolion ror Mrsin ond in

oJ rypss sys,m
on
nq n.eno.ce; "ro j*:;iuru';:;"::"::"",o*"s.o::'. j;'::::*,1*::. r':9"1 ".aji,,.i.i"ril "g r'ars; "*,;;#::l;Ui iI';""T,:il. }i,,, {r Jnoe.srord conceEr s s"Jt *. ,i..r-r,. rhe o,
of MIS rs comolete is,ready inrpiemenradon. . ', ,., t for Inplentenrationa plocess ' in.ri'ind pLoces(.ot | " ' " . ' a newly_develgpej is ot insrdlling MIS at p r e m i s e s3 n d F o . l u n L ruslyl gerring ous ge.,i-r,L y desigoedto_generate]-rn orher wot d s . i r i s L l r ep r o c e s so f - r * , " " 8 ' f r ; ; ' ; wo :::l: : y":,,.* ;i.-." r/\rcrn. rne new rvsremmay be a reptacen ::.1:.i r c : r r i o n noorr r o : r n a l r e a d ye x j s r l n gc o m p u r e f - b a s e d Int n rlernenr.r.:on meJns pur"jngA," nJ* irro operarion. "y.r.nl I2.I IMPIEMENIATION PROCESS { lnrpler:nnration of laIS is , f.oc"s! ,n,ur1 "-, ,-..^,,.-l srePsIr rs urlddstood tle maior stepsare based ;il:;,];;;:l: here q'; ll*rves.v'rrious rlcarior: qll (qu renrerrr\ rl'e sy.rerr,. tha! or p'n.",.'ng. :r, .q,ip,".",, i*;]tr:: ",ch ,np',. ",,,p,i. s,eps not sequenriariy ;,re exctusive, ,omlof rhe,,.p, ou.,r"p. r1..",,i1," ,,.p, ,,. ;; ;u;;i::"" l2.l.l Pldhhing lhe lmplernentotion
iii::: ;:1l;ii:::1"'"".:;,,[::*:;;';jr";:xxl;;;;;;,,;;;.J,']ill|,"
:::;:: {::j:"l:fu##lltrii:#il :'-ri:k{:, ;;';::'':';il':il"ilT:: TJriif :l :::li:;lli"':T" 11,",i: #'iil,J:, Y:'T:"TJ: il': 1:r1 .Y;;;
0ncerhedevelopnrenr
";;';;,;:;;:;:;l,i;ililili"Xl"",li;:1i'i,iJ::..,i:'"11, ii",H:,n""'6,
1
\
oI an MIS is ro plan it. For proper'
l- i. obv:ou\ rlraLrle frr.r \rep In rhe i urpre,nenl:rron, pran ,s a pre-reauis;,. the Iil::]:i-t::'* -**l ,ep
.eoue"rcF nd rerarion,o.,.n.,i,..j.a,.#lli,,li iT$il,iJ,ili,,.i,,ti;"llT;;:J:;il,;1.,;ij};f
rh"r:.rrrorr, ,d;;.;. ;,1;.; ,:i;:.,1"": :
".
o.e_unpreneprrriou:cn,,ry. rr i",n ir,s
It
q3l2 Monogemenlnformoiion Sysiems lof cich activity and cost estin]ares alsoobrained. betteg are To descrlbe plan and implenentation rhe schedLLle,systemanalystshould make useof various rools trikeGanrt Cha*s, Network Diasmm. a etc.. Espccially largeprojects, in wheremany concort.nranil sequentlal acivj!iesare rnte,,i "red, sLrch tliagransare valLrabie prpvidnrg clearpictureof tljre in a roralpl:n. An cxampleof a G:rntt r ' r r I t . r , d N c r , . n r .D r g 1 2 1 I . e v c . lr e . o v n l g ( l l . t r n d i ) . 2 , r e , p e c r v " h . 1 "
P r e p a r o g a n a lo n P a n s 0r s
Tra Personnol n p p r . D o v o l oC o m u l e S o l l w a r e
C o n s l r utc l B a l a e s h D F 0 p e r s r t h ef l e ! v y s l e nn e S r C l O v e . l oh e e w y s l s m t N S E v a a l e B o r n e h N 6 w y s l e m u lnd I S
L:]
rl
Fis.1211 canrl Charr An Example 12.1.2 Acquisitionof Fqcilities ond Spdceplonning The infoi:marion sysrcnr be inrplenrented befor a new orgarrisatibn, to may whereno old syslcr Ls
in existence fof an cxisring organisation, or f,rherethe informati-onsysrdmhAs becn nodificcl ro i
IroLproperinlplementationrhesyslem, MIS manager required prepare Fof prope( inrplemenration rhe syslem, of dre is to estjnrates of floor'space ll ".r ,p.rce tequifenrerjts alsoroushla' rcqrrrrenren(s ,rlsorûghLryours. rud aDd Sprce plxnj,ing.hould L.ri<c rccoirrr irrro drc sprccoccupied conrpLrre|s, by prinrers, rerminals, etc.,as also by peoplennd rhelrmovenenr. Thc nunrber ar)drypes.rf exitsrsrorage aieas,air.conditioning, locarionof urilities, s:feiv .r secr.rrity frctors also rrffectrhe layout and locarion of the computer rooln, ,|2.1.3 MIS Orgonisorlon ond Pro.edure Development
h* bedn developed, reql,ires rhis ocquisirioh facilirres of Iike i:::li.:.::."::lj:g::11".,-1 l:y.ll:library,etc. oflice,compluer room, corrputer
o sysrctn. \\'il Ir ri$rehcredrn ofgInisa!ions lil(e . .Just pr ir)rporr^nt sre
12.1,4 Use,
by !hen.
It is also imponartthar i nanager(may be fLom rhe finrnceirc.ount./co.put....nt,.1r" gir,"n $c rcsponsibility oi guiding d1e rnsk oI implemenration.The so-appointedMIS mancgcruus! nrrke the role of lire mzinagefsArsers and ensure clear their iovolvemnt rhe sysrem the nixxnum in ro exrcntpossibler odrerrvords,rhe usersshoulddevelop: feelng rs it tlie slstem rs tireLr Irr own
.Fof
disphys, as \\
i
.l inJrlernentxiion rrworliDiagr.Drs, rmplc of a GAntt
I
oinienonce, Evoluoiion Securily lS 313 ond of
