GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

The space around a body where the gravitational force exerted by it can be experienced by any other particle is known as the gravitational field of the body. The strength of this gravitational field is referred to as intensity, and it varies from point to point. Gravitational Field Strength (Intensity): Definition: The intensity of the gravitational field at a point is the gravitational force experienced by unit test mass placed in the gravitational field at that point. The ratio of the gravitational force and mass m of the point test mass gives gravitational field. If the field exerts a larger force on the point mass, we say that the strength of the gravitational field is stronger at that point and vice-versa. Gravitational field strength . Gravitational field strength is defined as gravitational force per unit mass. In the earth gravitational field . The above expression is equal to the acceleration due to gravity . Gravitational field strength at a point on the earth is equal to the acceleration due to gravity at that point. Its unit is N/kg and dimensions MLT-2. Since is constant for a fixed point, it does not change with time. Hence gravitational field is a stationary or static field. We may use the symbol to represent gravitational field intensity. We want to find E due to a mass M at a point P. We place a point mass m at P. Measure the force imparted by M on the test mass m. That is equal to . Also and it is directed towards the mass M. Hence, where .

SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE The superposition principle extends to gravitational fields (intensities) as well: where , , ..., are the gravitational field intensities at a point due to particles 1, 2, ... , n, respectively. For a continuously distributed mass the formula changes to, where = gravitational field intensity due to an elementary mass dm. The gravitational field of a ring on its axis Let us consider a ring of mass M in the plane perpendicular to the plane of the paper. We want to find the gravitational field on its axis at a distance x.Consider a differential length of the

ring of mass dm. dE = The Y components of the fields due to diametrically opposite elements cancel each other. Thus, the X components add up. Field due to a uniform thin spherical shell Consider a thin spherical shell of radius a, mass M and of negligible thickness. Out of the spherical shell we consider a small ring of thickness Rdq. The shaded ring has mass dm = (M/2) sin q dq. The field at p due to this ring is From DOAP , 2 2 2 z = a + r - 2ar cos q or 2zdz = 2ar sin q dq or sin q dq = zdz/a.r Also, from DOAP, a2 = z2 + r2 - 2zr. cos a;

We see that the shell may be treated as a point particle of the same mass placed at its centre to calculate the gravitational field at an external point. (inside the shell, r < a). We see that the field inside a uniform spherical shell is zero. Gravitational field outside a solid sphere The sphere can be thought of as composed of many shells from radius = 0 to radius = a. The point P is at a distance r from the centre of all these concentric shells. Gravitational field inside a uniform solid sphere of radius r To find the field at a point p inside the sphere, at a distance r < R from the centre. Consider a sphere of radius r.Consider a point P on the surface of the shaded sphere. Since this point is inside the shells having radii larger than R, they do not contribute to the field at P. Shells that are less than radius r, contribute to the gravitational field at p. The mass of the sphere of radius r is

The graph shows the variation of E due to solid sphere of radius R with the distance r from its centre. This result holds good for the earth if it is assumed to be a uniform solid sphere. As by definition g = and also E =, so g = E, i.e. acceleration due to gravity and gravitational intensity E at a point are synonymous.

Field due to a Thin Uniform Circular Ring at a point on its Axis Field strenth at a point P on the axis of a circular ring of radius R and mass M is given by

This is directed towards the centre of the ring. It is zero at the centre of the ring and maximum at (can be obtained by putting dE/dr = 0). Thus, E-r graph is as shown in figure. The, maximum value is Emax = . Example1. The magnitude of gravitational field intensities at distance r1 and r2 from the centre of a uniform solid sphere of radius R and mass M are I1 and I2 respectively. Find the ratio of I1/I2 if: (a) r1 > R and r2 > R; (b) r1 < R and r2 < R; (c) r1 > R and r2 < R. Gravitational field intensity for a uniform spherical distribution of mass is given by: I= for r > R and I = r for r < R. r1 > R and r2 > R = = (b) r1 < R and r2 < R = = (c) r1 > R and r2 < R = =.
Ex2. A simple pendulum is taken to 64 km above the earth's surface. It's time period will: (A) increase by 1 % (B) decrease by 1 % (C) increase by 2 % (D) decrease by 2 % Sol. (A) or T = 2 = 2 T (R+h) = =1+ =1+

Solution:

(a)

1=

100 = 1

Time period will increase by 1%

Ex3.

Sol.

