Optical CT

Optical Measurement of Currents in Power Converters
SASCHA LIEHR
Masters Degree Project in Electrical Measurement Technology report no. XR-EE-MST 2006:001 Stockholm, Sweden 2006
Optical Measurement of Currents in Power Converters
Masters thesis project

Sascha Liehr Supervisor: Hans Sohlstrm
Microsystem Technology Group School of Electrical Engineering Royal Institute of Technology Stockholm, March 2006
III
Abstract
Conventional current measurement in high-voltage and high-EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) environments generally require complex devices due to the necessary insulation and shielding of the device and the signal line. This paper investigates the possibility of instead using a Faraday effect-based opto-magnetic field sensor technique for fault detection in IGBT-switched current lines. Firstly, possible techniques, optical and non-optical, are reviewed with a special focus on optical sensing techniques. An optical sensing technique using a highrotation Faraday film sensor is chosen. Then a FEM simulation of the magnetic field pattern encompassing a parallel conductor geometry is conducted and its favourable results on the magnetic field pattern are presented. Characterization and sensitivity determination of a present Faraday YIG sensor are conducted. The favourable magnetic field behaviour predicted by the simulation is then confirmed in experiments. The sensor electronics have been redesigned and electronic signal processing circuitry for failure handling has been added. Finally, first tests in an application-similar set-up with switched currents were conducted. The proposed sensing technique gave promising first results for reliable and instant current fault detection in high-EMI environments.
Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1 1.1. Motivation and Specification of the Problem.................................................... 2 2. Investigation of applicable Techniques ...................................................................... 4 2.1. Non-Optical Current Transformers .................................................................. 4
2.1.1. Current Transformer .............................................................................4 2.1.2. Rogowski Coil.......................................................................................5 2.1.3. Search-Coil Magnetometer ...................................................................6 2.1.4. Flux-Gate Magnetometer ......................................................................7 2.1.5. Shunt .....................................................................................................7 2.1.6. Hall Sensor ............................................................................................8 2.1.7. Magnetodiode........................................................................................8 2.1.8. Magnetotransistor..................................................................................9 2.1.9. Magnetoresistor...................................................................................10 2.1.10. SQUID Magnetometer ......................................................................11 2.1.11. Optically Pumped Magnetometer .....................................................11 2.1.12. Nuclear-Precession Magnetometer ...................................................11 2.1.13. Conclusion of the Applicability of Non-Optic Magnetic Field Sensors ..........................................................................................................11
2.2. Optical Current Transformers (OCTs)........................................................... 12
2.2.1. Introduction .........................................................................................12 2.2.2. OCTs based on the Faraday Effect .....................................................15 2.2.2.1. Explanation of the Faraday Effect................................................15 2.2.2.2. Magnetic Field Sensing ................................................................23 2.2.2.3. Magnetic Concentrator with Optical Measurement .....................27 2.2.2.4. Bulk Optics...................................................................................29 2.2.2.5. Optical Fibre Sensing Elements ...................................................31 2.2.2.6. Unlinked Type..............................................................................34 2.2.3. Interferometric Principles ...................................................................37 2.2.4. OCTs based on Bragg Gratings ..........................................................39 2.2.5. Micromechanical Sensors with Optical Readout ................................42 2.2.6. Other Optical Current Sensing Principles...........................................44 2.2.7. Conclusion Optical Current Transformers..........................................44
2.3. Conclusion of the Technology Investigation ................................................... 45
VII
3. FEM Simulation of the Magnetic Field Pattern ...................................................... 47 3.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 47 3.2. Normal Working Condition.............................................................................. 49 3.3. Case of Failure ................................................................................................... 53 3.4. Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 57 4. Experiments ............................................................................................................... 59 4.1. The Sensors ........................................................................................................ 59 4.2. Characterization of the Sensors ....................................................................... 60
4.2.1. Sensitivity............................................................................................60 4.2.2. Temperature Behaviour.......................................................................65 4.2.3. Modification of the Electronics...........................................................67 4.2.4. Noise ...................................................................................................70 4.2.5. Characterization of the Sensor Sensitivity ..........................................70
4.3. Validation of the Simulation Results ............................................................... 77
4.3.1. Measurement Set-up ...........................................................................77 4.3.2. Conclusion of the Simulation and Measured Results .........................81
4.4. Phase Shift Measurements................................................................................ 81 4.5. Current Fault Measurements........................................................................... 83