Fig. 12.2 NerworkDiagra - An Exanpte sysrenl.Ir will help nranage Lrsersresisrance changeand increase to rheir acceprance. is rhe righr Ir flnrc hcrer\at_$e MIS manrge!qurts recruiring/hiring orherrequired personnet. Various rypcr of orgrnis.lrion< MIS havebeendiscussed Chrprert2. tor in of Jfst like proper organis:rtion MIS, development procedures various acrivitjesrs arsoar of for Inlporrint srep.The variousactiviries may includeevaluating and selecring hardware, buyingor .le(loprng roirwdre.rmplemenralior )lrarcgie\. resriI.g oLlre sysrenr, crc. 12.1.4 usei frolning Adequ.rre usertrainrng rs \ery iDporrant for sdccessfully implementi|g an informarion sys|em.l.hr usersmay be ldenrifiedard cl:ssifieddifferenrlyon the basisof rhe opef:itions/funcrions performed by rhen, Fol example,clericalor managerial, frequentusersvelsus;ccalional users.Toesccrasscs rrF not n"cessrrily usrve. tlreyqulrc oilen overlap.lhe MI> mjn:ger murr deqrgn exL a( rf:ri 10 progren1Dres per rhe needsof theseusers.Clerical usersnrusr be trarnid rn rhe processirrg as of transactions and nranagers rnusr be informed as to the lormat and conrentof reports_and rerninal dsplays, as well as how to make oniine inqujries. Proper usr training is an ilrporranr facor in
ol hcilirles like
icrtrcl be gn'en
314
Monogement lnformotion Systems
promotingth requiredculrufeand thus ensuring acceprance rhe new sysrem, rhe of *hicrr is necess",, for . c.e,.fr-li.rplenr, rrarron. 't2.1.5 A.quisition of Hsrdwore dnd Soltwore
is givcnbcrlo,, For New Or, If rheolgrnisl
processof acquiring rhe necessary T_hg hardware and soltware sholrld, in fact, srart lnnnediatel/ Jher rhe desLgr) speeifications rhe sysremare over. As selecting of hardwate and sofr\rare ,oay b; qure cornplexand rime-consurrrng (refer to hardwareand softwareselection discuxed in rhe latcr p r r t o r hr r L h a p r e f r . Ir should be ensuredthar the fac;rirres whrch are requrredfor insralrrngthe haroware,sucn as, sircpreparrrion.\vorl(. compurerroom layour,air-conditioning, electriccon"n*i*", lrnelt etc.. shoutd be cordplete ivoid loss of time in making the systemoperational. "on'.unr"onon ro Ar rlrs srcge. consunrAbte!, flbbons, lrt(! paper, floppies, tapes, compact disks, etc,.shouldalso be acquired order.s placed requlred. or as 12.1.6 Creorion of Forms ond D(rtsbose Fofms are very imporr.nr for rransmirdngdara.They are also requlredfor i:rput to rhe sysrem anrl ourpur irom the sysrenr. For implemenratiori MIS, rhe requiredforms sbbirld be gener,ated, of bur (rr.,rnlL berrl(clth:rr rhese geuenrcd thecorrrexr the rre rn of enrire MIS. Moreove"r ronnsbcing tt, tc\ u(cr rnrcrl.lce,. Ie.onre rll rhc mr,reinrponrnr in rne of 6enerrl rccepr.rnce tne sy,rcrn. (rige.rheJcrurl drrr S.lrlirlv. ir thc rnrplcnrcur.'on be Jbrarned rheo,,rroirecrcrt(.t, "hould "nj r\'rrchrs ured.In rhe rirsr insr:lrce, rhe initiarlesting for and rhenfor dre acnralopefation rhe of inf0frnorionsysren). l2,l,7 Testind
For Exisllng O Vhen theolci (i) (iiI Di,ccr P.ri;r,
( i i i ) l v l o c lr , ( i v ) P h , r s', .
r\ direct jrD fift Lhe sysr:crrr, old n nnregnf \vlr
Testsshouid.bcpcrforhtd jn accordance wirh rhe tesi specificalions each and everyphase. at Jlorvcver. is.rnore it rmporrant ijnpiementarjoD ar because, tesring rhisstageis done undefleal ar nn$1a118 conclrtro,rs f.rcruirr wrrh da!.r. Tesring can be done with o'ly a smallfepresen!n.ve d.re bur it shoukl be donc rt vario.s levels, stnrting from elements,o rub-ryr,.rn,aird frnallyto thc wlole The elerncnrs may include equipment,forms, programs,work proceoures anc :l:i:il "r-: rof u._1.s. d.rdjn:rybe re<re(l erc.. rehLrvcly rndependendy the sysrem whrchrhcy belonA. of ro Thesc rcsrsnr'eperforned mrinly For accutacy, lange of inpurs,frequenqy inpot", operati,r! .o"nd,rlon, of rn$ rcliabilrty, erc, i Testing of rnforrnrrion sysreins! nowadays,. be lnderraken wirh rhe 1.telp Cotnlwer Aiderl can ol -ASE .q-,.-. / \ i1s r o o l <T h e . -L o o t o r o vd e f o - o n h n e e b u g g r n g .< o r r " c r i r . g ; r o g r , , . . . d or "9,".rnd dnraerrors, On thc baslsof the tesrs perforned, a number of difliculiies may alse. These changes rhe design n ' f c l e n r e< , u b . y . r c , n . | e v e ni r r t r e . y , r e n . ]n of n o
(;r) dre s1,st ( b ) thr,r olLl (c)