A cavity of radius R/2 is made inside a solid sphere of radius R. The centre of the cavity is located at a distance R/2 from the centre of the sphere. The gravitational force on a particle of mass ' m ' at a distance R/2 from the centre of the sphere on the line joining both the centres of sphere and cavity is (opposite to the centre of cavity). [Here g = GM/R 2 , where M is the mass of the sphere ] (A) (B*) (C) (D) none of these (B) Gravitation field at mass m due to full solid sphere Gravitational field at mass m due to cavity ()

................. = = Net gravitational field = = Net force on m F = m = Here = & then F =

Ex4. The density of mass inside a solid sphere of radius a is given by = 0 a/r where 0 is the density at the surface and r denotes the distance from the centre. Find the gravitational field due to this sphere at a distance 2a from its centre.

sol The field is required at a point outside the sphere. Dividing the sphere in concentric shells, each shell can be replaced by a point particle at its centre having mass equal to the mass of the shell. Thus, the whole sphere can be replaced by a point particle at its centre having mass equal to the mass of the given sphere. If the mass of the sphere is M, the gravitational field at the given point is E = = . ...........(i) The mass M may be calculated as follows. Consider concentric shell of radius r and thickness dr. Its volume is dV = (4r 2 ) dr and its mass is dM = dV = (4r 2 dr) = 4 0 ar dr. The mass of the whole sphere is M = = 2 0 a 3 . Thus, by (i) the gravitational field is E = = G 0 a.

Example5.

Solution:

A uniform sphere has a mass M and radius R. Find the pressure P inside the sphere, caused by gravitational compression, as a function of the distance r from the centre. Evaluate P at the centre of the Earth, assuming it to be a uniform sphere. Consider a strip of thichness dr and area ds at a distance r from the centre of the sphere as shown in figure. Its mass dm = (ds) (dr) Inward gravitational pull dF on the element dr is due to the part of earth contained within radius r. (i) where = density of sphere For equilibrium of the element dp . ds = dF or (ii) In order to find P, we integrate this expression within proper limits. Thus [Here at the outer end, the pressure P = 0]

(iii) Pressure at the centre of the earth:

, R = 6400 km, kg and Substituting these value in eq. (iii), we get

Work Done in Gravitational Field :

Work done against Gravity by an External Agent: Consider the gravitational field of a fixed mass M. Let us bring a particle of mass m from infinity (a very large distance from the fixed mass M) to any point P. While bringing the particle m slowly, its acceleration is zero. That means, the net force acting on the particle is zero. Hence the external agent will have to apply a force that must counter-balance the gravitational force acting on the particle due to the fixed mass.Since the particle is displaced radially towards the fixed mass, work done by the force for an elementary displacement of m is given as . The total work done by the external agent in bringing the test mass m, from infinity to any point P which is at a distance from the fixed mass, is given as :

Putting we obtain,

Therefore, the work done by gravity on the particle in bringing it from infinity to the point (P) of consideration is given as :

Gravitational Potential Energy: A gravitational field is a conservative force field. For a conservative field, the work done by the conservative force, (here it is the gravitational force ) is equal to the negative of change in potential energy of the system (iii) At infinite distance from the mass M, the gravitational field is zero {as }. At infinity, the particle m does not experience any force due to the gravitational field of M since r . Therefore the potential energy of a particle at infinity is zero as it is completely free from the gravitational field of the fixed mass. Putting in (iii), we obtain, , where . The gravitational potential energy of the configuration of fixed mass M and the particle m at any distance r is given as : (iv) In general gravitational potential energy between any two point masses m1 and m2 separated through a distance r is given as :

where U(r) = Gravitational potential energy is a function of r. Exercise 10. Where is the value of gravitational potential energy maximum? Sol :At infinity gravitational potential energy will be maximum. Example 3: Find the gravitational potential energy of a system of four particles, each having mass m, placed at the vertices of a square of side l. Also obtain the gravitational potential at the centre of the square. Solution: The system has four pairs with distance l and two diagonal pairs with distance .

The gravitational potential at the centre of the square is V = Algebraic sum of potential due to each particle . Ex 1: A particle of mass 1 kg is placed at a distance of 4 m from the centre and on the axis of a uniform ring of mass 5 kg and radius 3m. Calculate the work required to be done to increases the distance of the particle from 4m to . or

Solution:

Work done . Illustration 8. What is the work done in shifting a body of mass m = 50 kg slowly from the earths surface to infinity? Solution: Work done by an external force F in shifting a particle from earths surface to infinity is equal to the change in its gravitational potential energy between earths surface and infinity. Wext = |DUg| Wext = |U2 U1| = (Ur= - Ur = R) Putting Ur= = 0, we obtain, Wext = - Ur=R, where Ur=R = Wext = = (Rm) = mg0R where g0 = = 9.8 m/sec2, R = 6.4 106 m and m = 50 kg W = (50) (9.8) (6.4 106) = 3.136 109 J. Exercise 9. What is the gravitational potential energy of the earth and a satellite of mass

m = 100 kg orbiting close to the earths surface? Exercise 9: The potential energy between two masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance r is given as: U = -. Here, m1 = mass of earth = M; m2 = mass of the satellite = 100 kg r = distance between the centres of earth and the satellite ~ radius of the earth = R, since the satellite revolves close to earths surface. U = - = -.Rm = g0Rm U = -(9.8 m/sec2) (6.4 106 m) (100 kg) = 6.27109 J-kg (numerically). Illustration 8. What is the work done in shifting a body of mass m = 50 kg slowly from the earths surface to infinity? Solution: Work done by an external force F in shifting a particle from earths surface to infinity is equal to the change in its gravitational potential energy between earths surface and infinity. Wext = |DUg| Wext = |U2 U1| = (Ur= - Ur = R) Putting Ur= = 0, we obtain, Wext = - Ur=R, where Ur=R = Wext = = (Rm) = mg0R where g0 = = 9.8 m/sec2, R = 6.4 106 m and m = 50 kg W = (50) (9.8) (6.4 106) = 3.136 109 J. Exercise 9. What is the gravitational potential energy of the earth and a satellite of mass m = 100 kg orbiting close to the earths surface? Exercise 9: The potential energy between two masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance r is given as: U = -. Here, m1 = mass of earth = M; m2 = mass of the satellite = 100 kg r = distance between the centres of earth and the satellite ~ radius of the earth = R, since the satellite revolves close to earths surface. U = - = -.Rm = g0Rm U = -(9.8 m/sec2) (6.4 106 m) (100 kg) = 6.27109 J-kg (numerically). Ex 2 A projectile is fired vertically upward from the surface of earth with a velocity Kve where ve is the escape velocity and K < 1. Neglecting air resistance, show that the maximum height to which it will rise measured from the centre of earth is R/(1 K2) where R is the radius of the earth. If a body is projected from the surface of earth with a velocity v and reaches a height h, by conservation of energy (relative to surface of earth),

Solution :

i.e., In this problem and h = (r R) So or , i.e., i.e.,

Gravitational Potential: Gravitational field is a conservative force field : This implies that the work done by the gravitational field in taking a particle in a closed path is zero. Equivalently, the work done by the gravitational force (or the external force, if the transportation is done very slowly) in transporting a particle from a point A to another point B is independent of the path and depends only on the initial and the final point (A&B) Work done by an external force against the gravitational forces in transporting a particle in a gravitational field is stored in the configuration. It is also known as potential energy. Gravitational potential is the work done by an external force in transporting a unit mass in a gravitational field. Therefore it is also equal to potential energy per unit mass. Stored potential energy, U(B, A) When the particle is moved from A to B. When we take a reference point A (say at ). We get, Potential energy, U(P) U(P) Gravitational potential, V (P) The negative sign is due to the fact that the work done against the gravitational field is negative. Thus, Where represents the intensity of the gravitational field. Potential due to Point Mass Suppose a point mass M is situated at a point O. We want to find the gravitational potential due to this mass at a point P a distance r from O. For this let us find work done in taking the unit mass from P to infinity. This will be,

Hence, the work done in bringing unit mass from infinity to P will be . Thus, the gravitational potential at P will be,

Potential due to a Uniform Solid Sphere Potential at an external point The gravitational potential due to a uniform sphere at an external point is same as that due to a single particle of same mass placed at its centre. Thus, At the surface, r = R and Potential at internal point

At some internal point, potential at a distance r from the centre is given by, At r = R, While at r = 0, i.e., at the centre of the sphere the potential is 1.5 times the potential at surface. The variation of V versus r graph is as shown in figure. Potential due to a Uniform Thin Spherical Shell To calculate the potential at an external point, a uniform spherical shell may be treated as a point mass of same magnitude at its centre. Thus, potential at a distance r is given by at r = R, Potential at an internal point The potential due to a uniform spherical shell is constant throughout at any point inside the shell and this is equal to . Thus, V-R graph for a spherical shell is as shown in figure.

Potential due to a Uniform Ring at a Point on its Axis The gravitational potential at a distance r from the centre on the axis of a ring of mass M and radius R is given by,

At r = 0, , i.e., at the centre of the ring gravitational potential is GM/R. The V-r graph is as shown in figure.

Ex.5 Sol.