4.5.1. Test Conductor Set-up ........................................................................83 4.5.2. Magnetic Field Measurement Results.................................................83 4.5.3. Design of the Detection Electronics....................................................85 4.5.3.1. Delay measurement of the detection electronics..........................88 4.5.4. Current fault detection ........................................................................89
5. Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 91 6. Outlook....................................................................................................................... 92 Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ 93 References...................................................................................................................... 94 Symbols and Abbreviations ......................................................................................... 101 List of Figures.............................................................................................................. 104 List of Tables................................................................................................................ 108
VIII
Chapter 1
Introduction
1. Introduction
The electrical power industry is an important and growing branch of industry. Not only in electrical power plants, power converters and transformer stations, but also in industrial high-power applications metering, monitoring and control of high currents is essential. The main challenge with conventional current transformers in high-voltage environments is the need for safe separation between the main circuit carrying the current to be measured and the control circuit in which the measured signal will be utilized. Therefore, the sensor has to be galvanically insulated. Another challenge for measurements in high-current and high-field environments is the influence of EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) on the sensor and its signal. Consequentially, there is a need to shield the sensor and the signal line from EMI in order to get a reliable signal. Shielding and insulation however, results in complex and massive structures that make conventional current transformers in high-current and high-voltage applications very costly. There is a need and trend to develop alternative sensing technologies to overcome these obstacles. Different approaches, predominantly using optical sensing and/or signal transmission techniques, have been developed during the last 20 years. There is potentially a large market for this technology but commercial success is still being waited for. The thesis work presented here arose in this context. A fast and reliable current sensor technique to immediately detect a current fault in a conductor, rather than a precise current metering sensor is investigated. The project is launched by the company ABB and is accomplished at the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) in Stockholm. The sensor technology part of the project is the subject of my thesis and is carried out at the Microsystem Technology research group at KTH. The purpose of the work is to find a suitable technique in order to reliably and instantly (within 3s) detect a current fault in a high-voltage environment with a high level of Electromagnetic Interference. In chapter 2, possible techniques with the focus on optical techniques are described, and one is chosen. A finite element method simulation of the magnetic field encompassing the conductor and its results are presented in chapter 3. Some first experiments with the chosen sensing technique and tests in an application-similar set-up and environment are presented in chapter 4.
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1. Motivation and Specification of the Problem In electrical high power converters and other high-power applications, IGBTs (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors) are widely used to rapidly switch large currents at high voltage potentials. IGBTs are capable of switching high currents (>3000A) at voltages of more than 2500V. These devices must be connected in series in order to provide sufficient voltage handling capability. In such designs, the failure mode of the series connected devices becomes a crucial consideration. One solution is to utilize IGBT components with encapsulation, e.g. ABB StackPack, that exhibit short-circuit failure mode. Standard industrial IGBT modules on the other hand may be problematic because the bond wires may burn causing internal arcing in the device. However, it is advantageous to use standard industrial type IGBT devices as they represent the main-stream component type, which are economical and available from several manufacturers. It has been proposed by ABB to implement standard IGBT devices in series connection (>10) of parallel pairs of devices in a stack as shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1: Proposed geometry with parallel IGBTs
In normal operation, the devices share the total current and both devices perform switching according to the desired PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) pattern. If one device fails and stops conducting, a sensor should immediately detect that fault and command the remaining parallel device to conduct continuously. As switching losses are then eliminated in the device, it will be capable of conducting the total current in one device. For that case, additional IGBT stages are installed in the stack to prevent excess voltage. The stack can remain in duty depending on how many additional stages are installed in the stack. The defect IGBTs only have to be exchanged at the next check routine. Using this technique is expected to be considerably cheaper than using the expensive StackPacks. The company ABB has launched a project at KTH to test the proposed technique. A small-scale set-up with an IGBT firing control is being built at the department of 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
electrical engineering within the thesis work of Martin Skoglund [Skog06]. The setup will be able to switch currents up to 180A at voltages of 500V. An essential part of the technique is to reliably and rapidly detect a fault of one of the IGBTs to command the remaining device to conduct continuously. This current fault detection is the objective of this work. A desired maximum time delay for the detection of a fault is 3s. A suitable sensor technology has to be found to detect a fault in the objective of the actual application. The expected currents in the full-scale application are in the range of several kA and will be switched at potentials of 10-50kV. Hence, a considerable level of EMI is expected. The sensor has to be immune to EMI and also be insulated from the high voltage potentials. An appropriate sensing technique will have to be chosen, tested and integrated in the mentioned set-up. An optical sensing technique using the Faraday effect seems a promising option and will be focused on. The measurement part of the project is therefore conducted at the Microsystem Technology research group of KTH due to competences in magneto-optic field sensing.