( d ) thc des
FIowc,rcr', 11.
high lislt of t:r
.4 1 2 , 1 , A
Chongeover /
.1"
M etu-D dA
6l
I v'.r.P \e ni.-p-.rr-h c-b
6/Y'
ID rhisapprcl.
fie old syslon to rhe new system,which iares prace The exisringsysremis replacedby rhe ne{, systemrn to the new sysremmay be accomplkhedby ;electlng
co,n 6,p,
A 6vw .1) dlr'r-+eslirr3-r".-"'-fut^"a ea-c'l''- @

" ^Y*:3D*â^)
*3 #f *1"f'.* *l-
4a L4(;,r1]n?y.edcucck 'r-i o'u rn.crrn"3.'T:*""Y t"i:T-"-
lmplementolion, Moinienonce, Evoluotion Security S 315 ond of oneor a combinarion yarious of conversion approaches,brjefdescriprion convetsion A of epproaches , , - . v F . e t .s t For New Orgonjsorjo n/Operotian If the organisarion a new one or when rhe old systemdoes is nor cxistj rhereis only one mrtrocl foL '.1:,*', 'lt rlrenewlydeveloped sy,tem. usla the ,stem. i.e. Lr)r: newlyclevetoped sytremis implemented therejs no old systenr operation as in ioO fl1us.no questronol repiacement the o1dor exjstrngsysrem of ar6e9.
ift inrlnediatcly
;scd thciarer i|
FaI Existi ng OGa nisofio/ Op eNf ian n Wirenrhe old sysrem ir1existence, is rheremay be four differenr srfalegies,
Difecf
tlras\,stcnt. ld bu( Acr)crircd, er;folrnsbeing
ParaUel Modulal Phasp-in Dteat ApprcocF A direo implernenrariontheinsrallation rhenew systern rheinmediare is of and ciiscqrrlnuaron ot rheold sysrem, somellnes catled curoft Thisis rhe,ColdTurnLey, proalir.iii" ap p-A** a nne grp wtrenno system working.Thus,lhis approach meaningful "pp.Jr.l is ii when" ',r. -\e ,ysrern norreplrcu,g orher . lry system. r' rlteotd (ycrenr iuJged ;, rb,olurely wo..rnie,,, {cJ the new sysrem eirherverysmallor simDle. is and (o) .l sysrem is.drasric;ui rrom lhar of rtreojd sysrem ldifrerent and :ll:_!::jgl bcrwce.r .ornprrrsons:h.r..*(ysrerns wouldbemerningless. ber:sed rn havinsseasonat operations sugarcane like 3::":r::,1:-ltt'_"::!,may * during sh.rdown ptant. rhe of ,organisations
:r cvcfy fnlrsq. finally to t8e
l,::i::i'g nexpensive. fl.uvely