Calculate the gravitational field intensity and potential at the centre of the base of a solid hemisphere of mass m, radius R. We consider the shaded elemental disc of radius R sinq and thickness Rdq Its mass, dM = p (R sin q)2 (Rdq sin q) or dM = sin3 q dq Field due to this plate at O, dE = (see field due to a uniform disc) or dE = \ E = = dq = or E= Now potential due to the element under consideration at the centre of the base of the hemisphere, dV = (cosec q cot q) (see potential due to a circular plate) or, dV = \ V= = or, v= Aliter : Consider a hemispherical shell of radius r and thickness dr Its mass,dm = or, dm = Since all points of this hemispherical shell are at the same distance r from O. Hence potential at O due to it is, dV = = \ V= =

RELATION BETWEEN GRAVITATIONAL FIELD AND POTENTIAL The work done by an external agent to move unit mass from a point to another point in the direction of the field E, slowly through an infinitesimal distance dr = Force by external agent distance moved = Edr. Thus dV = Edr E=. Therefore, gravitational field at any point is equal to the negative gradient at that point. Ex.6 The gravitational field in a region is given by = (20N/kg) . Find the gravitational potential at the origin (0, 0) (in J/kg) (A*) zero (B) 20 (C) 20 (D) can not be defined V= = = 20x + 20y at origin V = 0 In above problem, find the gravitational potential at a point whose co-ordinates are (5, 4) (in J/kg) (A) 180 (B*) 180 (C) 90 (D) zero V = 20 5 + 20 4 = 180 J/kg

Sol.

Ex.6

Sol.

Ex.7

Sol.

In the above problem, find the work done in shifting a particle of mass 1 kg from origin (0, 0) to a point (5, 4) (In J) (A) 180 (B*) 180 (C) 90 (D) zero W = m (V Vi) = 1 (180 0) = 180 J

Illustration 11. Find the potential V at P in the gravitational field of fixed point mass M at O such that OP = r. Solution: VP = - = -

Illustration 12. Find the gravitational potential at a point where the gravitational field intensity is zero due to two particles of masses m1 = 1 kg and m2 = 4 kg separated through a distance l = 3m? Solution: Let the gravitational field intensity due to the point masses m1 and m2 be zero at P gp = 0 |+| = 0 g1 = g2 (numerically) = = = = 2

3 - x = - 2x or, 3 - x = +2x x = -3 (irrelevant) or x = 1 Vp = + = -G Putting G = 6.67 10-11 N-m2/kg2 m1 = 1 kg, m2 = 4 kg, l = 3m, x = 1m, we obtain, Vp = -6.67 10-11 J/kg = -20.01 10-11 J/kg. Illustration 13. What is the work done by the gravitational field in placing three identical particles each of mass m at the vertices of an equilateral triangle of side l ? Solution: We know that the gravitational field is conservative. (1) W = -(DPE)system DPE = (PEfinal - PEinitial) Since initially the particles A, B and C were at infinity, their initial gravitational potential energy was zero DPE = PEfinal, The gravitational potential energy of the configuration of the particles = PE between A and B + PE between B and C + PE between C and A DPE = Putting mA = mB = mC = m, we obtain, DPE = (2) 2 Using (1) and (2), we obtain, W = 3 Gm /l.

GRAVITATIONAL SELF-ENERGY The gravitational self-energy of a body (or a system of particles) is defined as the workdone by an external agent in assembling the body (or system of particles) from infinitesimal elements (or particles) that are initially an infinite distance apart. Gravitational self energy of a system of n particles Potential energy of n particles at an average distance 'r' due to their mutual gravitational attraction is equal to the sum of the potential energy of all pairs of particle, i.e., Us = G This expression can be written as U s = If consider a system of 'n' particles, each of same mass 'm' and seperated from each other by the same average distance 'r', then self energy or U s = Thus on the right handside 'i' comes 'n' times while 'j' comes (n 1) times. Thus U s = Gn (n 1) Gravitational Self energy of a Uniform Sphere (star) U s h e l l = G where r =

Ustar \

= G (4 pr) 2 r 4 dr, = G (4 pr) 2 = G (4pr) 2 Ustar =

=G.

Acceleration due to Gravity :

Definition : the point It is defined as the acceleration of a particle caused by the gravitational force, at under consideration.