:irg condirions
lnvo,ves ! Lisr,,i,i;ifi;;; iis;;;ffi;:;j;il,jff.':Jl;:,::'"ii,jl':;::"'""ji'1 'rhn.c hgh r l( of r:ilrrrr. Frg,ret)..j r..r grupr.;6 1".p1s,s1 r2-l
On dre orher hand. I
rhq.marn ;i;i;;;;,;".ii, "d";,,,";. is
,r,0, i" i,
cnngProgrim
lill
Parailel Apprcoch
f"*'.*Tffi;]
!
Fis. 12.3 Direct Approach !o Iarplcmenrarion
rikes pldce
Lmf\rementafron approach.In r parallel implementationapproach,the outputs_frorneach systenr are comparedand differeDcs reconciied. This mrhodis ex;ensive. beca ;f duplic;tnis iacitiries use
rfl new sysrem rnsrelled operated parallel lhe.currenr h and in wirh sys.ern unhl ll nasbeen i,].,ll. rr ",i'ltL"1!tested rl)oroughlyl tle current rhen sysrcm cutout. is Tlis is rheopposite rhedirect of
316
Manogement lnformotion Systems
.rnd personnel maintrin rhe duaL,sysrems. ro Howeye! ir is required cerrainessential in systems, suchis palroJl,examinitionand defence systems, main advanrage that rhe accuracy the Irs is of systenis properlychecked before is accepted afl informarion it as Jystem the orlanisation. of In this approach, rargerdateshouldbe set to indicate a when paralleloperarion rvill ieaseand the new system will operare its own, If possible, target;are shouidbe set ar tde end of the on rhe processing (e.g.at the endof the fiscalperiodand afteryear,end longest cycle closings), graphic A represcntation this approach s beendepicted Fig. 12.4. of h in
L of'pendencY' old sysrem llc T) old systems
F;9. 12,4 Parallel Approach Imptementation to l Madulor Apprcach Moclular approach,sometimes rermedrhe'pilot approach',refersto the rmpiernentatiop a system oI in the organisrticJn a rnodule (piecemeal) on basis,Ior example,an inve$rory syslim mighr Lre implemenred wjrh only a selected product$ouping or with all productsin one licarion of I mulliple-locadonorganisation.Thls approachhas the foliowing advanldges, ("r) The risk of a sysren'sfaiiure js iocalised. (b) Tbe proLrlems icientifiedin the systemcan be correctedbefore fLrrrher irnplernentauon, c, Orher operaflngpersonnel crn be trained in r 'live envronmeur beiore rhc sysrenr i, jn rnrplemenred rheir locrtion.This appro,rch beenrllusrrarcd Fig. j2,.'. rr has
F M o d u l( ) o l d
No doubr,I opdrarior fr.rlly of clata ;rnJ , for severald;r
rhe informAti' 12.2 l-lAR[
iV (diNw odu
d M o d u Lb ) N o vM o d u l(o ) N o w l s /
IrL Scleciing sdiection l,fo ir (i) ){!q!r (ijj) llviti (iv) l"cchr (!) D(13i (vi) r\(lrc (vii) Dcliv (viii)l'osL-
Fig, 12,5 Modula. Approach Implcmenrarion io lmprerenror;oa Pr)o9e-,, This nr$hod is also rfefredto as 'cur over by segmn$,approach,which is simildr to rhe moduhl approach,However, it diflers in that rhe sysrbmirself is segmenred and oot d1eorgaDisntion. For cxanrple,the new data collec!ion adivlties arb lmplemenred and an inrerfaceDlechanisn!vi!h.the old qysrem developed. is This interfacealiows the old systemto operaiewjrh the new inpur dat., l,atcr, rhe uew darabase access, stotage,and relrieval activiiiesare implimented, Oncr again. an inrerfaceniechanismwirh dle old systemis developed. Another segmenrof the new systcmis installedunril the enriresystemis implemented. The advantages rhts app(oabllare of tbat the late of changein a givn ofganisarioncan be minimisedand dara processins resources can Je rcqured graduallyover an extended period of rime. This merirodi" mosr,suited sy"rem. for which iequire onty upgradlltionof the old sysrenis, The disadvantages rhis approachirclude rhe ro
1 ' .
1 2 , 2 . 1. l e Systerr cotll taken in rhir
lmplenenlolion, Moinlenonce, Evoluotion Secudiy lS 3l7 ond of

re ofganisation. In lvjll cease and rhe osnlss). griphjc A O d Sysrsnr c,.t. incurred develop ro rernporary inrerf.rce. wrrh old sy+ems, limrred :rpp.rcrbilrrv J ieci;nr ana 0r,pendency rhe organisalion. rn Thi( approacb suggesrs sub_yslem_-:rre rhar srrbrrinrted for{h!
:ysrems. ortt'.r,.Ji,,. '"*t 'old :l:::l: T:y** new :19 systems, This approqch rppresenred Fig,j.2.;. is in
"", ",u,"i,,,i[
p.* i,yp
0d Fig. 12,5 Phase"in Implcmcnhrion
srsrcm nrighrIje lc locir!ion oL
No doubr.before cbarrEcoveraffected. is carcfuj rert:ng erch.nd (very phrse:r5 .rt we.,:rr,rrtnr rmprcrndrtJr.oll,srage r, u.rderraken, drere ch.rncc. err.ors dre syirenr still are of in ,vhenrr oeco:n.s nors may occur because the failureto anticipate yolumeanclvarinbijiry of the 0I cr,1r.i rnd untoresecD conditions under which rhe sysrem rcrLrrllyopefutes,fhe proces.of o^vlconung errors such ldebugtingJ assooared wuh rhecL:ngeover rircne- sytrenr to mry conr.n,,, ror.severar daysro severat monrhs. depending upon rhe sjzeand conplexilyof tjre sysrem. ,l': .y":I becomes operaflon3l,the sysrem analystshould nor feeiihar his/hir loo rs overl "-";::.: .rfer rne systmrras ro be mainlained wirhin cosr consrrainGar an elficient and effectivelevel.
: the sysrerri is ,J.
tne lntotilatlotl
l::l::l::19":u l..o"ue,t rhenewly-developed mrrrtenrnce, hvalutrjon.f andimplenrenred sysrenl",i,p,,,."""uenr.r0L ir reqrLired ro ro Knowihequatrry rhesyrrem oi developed to gel a contlnuous and feedb{ck theperformarrce on of
sysrem,
ro bereceived continuouslydoing for corre.i;""
p*"":,",
I2.2
HARDWAREAND SOFIWARESELECTION
Selectilg hardware and software for imptelrenting informarion sysrenrs il an oraanrs:tron is I se4ous and n e-conslmlrg processrhar passesthrough severalphases. The mailn stepi of rhe !etecron proceqs lrsred are below (i) Requiremenr analy:ris (ii) Prepafarionof tender specifications {ui)Inviringrenders (iv] Tcchnicalscmriny and shortlistine (v) Derailedevaluarionof shorttistedvendors (vi) Negoriarionsand procuremenrdecjsro! {vil) Delivery and iDsralt.rion ' \ I , l o . r - , r , r , r .lli.o r ' e \ r e w
'gmenr the of
h inclLrde rhe
Syscem configurarionrequiremenrs are cleariy identified and a decjsionro acquire the systenris
Co*u"r,'7,c.grolanci2 do
situation of positionF
ct^-anfle
4tr
Mdad9.neflt, A,Adhi2dtiandlTheary,dtu1thc 3!6tob Apptaach
provide medium " sit ustional Jatverableness. Olhenuise,ts"k-orcnled and ' lensr prfe1"ed co-worker"leaderyields the etrective Iesdership.
task structure,and the leadermemberrelatxms
App,li ati on af Otg aniz ation c \_y'geheviorc! Conceptsto the Design '" ' and Operation lhe MlS' of Without iloper cdnsideration the beliavior people the business of of in organizrLrion setring, the,besr lec,lnicalt desjgned system likeiy ro tail. The key fa.rors ls '-r-ir=thi p-ieiai-r" ale l"n otinisitriprer ttrai bearuponMIS cte.ign ii7 r"cr,r. non4F.roles-relatio'rships. communicarions and ntw,!ki _oj+4je!!q! .wth-its. ond /2) rhe psychological of thq i4dividuals esteenr. need6 for s(lf-.cruAlizari,,n, and freedo_pfii6-m repressive control. the introducrion a neu Ml5 represpnl: of n 'tlireat to the individual terms his oreanizarional in of relati,'nshrfs psy.lr"errd logical need.. Managrhen1 do rnore mu6t !hanjnvolve cvehor.c cor..crned 'jr. in .rg ddnelopmint rheMISi ir musttakeinto pccounr rewlyerner'g nrganlrhrhe of tionalpalterns whichmay arisc..4fsi6tonccrhc new MIS mu"t bc a.rrrdrrl to rather than dcleo.ted sheerpowef.The lerter i6 llrr,ually 'rnpo(.iblebecaLrle by organizations find manysubtleli,aysto gumup operstions. can
h,r conceptttrat irconpatible'" ;ylesin terms ot L'lor rating, as rcr style located ideel (9,9) 1.11c
to --Nd(iVe of Reslstance Mts people not havean innateresisra.r. c\'r|g, Conlrary popular to belief. do e r, simpJy be"auie is change. seepeopJe workcverydey nr\ing self-ir,i it We ar io or .jigte{ _clq;sS: makerheir work si6pl.r, beirFr, m{,rep rr.rnr Ar in .oncept themar)ager ttot change two facets: porrant for is hss to.hnatoetrul l ^tt 6ociol.We ffnd that it.h not ths-technolo4cal change a new MIS, but the of
;ociol "hange which peopleresict. ''' A neivsystem, *li;n i;ircduced.produces newly Fmerging bFha\iora p.t. rems which are noL )ikely 1o mat"\ thc r\e retica|v irtr,irrd '"g,nirrti,rn-l pattms are'the onei that translate system iatte]]1s. These emglgrng.behavioral inputs into system outputs, however.'I'here{ore'the "required" orga;i'l,ationAl p r i r r e m c m u c te m o d i f i e t o b u i l d u p o nt h p p n s r i v F n r e n l r a lr r h F b , h a v i o r a p b d o aspectqPeoplemuot see in rhe MIS lestur"" thst..upport tl,-ir so.ra. aru ' t.
i orkers,and the ns, ih loader is olv as a desired y be sketchedin rnditions of high ic tcd lcadeishiP
";-b"ifi-".-mon
spe.ific reasonF re"ult in re.isran'. of rhe MIS:

h r i . i J , , i n J o r e t u , v , r :{ .
Threor,,totL.:Astp.nisor'sdo*'gr,d"do,lyqs,,
job 2. Threat ta eaoi A key skilledclerical is pe ormedb) d urtskiucd computer opera'o-. 3, E"anoaicthrpdttA suo"rwisor lossor 'ob. lptuf rvhich|equires 4. Jab tomplcriLr: new computer A idput tenninalis io b installed, some knowledge conputerinput lanslase. of q
60
MANTCLMEII
AND SYC'|MS
'
is dependni informution, ! rade of deprived "personar" " l":fîT:-:::3j:"see;, nu* changed'Nett inlo4'ation,lio\v produccs rebnon"ships 6, suDerio;'subor&nr'tb subordinste balancebet*eensuperiorund planning 6nd conu ol are performed ol 1. Job anbiauitxand IDss conhol:Pmduction s:tuations'hatoccLrturrdor'rlv for MIS except special lars"ly otth; ied lequires prosanmed" coordina actionsimilar' " s. ?rml.fl}'ciry: The totsl svsLem to a mals-productionlissemblvLne' 9. Interpehinal rektionshiPs cl@nSedtFormer inlorrrul work sr"oupsand 'vorkrns uP ff' relalionships brokPn l l
NP!]TS
2-12 FIGURE Or
tot Effecting Change '"" Ptocedu;e withaul Resi6tance ( There are tluee positive sieps for effectingchangebasedupoliroul hnowiedgeoi organizationalbehavior: b !r, 1, Creata climatefor change ,- 2, tievllop edective ol asents chsge. oinergenl svstemin the Ligh! of anticiputed organizi:ijonal 3: Modif; the required bchavior. .' Create a Climate foT Chsdge I
oi tho anflcrlfeodba utiliza
A clinute for changemay be obtained by getting nr{nage$ and workeN lo with the prsentsystem.One companlyechievedthis succe{silllly fel dissatisned bv holding h seriesof seminars,nrst for 6mall gloupti of Inenugersand then fol were focusedon wllat was wrorrg \t'ith lhe small $orips of -orkels Discussions *uys for revisingthe presentsysten].A lQcordof suggestions p.".Jni "y"tu* evaluations and cornmitrqentwere not nrade. Thus fhe par_ was kept, but "nd bf were noeded!that changes s{)me ticipanG were left with a feelin! tha! changes would be made, and that their views were tak?n into account befpre any kind were considered spcifrcchahges r-"-'-Devolop Etrectivj Agents of Chang
MArlSGEMEr.j \AN-D-"THE SYS

ln Chi crr\t1u validal organi, orgoril ,-Tasks
within any organiration there are informal leadersand rechnicrl lcader'sto *hom other membeisof the group look for protection and securiry Manutcn'cnr and the system6designermus[ identify such leadeB and win their suppor! une and and sent them to brief seminars rompanytook a exoui ol suchindividuals new ideas Onc at 0 tirne each away fromihe companylo stirnulate workshops to was encouraeed work with the systemsdesignerto developpor-tionsof a ncw arld at the the MIS. ln tu+n,they developed support of other v/orkersfor changes workers with regard to the changes sar(retime ieflected thi desircs of the
Thercr tion: 1. lu
I
'le$nrlent , is n.rcl,,
n llor Producd6 "l'
6t Ma\"ge@nt, O)garuati.nnt'Ihaarr, and theStltettu Apptuach
r ^-=
svsreu &onNznirotrnt
A I ] l I C I P A T ET M E R G T D tm.oeni info6ol +ru.rure
rorloolltre Per{ormetl dinrtud ctior sLmrlar t gloupsxnd worldng
FESDBACK Boh6vior patEd Emrgonl ol bv l,lodllled Feedbaok AnlLc 2n2 OrganDrllon FTOUBE
-/
oi )on oLlrknowledge
Modilv the "Required" OlgDnizalion

rnat requu4 The " requirect organlzatlon-I9
orEa zdL;:ffi;ii;'ii;;;;;fu;1" feartange, organizatiol lecluncar svstem. i" a mechanl8uc It i iB ".tan-6GiiiG&friii thil "yrt"*. it'" dri*irizaiiorilitb ori'e is r oi ment iar -o.g"nr""ti*"t'"qut*11*': that ojre morplpd'rcti[e As the tecbnicalide ili;;;;kd;;hit"nships
)l unLiciPr(edemergent
lluii##ft *iiiii#,l$ti,i#,lilll m*'#ft

#il'"";;;;;:'ir'u :.":: T^:::." l:
NFORMATION,
APPROACH
:iff
FicuT'?-;l'? u"t'"'i"' aiststes ;,iiil;";"'s-"";;;g"ni'"iionui l:li"-6:l:6and ^tl: roroperation p*a*'iveorganization r'iir''v il::;;ffi;ffi"Gil?*"'"
of utilizatior) theMIS.
rge$ nnd wurkers,!o Ln revod ihis successiulLY and lhn lor n\rnogers a! \!an wrongwltb tne A rocor.l of slLggestions nade Thus the Par" oi d, Lhrt changes some before any nio account
th discussed systemsa again t the emphasize ln ChapterI

organization.We
hii$\'it3"rnu"ueu-upt of organizalions' we a modelincorpoiitesall other approaches d and of management the just a tochnicalmodel t"""uu"" tft" technical rePresentationof ihe model
of the managemenl ano
the syFtemsapproach.We lvill
more attmtion receives syshrm. organizational

to and technicalleadels r.LsccLriLy Managemu! une d win therr supPor! ano rnr to bllef semilrars acn ler\. Oneol a tim ol a new LeleloP Por'tions '.-lor changes ai lne and rh. ch^nges .i to
the apptoximate stdcture
--r1:\:::: l of Management
There aie tion: t and hencegoalsof the organrza"
(busines, enterpri6c,unjversjiv public ndent and selectspeohc
XP, ,"
)l r LL,a-]r)OL) 0ptrAbon t \l'' |
rfl
; rr. 2alem tt's a-mTlemenked e'Ld
cL^^-'
.l*0.
d * narit'i*, { *Y' (ay<r'

"
{h, 3;f)etn i') rwv Y^f*Z Fi q

(l D ^ r,)"
oaol au Le' m aint Q'ncL.n 6n 'tc v -1" JLLg\)Lra " "" , ^.,- ^,, frr ^ ottnlointraur.rut'ai)
pratttt rruo>e {hcr}r'
d;/
-*':: rotar
0"'."^3
**
ur Operut
j^
^t-or\^r YU f,nct,t
i#*ffT C
I drnft^tteTnen: tu-irrl a [lo.rntcnonce Lrs 'i<tnTenee' *o s[tr-ocr-'-o-au'r:p[oltw *
"#;t'^
^;;;'$
;S[;;t*
cr'a
*fl"Y,**- tu -exuhzrS('i^ * ot^"i,1