When we release a particle of mass m from any height h, it moves vertically down with an acceleration, say, a. The magnitude of the gravitational force exerted by earth on the particle using Newtons law of universal gravitation, is given by (i) From Newtons second law So find the acceleration (ii) Substituting the magnitude of from (i) and (ii), we obtain, . Where G = 6.67 10-11 (universal gravitational constant) M = 5.983 1024 kg (mass of earth) R = 6.378 106 m (equatorial radius of earth) r = distance between the particle and centre of earth. If the particle is very close to the earths surface (or it is placed on earths surface) then r = R + h R. Putting all the values we obtain, g = 9.8 m/sec2. That means, all objects on or above the earths surface (at low altitudes) experience an acceleration of 9.8 m/sec2 (approximately). The motion of particles under gravity is known as free fall. Note: Newtons second law of motion for any particle falling freely under gravity can be written as . The acceleration due to gravity is independent of mass of the particle. That means all the particles move with same acceleration at a particular point. Therefore the relative acceleration of the freely falling particles (moving under gravity) is zero. Any freely falling body (particle) seems to be at rest or moving in a straight line with constant relative velocity with respect to any other freely falling body.

Variation in Acceleration Due to Gravity : Due to shape of the Earth: The earth is not perfectly spherical. Its shape is geoid. Its radius R decreases from equator to poles. The polar radius is 21 km less than the equatorial radius. Therefore, increases from equator to pole, where M = mass of earth. Due to Altitude: Suppose a particle of mass m is placed at the point A on the surface of the earth. Then, mathematically , where M = mass of earth. (i) Now the particle is shifted to point B, which is at a height h from the surface of the earth. Let = Acceleration due to gravity at point B. Thus m = (ii) From (i) and (ii), If h < < R, = g , neglecting the higher orders of (h/R)

Due to Depth: Let Q be a point at a depth d from the surface of the earth. So, its distance from the centre of the earth is (R d). Since the net force imparted by the unshaded shell on the point mass m placed at the point Q is zero, the gravitational field is created by the mass in the shaded region. , where = mass of the shaded spherical portion of the earth = = density of earth (assumed uniform throughout its volume)

putting r = R d, we obtain, where = acceleration due to gravity on earth surface. Hence g decreases with depth. Due to rotation of Earth: We know that the earth spins about its polar axis with an angular speed where T = 24 hours = 86400 seconds. Consider a body of mass m at the point P. Let its latitude be . As the earth rotates with an angular speed , the body also rotates with same angular speed about the polar axis, in the circle of radius r (distance of the body from the polar axis). In the earths frame of reference, a centrifugal force acts in the direction away from r. The effective gravitational force is given by : we obtain

Putting r = R cos we obtain, [Higher powers of are very small, therefore it can be neglected]. If the effective acceleration due to gravity at the point P is , then

(Obtained after expanding binomially and neglecting the higher powers of ) (approximately). Illustration: Calculate the height above the Earths surface at which the value of acceleration due to gravity reduces to half its value on the Earths surface. Assume the Earth to be a sphere of radius 6400 km. Solution: We know that ; But

or or or or h = 2649.6 km At a height of 2649.6 km from the Earths surface, the acceleration due to gravity will be half its value on the surface. Illustration 3. If earth stops spinning about its own axis, what will be the change in acceleration due to gravity on its equator? The radius of earth is 6.4 106 m and its angular speed is 7.27 10-5 rad/s. Solution: Effective acceleration due to gravity is given by g = g Rw2 cos2q. Hence, change in acceleration due to gravity is given as Dg = g g = - Rw2 cos2q, at equator q = 0. Hence, g g = -Rw2 = -6.4 106 (7.27 10-5)2 = -0.0338 m/s2 g - g = -3.38 cm/s2. The negative sign signifies that, the decrease in gravitational acceleration is due to the rotation of earth Exercise 1. Somebody says I weigh less than what I exactly weigh. Is he right? Is there any place on earth where he can weigh exactly? Exercise 1: Yes, he is right. Due to rotation of earth, he weighs less. Yes, at poles he can weigh exactly. Exercise 2. For given values of angular speed and acceleration due to gravity, find the position (latitude) where acceleration due to gravity is (a) maximum and (b) minimum.

Exercise 2: (a) Variation of g with latitude is given by g = g Rw2 cos2q g will be maximum when cos2q is minimum i.e. = 0, or, when q = 90 gmax = g, at the poles. (b) g will be minimum when cos2 q is maximum i.e. q = 0 gmin = g Rw2, at the equator. .