"
d* J""f.Y
6l
;^[r ^""*.*JLffi,ni3
t'ts I
n ,l^ r r, ,l,u *
'.e]J) !'t u t'' a'oc e
4)no. 8$1 e**
,/l
s1e16r6nrnent @Qluc'io*-'"
efi^ctut"V
ca:ts'ec'h*"*o] <a
'#*-tW 4ak e t.'-
&eL
n^t,^*a-^'
\l
Wo
. en.L!na+F+rre-{J.3+,ir.ffi...
. :ive the
t ;,; ;:,;, lffifl:.il i::l[;;":l.l:;,:t,,^,i;, ff:t:;:\i::";; ilil "J|*arro." ::#fi #X,J,?;:5 :iU;:]i covers v,,ricry '"inil;:ffi":::'i,"".111?iXtTiJ:l:'|rich ,r'vde oric,i,i,ie.. ,ncrud,nE ,,,rr;; n,,r"* ;;;:;;;;.:.:,":1",.:;::"1fi1."j ::11*:,;J;i ;:1,:::"1:u:. (ii) Adaprive, ";;,,;" and (iii)Perfective.
12,3.1 Corie.tive Molntenonre wn,ch mjshf .vc Juero r""r,ya""g" *,""'" li.J-t ':'"":l . plosrar'r h ' - -"rnptions Th"'':;':;;;,.;;;;;1.';:"":il'"1"":::::.:l]*':; pc*ormrnce inriures repaircd. are "i 12.3.2 'Adoirtive Mqintonon.e i .
This rype of mrinrenance rmplis removi (vstem
/mptementoiion, nonce, Moink Evoluotion Securjiy iS 321 ond o{
;J bt lhe
:.: ihen the
orsan,srtionnr .r,""s.. ;hi.i, ;;';';":iil.lto" rheo'isilaisarion.r ,1;] :l:li: l: n"prnr<.rtronal proccoures, .b,cir;,es. goa,s. po,,c,e\, ,,11,:i,"s.l" er..! cD.rng
til l
in id,rpflve mJirrcnincc. programfuncrron to en:rojc inforftatior, rfie -.r( rnrornanonneeds rhe 5y"1gn. r,1.1y se of u*,r. '.,* ,l.llt-tltlng.td or Inarntenancc m.:v
become ncccssr.o.c;ru.c c,i
,,:
in form\,
,v' :l::9: l,l \y)rLnc,nLrol\ of managcr,. cnangc In ard .ecurrry rced,,erc,
irfornrari6_r needs
12.3.3 perfertive Mointenonce
irclude:
li:::jit,:);;t-:i,J!';;:;;t:;;t,,;;J"i'?i::t:"J.i"l:i:eii:."itilii,.iii,,. r,:" ;h,.;;,ii:T;J $:,:;:,"1i:t:::,.:l:;* :",,'"%::#l'l::;iJ:: ", : :"ilil,:,i ::":l n," ti;il::TilJi ; il::':'j::i:i:..:'.1:;:t; l:;;j; maintennnce,icndertr,i;;J;:,r;'##:;:1i":ii::::;il:"].H'il:,JI"i*I:ji.;1"::::: ;il,l,::r -,;; ;.;i,;;;;;,:t :,
enraichanges
addins proslanN new l"ju::|-l.:]llll""nl":" le_ans
gorernmenrar raws. ,1,1:l::l: l"i r d c o n D e r i , : vporic:e,. er.., e

t'I / new rechnotoBy. cordirions. rno ir a
at dre 3iponoDy
'iS
xisring in iis of the
;".i l;a:il :T:.;t;il ;:::*,:r::#," l;illi,i.i j TlT[;,: I::.,"., ;:; : ".,"".. ::;:,r;1T"ffi,1::i,i ,,: l; ."t ,,. *;; Iii".lil, I;i,":J,It:; ; :,:t,1, ::..ll,j
N o d o u b r . r n : i n r e n a n cje , e g i r d e d .

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Systems Informolion 60 Monogemenl Dime 3,4.

mirnagersat strate It manxgers. is becau of the

in functions dn orgxn Dime 3.4.3 Techrticol

"tr".i'u1",1 of "l..ent'; purpose a go4l' " ol ,r't"Lr"a a *al otherbccbuse a common

(;lhst]aur) ,]0cl (physicAl), An

$'hichprrloms A prr.rbabitist Though bc|, thc

Fig, 3.4 Sysrem lvith MultipleIrpurs and O!tputs

3.6 KTNDS sYsrGMs i OF

(pr,y,.,r)_ J;;;;;"i";:,;;i ,i";1.;,r".;;; ?fiT::ffld'il:nJ.1,fi,1j?,:,:.",,i$ I n a yo r n r r y n o r h a v ea n v qorld.Fo-ex.rnpre.:.r.rcnr

3.6,2 Oeterministi.qnd probobillsti. Systems

gren. Anodrer js example a wareho'se i,, *,',""".6r""" s . . e np o r n ro r r i m e ., h e r v e - a s e e m , ",itd .h e l e n s r h . ; j m ; , , ";;;;;;""i,#;.:#':,": d :n r o 1."1."p...*

Block Box l'he lrirrsiornr However,Lhci callcd a bltlck

SYSTEM RELATFD CONCEPTS

3.7.1 Boundqry lnterfo.e ond Block Box Boundory

,rti,n,Draterirrl, Le rrr rr adrptivc oritinisition in

;,";,3::{]i:r'ii*:fq:ti';:T,!rytx,:",,-{::}:il::::;t sJ's'lem.case, .'r'. Intrrat app,*" ::iT,:[:

lnpur theSystem ro rr rrc rclnrivcly ( \ \hi c hx c t u r l l Y

Fis. 1.5 Boundrrics

Thetransformarion pipcess certain in sub,sysrems, especially rhelowesr at lpvelmaynor bedcfined.

.lo o,,rp,,s known. u,. Sucrii,u*yi..

Fis. u,jr, uo* ,.,

Fig. 3.8 Hjerarchicol Relations of.Sub-systems (B!s Syslen noss 0rganhallon)

P { Markeling roduclion Financo

rr. int.!,,iiion ,#,y,*'u,r,o. oi',i,"J

j:fi:fl.{::l;: "bn",i"" i,i.i"r,i"#iili#o:.il:,T:ljl#f!:i lln:'::il.',,l#. p"*"."

Fig. 3.11 DaraConversioa A _

r rte rbJ.e,y.,.,.. ..,,,i,.'a"" r, :;:j',u."ll;

havin* inpu!, processor outpur irserencnrs. and as il::i."i;lijin::T::"ty^pical.sysrem

:;lii,.lt";.1i1.$::, lt:,j#i: :::5;,:.".,;i;jt*ml;il,i;;:;:::;#; Tj:l::: inro, or to be the resulf : l;.1:lr:i::.illFl;:;:;.:;;*.?;:;.'iffiil1'',i:',::#;:iJ:i"

;fJi:i;:i[::fi::il';?;:':::,:ll,rl":,llr"-F;;,,i;;r;,';;:';;i'l,il,i, ITti:::j:"%::rj::t :1";j ij,-.,, ill:l.li,:;:'':Jh:T#; ,';;#;"-;._';i:iil,jii,.;llii"i,lll.lii::T;11jij"j:, ;:::,,"",",,.*ij:,.;,,-'li::i; decision-making.

isrhe end of :J:::j;ij""tlT*,j:.;i:."i1",:t:,"-"t",-,-"t1.":.o.utpur resurr asystem, rhus and it

control, Thesetrvo s controlis defir specificalh, fee

(j) Classification, (ii)Sorihs, rnd liii) Summrris;rg, (iv)Cllcuhtion.

3.9 HUMI{lt, Humcr is an ill

and sub-Syitems Fis.3,12 DataPlocessin8

(i) seNo,'yr (ii) Proccsjio (iii)ltcspolr$

r.c.ihc brsin.Tl) ffogjssng ot s|lr Il1o{eli dcpicrcl

Informoiioi ond System Concepts 6Z r.lclassitcation !uougn some -, Though.rnput.processor

(o explain the his ilescrip!ion thr;complexity 1r'd a sirnplc in

il;;;ff ;;;: ::T{:'il:l:::f.T:1.:',:'::.'ll':::ll'-i:**: #;:H';:i}::'"""iffi:

Fig. 3.13 A Complere System

3.9 HUMA\As AN TNFORMATTON PROCESSTNG SYSTEM

lon processrng systemcan be understood following componenrs:

$e help of a slmple model,

(i) Sensolv receo 1iaPut"1, (ij)Procelising unir, " nd

liii) Respcinse oueur,

otevc"r'oTr'-ent ?^,:"",f JL/ sil..te.u^ :r' *7*,-^, q h'fu'f

o ..\p^opa ^lyLv tcta_cL4.-

* :': *::!)! -YY.f:;'{ 1**

* conot^ ::"Trr;{" apy*

".-' T,.Ii" 1:'{ _-,f* "i{ T-;'n"*[*1* fuf :1 '* tu

oi|*^ -ff;^A' '*"* ^ ^*:;'Jpvro' f,3,*"

i*o_e,toprne '^HIo ^"L, *f1J*^i,,',ty o '*^l c.,;thaer,,t

It receives inpui oui.Itisasystcm : theoPlational anorganlSahon,

rn easytask.In e irlvolved and ll application /asingleorfew . Bui; Ior larSe

The different phasesof Software DevelopmentLife Cycle (SDLC)are ilhrstrrted inFigure 8. L

tisft s.l 5!wnPhr.Jols;lrvoi'O0y!topn.rl|.thCrih

or Svvars 0ulLrrLrs AMuv

8.4 CASI S(tilAnto

tifiesactivities sofhqareproject ce, personahty

( ' " ' o . , r , r .Acr , l s , t h oo i r " ^ 0 . ' , . ( ; ) r' s

Sysieh Deve opmenl Approoches 231

10.2.1 Wcterfqll Model

gren. Anodrer js example a wareho'se i,, ,',""".6r""" s . . e np o r n ro r r i m e ., h e r v e - a s e e m , ",itd .h e l e n s r h . ; j m ; , , ";;;;;;""i,#;.:#':,": d :n r o 1."1."p...

;,";,3::{]i:r'ii:fq:ti';:T,!rytx,:",,-{::}:il::::;t sJ's'lem.case, .'r'. Intrrat app," ::iT,:[:

:;lii,.lt";.1i1.$::, lt:,j#i: :::5;,:.".,;i;jtml;il,i;;:;:::;#; Tj:l::: inro, or to be the resulf : l;.1:lr:i::.illFl;:;:;.:;;.?;:;.'iffiil1'',i:',::#;:iJ:i"

otevc"r'oTr'-ent ?^,:"",f JL/ sil..te.u^ :r' 7,-^, q h'fu'f

".-' T,.Ii" 1:'{ _-,f* "i{ T-;'n"[1* fuf :1 '* tu

oi|^ -ff;^A' '"* ^ ^:;'Jpvro' f,3,"

io_e,toprne '^HIo ^"L, f1J^i,,',ty o '^l c.,;thaer,,t

rt'::::,','..:ffitfu s:i ;: {{,I,F.::ilfJ.:J;j. ::ll "tl.ff:j:{: x{hifi i[:il;"*::

";$.,.":;,,,,J':fo,li: :l:i:i;nx,'::Xl;:11 "":::;:..,,", _..u,

ifrjfr irifl n#lH:H[iilf i1pilh'-:il#Til';r'# .",trni::;lli,;ilT,1,,,",if;{d[::'"',:i:f,i:,il:f'liii,".,

rayfprrnar be or ru"*l.nn**::i,i:$;:;;.",r:"::j:!:i,!;:,fi:,T inron,,r,"a ir..".i,i.,J";ffi.Tilll,:i""1LflHl::;ii:,,ti:il:I :t,;1y,:"i"."1 r ijh,i,.;li fi i$!ll:lq":J:;: [:fl,'1H']';::..,,', :i:,