ESCAPE SPEED The minimum speed required to project a body from the surface of the earth so that it never returns to the surface of the earth is called escape speed. A body thrown with escape speed goes out of the gravitational pull of the earth. Work done to displace the body from the surface of the earth (r = R e ) to infinity (r = ) is given by = or W = GM e m = GM e m = GM e m W= Let v e be the escape speed of the body of mass m, then kinetic energy of the body is given by v e = = 11.2 km s 1 . Important Points 1. Escape speed depends on the mass and size of the planet. That is why escape velocity on the Jupiter is more than on the earth. 2. Escape speed is independent of the mass of the body. 3. Any body thrown upward with escape speed start moving around the sun. MOTION OF SATELLITES AND KEPLER LAWS A heavenly body revolving around a planet in an orbit is called natural satellite. For example, moon revolves around the planet the earth, so moon is the satellite of the earth. Their motions can be sttudied with the help of kepler's laws, as stated : I . Law of orbit : Each Planet moves arround the sun in an elliptical orbit with the sun at one of the foci as shown in figure. The eccentricity of an ellipse is defined as the ratio of the distance SO and AO i.e. e = e= SO = ea The distance of closest approach with the sun at F 1 is AS. This distance is called perigee. The greatest distance (BS) of the planet from the sun is called apogee. Perigee (AS) = AO OS = a ea = a (1 e) Apogee (BS) = OB + OS = a + ea = a (1 + e)

II . Law of Areas : The line joining the sun and a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time. A planet takes the same time to travel from A to B as from C to D as shown in figure. (The shaded areas are equal). Naturally the planet has to move faster from C to D. The law of areas is identical with the law of conservation of angular momentum. Areal velocity = = = r 2 = constant Hence r 2 w = constant. III. Law of periods : The square of the time for the planet to complete a revolution about the sun is proportional to the cube of semimajor axis of the elliptical orbit. i.e. Centripetal force = Gravitational force Now, speed of the planet is v = Substituting value in above equation Since is constant, \ T 2 R 3 or = constant Ex.1 A satellite is launched into a circular orbit 1600 km above the surface of the earth. Find the period of revolution if the radius of the earth is R = 6400 km and the acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/sec2. At what height from the ground should it be launched so that it may appear stationary over a point on the earth's equator ? Sol. The orbiting period of a satellite at a height h from earth's surface is T = where r = R + h then, T = Here, R = 6400 km, h = 1600 km = R/4. Then T = = 2p(1 2J)3/2 Putting the given values : T = 2 3.14 (1.25)3/2 = 7092 sec = 1.97 hours Now, a satellite will appear stationary in the sky over a point on the earth's equator if its period of revolution round the earth is equal to the period of revolution of the earth round its own axis which is 24 hours. Let us find the height h of such a satellite above the earth's surface in terms of the earth's radius. Let it be nR. then T = = (1 + n)3./2 = 2 3.14 (1 + n)3/2 = (1.41hours) (1 + n)3/2 = (5075 sec) (1 + n)3/2 For T = 24 hours, we have (24 hours) = (1.41) hours) (1 + n)3/2 or (1 + n)3/2 = = 17 or 1 + n = (17)2/3 = 6.61 or n = 5.61 The height of the geo-stationary satellite above the earth's surface is nR = 5.61 6400 km = 3.59 104 km. Example 2. A satellite of mass ms revolving in a circular orbit of radius rs round the earth of mass M has a total energy E. Then its angular momentum will be (a) (b) (c) (d) . Ans. (a) Solution: The velocity of the satellite is given by

(i)

Total energy E=K.E. + P.E. (ii) The angular momentum L is given by (iii) From eqs. (ii) and (iii), we get .
(iii) From eqs. (ii) and (iii), we get .

Example 3.

Ans. Solution:

A satellite is revolving round the earth in an orbit of radius r with time period T. If the satellite is revolving round the earth in an orbit of radius r + r (r<< r) with time period T + T then, (a) (b) (c) (d) . (a) Since, Differentiating the above equation

Example 4 Solution:

Suppose Earths orbital motion around the Sun is suddenly stopped. What time will the Earth take to fall into the Sun? When the Earths motion is suddenly stopped, it would fall into the Sun and (suppose) it Considering the path of satellite to be circular, the angular momentum of an earth satellite about the centre of the earth is given by L = mvr. Putting , we obtain, L=m. The planet Neptune travels around the Sun with a period of 165 year. Show that the radius of its orbit is approximately thirty times that of Earths orbit, both being considered as circular. year, year Let R1 and R2 be the radii of the circular orbits of Earth and Neptune respectively. or or

Example 5

Solution:

SATELLITE SPEED(OR ORBITAL SPEED) The speed required to put the satellite into its orbit around the earth is called orbital speed. The gravitational attraction between satellite and the earth provides the necessary centripetal force. or or, v 0 = = . When h << R e then v 0 = v 0 = = 7.92 10 3 ms 1 = 7.92 km s 1 Time period of Satellite Time period, T = But v 0 = \ T= = satellite above the earth's surface Time period of satellite is given by, T= (R e + h) 3 = T 2 = or h = Re (R e + h) =

Height

of

the

Energy of a Satellite P.E. of a satellite of mass m revolving around the earth in a circular orbit of the earth is given by U = and K.E. = . Hence K.E. = Total Energy E = U + K.E. = + or E = Since total energy is negative, so it implies that satellite is bound to the earth. If satellite is close to the surface of the earth then total energy E = GEO-STATIONARY SATELLITES SATELLITES OR GEO-SYNCHRONOUS

(i) The time period of the satellite around the earth must be equal to the rotational period of the earth (i.e. 24 hours.) (ii) The direction of motion of the satellite must be same as that of the earth. i.e. from west to east. The height of the geio-stationary satellite from the surface of the earth can be calculated from the equation h = Now T = 24 hours = 24 3600 s, R e = 6.4 10 6 m, g = 9.8 ms 2 \ h= or h = 35930 10 3 m = 35930 km. Uses of Artificial Satellites Some important uses of artificial satellites are : (i) They are used as communication satellites to send messages to distant places. (ii) They are used as weather satellites to forecast weather.

(iii) They are used to explore the upper region of the atmosphere. (iv) They are used to telecast T.V. programs to distant places. (v) They are used to know the exact shape of the earth. LAUNCHING OF AN ARTIFICIAL SATELLITE AROUND THE EARTH The satellite is placed upon the rocket which is launched from the earth. After the rocket reaches its maximum vertical height h, a spherical mechanism gives a thrust to the satellite at point A (fig.) producing a horizontal speed v. The total energy of the satellite at A is thus. E= The orbit will be an ellipse (closed path), a parabola, or an hyperbola depending on whether E is negative, zero, or positive. In all cases the centre of the earth is at one focus of the path. If the energy is too low, the elliptical orbit will intersect the earth and the satellite will fall back. Otherwise it will keep on moving in a closed orbit, or will escape from the Earth, depending on the values of v and R. (a) (b) Hence a satellite carried to a height h (<< R) and given a horizontal speed of 8 km/sec will be placed almost in a circular orbit around the earth (fig.) If launched at less than 8 km/sec, it would get closer and closer to the earth until it hits the ground. Thus 8 km/sec is the critical (minimum) speed. (a) Orbits and Speed: For a body on the earths surface, projected horizontally with a speed v, the trajectory depends on the value of its speed v.

Velocity (v) (i) (ii) (iii) Less than the orbital speed v < Equal to orbital speed v = Between orbital and escape with speed < v < Equal to escape speed v =

Trajectory (i) Body returns to the earth Body acquires a near the earth circular orbit (iii) Body acquires an eiliptical orbit

(ii)

(iv)

the earth as the near focus (iv) Body just escapes the earths gravity along in a parabolic path. (v) Body escapes the earths gravity in a hyperbolic path.

(v)

Greater then escape speedv =

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Example 6 For a particle projected in a transverse direction from a height h above Earths surface, find the minimum initial velocity so that it just grazes the surface of earth path of this particle would be an ellipse with center of earth as the farther focus, point of projection as the apojee and a diametrically opposite point on earths surface as perigee. Sol. Suppose velocity of projection at point A is vA & at point B, the velocity of the particle is vB. then applying Newtons 2nd law at point A & B, we get, = & = Where rA & rB are radius of curvature of the orbit at points A & B of the ellipse, but rA = rB = r(say). Now applying conservation of energy at points A & B GMem = (mvB2 mvA2) = or, r= = \ VA2 = = 2GMe where r = distance of point of projection from earths centre = R + h.

Example 7 A rocket starts vertically upward with speed v0. Shown that its speed v at height h is given by =, where R is the radius of the earth and g is acceleration due to gravity at earth's surface. Hence deduce an expression for maximum height reached by a rocket fired with speed 0.9 times the escape velocity. Sol. The gravitational potential energy of a mass m on earth's surface and that a height h is given by U (R) = and U (R + h) = \ U(R + h) U(R) = GMm = = [ GM = gR2] This increase in potential energy occurs at the cost of kinetic energy which correspondingly decreases. If v is the velocity of the rocket at height h, then the decrease in kinetic energy is . Thus, = , or = Let hmax be the maximum height reached by the rocket, at which its velocity has been reduced to zero. Thus, substituting v = 0 and h = hmax in the last expression, we have or = 2 ghmax 2 or v0 = hmax or hmax = Now, it is given that v0 = 0.9 escape velocity = 0.9 hmax = = = = 4.26 R Example8 A satellite in low earth orbit experiences a small drag force from the earths atmosphere. What happens to its speed because of this drag force ?

Solution :

As due to air drag some mechanical energy of the satellite will be converted into heat energy, there will be loss of ME of the satellite, i.e., E = (GMm/2r) will decrease. This in turn implies that the radius of the orbit will decrease and so the satellite will follow a spiral path towards the earth as shown in figure. Now as in case of satellite motion, and

Example 9

A cord of length 64 m is used to connect a 100 kg astronaut to a space-ship whose mass is much larger than that of the astronaut. Estimate the value of the tension in the cord. Assume that the space-ship is orbiting near earth surface. Also assume that the space-ship and the astronaut fall on a striaght line from the earths centre. As according to given problem the mass of satellite M is much greater than that of astronaut m so the centre of mass of the system will be close to satellite and as the satellite is orbiting close to the surface of earth, the equation of motion of the system (S + A) will be i.e., i.e., ..... (1)

Solution :

And the equation of motion of the astronaut will be

Example 10

Solution:

Let the speed of the planet at the perihelion P in figure be vP, and the Sun-planet distance SP be rP . Relate {rP, vp} to the corresponding quantities at the aphelion {rA, vA}. Will the planet take equal time to tranverse BAC and CPB? The magnitude of the angular momentum at P is . Now, rP and vP are mutually perpendicular. Similarly LA = mPrAvA. From angular momentum conservation or Since . The area SBAC bounded by the ellipse and the radius vectors SB and SC is larger than the area SBPC in figure. From Keplers second law, equal areas are swept in equal times. Hence the planet will take a longer time to traverse BAC than CPB.

Example 11. An artificial satellite is moving in a circular orbit around the earth with a speed equal to one fourth the magnitude of escape velocity from the earth. (i) Determine the height of the satellite above the earths surface. (ii) If the satellite is stopped suddenly in its orbit and allowed to fall freely onto the earth, find the speed with which it hits the surface of the earth. Solution: (i) Let M and R be the mass and radius of the earth respectively. Let m be the mass of satellite. Here escape velocity from earth Velocity of satellite Further (i) (ii) From equation (i) and (ii), we get h = 7R = 44800 km (ii) Now total energy at height h = total energy at earths surface (principle of conservation of energy). Let it earths surface with velocity v. or () Solving we get km/sec. Example 12. An object is revolving around the earth at height h from earths surface. Then (a) Its time period is independent of h (b) Its time period depends on h (c) Orbital velocity of an object depends on h (d) If h << Re then the time period of anobject around the earth is 24 hrs Ans. (b) and (c) Solution: i.e., V0 depends on h Time period i.e., T depends on h. If then So, choices (a) and (d) are wrong.
Example13. Solution: A body is projected vertically upwards from the surface of earth with a velocity sufficient to carry it to infinity. Calculate the time taken by it to reach a height h. Let v be the velocity of the body at a distance r from the centre of earth. Applying conservation of mechanicla energy, we get .....(i) Here, and Substitituing in equation (i) we get i.e., or or

or

Example14.

Solution:

Three particles, each of mass m are situated at the vertices of an equilateral triangle of side length a. The only forces acting on the particles are their mutual gravitational forces. It is desired that each particle moves in a circle while maintaining the original separation a. Find the initial velocity that should be given to each particle and also the time period of the circular motion. The situation is shown in figure. The radius of circular path is

The gravitational force at A, due to mass m at C along AC Similarly, the gravitational force at A, due to mass m at B along AB The resultant F of these forces would be along AO. As the angle between the two forces is 60, hence the resultant force F is given by = This force provides the necessary centripetal force for rotation in circular path i.e., or Required initial speed Time period . Ex.15 In a double star, two stars (one of mass m and the other of 2m) distant d apart rotate about their common centre of mass. Deduce an expression ofr the period of revolution. Show that the ratio of their angular momenta about the centre of mass is the same as the ratio of their kinetic energies. Sol. The centre of mass C will be at distances d/3 and 2d/3 from the masses 2m and m respectively. Both the stars rotate round C in their respective orbits with the same angular velocity w. The gravitational force acting on each star due to the other supplies the necessary centripetal force. The gravitational force on either star is . If we consider the rotation of the smaller star, the centripetal force (m r w2) is and for bigger star i.e.same = or w= Therefore, the period of revolution is given by T = = 2 p The ratio of the angular momenta is = = , since w is same for both. The ratio of their kinetic energies is = , which is the same as the ratio of their angular momenta.