Chapter 2
Investigation of applicable Techniques
2. Investigation of applicable Techniques

In this chapter, principles for measuring an electric current are presented and evaluated in terms of applicability to the purpose of sensing a current fault in the proposed geometry under the given demands. Most current sensor principles are based on some kind of magnetic field measurement technique. Therefore magnetic field sensing techniques are also investigated for current metering purposes. Thus the term current sensor is somewhat extended in this work also covering magnetic field sensors as potential current sensors. The following investigation is divided into two groups: conventional, or non-optical current transformers and optical current transformers. Considering that the capabilities of optical principles are interesting and promising, the following review has a stronger focus on optical technologies. 2.1. Non-Optical Current Transformers 2.1.1. Current Transformer The most-used device for measurements of alternating currents in electrical highand medium-voltage networks is the CT (Current Transformer). A current transformer transforms the current down to a reasonable level and provides an isolation barrier between the primary winding and the secondary winding at ground potential. The primary current of the transformer is translated to the secondary current (I1=nI2) by the turns ratio n and I2 is measured by an ampremeter or other conventional methods. The secondary winding, or measurement winding, have to be isolated from high voltages to prevent short circuits and the resulting heat has to be dissipated. For that reason the transformers are often filled with oil which causes a risk of explosion. These devices are reliable and have long life cycles but become very costly and massive with increasing voltages. An example of a current transformer with indication of its size is shown in Fig. 2.
Chapter 2
Fig. 2: Conventional ABB transformer for high voltages [ABB06]
The current transformer is based on Ampres law, whereby the line integral of the r magnetic field H along any closed path equals the enclosed current I. r r H dl = I Equation (1) Most current transformers consist of a ferromagnetic core entirely enclosing the conductor. Hence, measurements are independent of the position of the current carrying conductor in the core. Measurement windings are wound around the core and a voltage is induced according to Faradays induction law. With low resistance in the measurement winding, the resulting current is proportional to the primary current and cancels most of the field in the core. At low frequency however, the driving voltage can no longer create a current that is proportional to the primary current. Also the core will be saturated. That implies that the current transformer can only be used for AC measurement. For DC measurements, more complex devices with Hall elements are often used. 2.1.2. Rogowski Coil A Rogowski coil is a core-less coil toroidally placed around a conductor forming a closed loop, Fig. 3.
Chapter 2
Fig. 3: Scheme of a Rogowski coil [Xiao03]
It is also based on the induction law. A voltage proportional to the rate of change of the current is induced into the uniformly wound coil with constant cross-sectional area. Due to the absence of a magnetic core, the sensor shows good linearity, no saturation, as well as high current capability (up to 100kA) and bandwidth (0.1Hz to 100MHz) [Xiao03]. Similarly as for other induction-based sensors, the Rogowski coil can not detect currents of low frequency. In contrast to the conventional transformer with a closed iron core, the output is not completely independent of the primary conductor position. There are also problems with reproducibility and accuracy. 2.1.3. Search-Coil Magnetometer The search-coil magnetometer is also based on Faradays induction law. It typically consists of an iron magnetic core and a coil wound around it. When the magnetic flux through the coiled conductor changes, a voltage proportional to the rate of change is induced in the coil and can be measured between its leads. This sensor can measure fields over a very wide range from 1pT to 1kT depending on the design of the magnetic core. According to the induction law, only the change of the magnetic field can be detected. The useful frequency range of this sensor is typically between 1Hz and 1MHz [Lenz90], but also static fields can be detected with a search-coil magnetometer when the coil is rotated in the field. A principle of the search coil magnetometer is shown in the figure below.
Fig. 4: Scheme of a search-coil magnetometer [Lenz90]
Chapter 2
2.1.4. Flux-Gate Magnetometer The most common type of a Flux-Gate magnetometer consists of two coils, a primary and a secondary, wrapped around a ferromagnetic core. The magnetic induction in the core changes with the external magnetic field. A signal, for example 10kHz, applied to the primary coil causes the core to oscillate between saturation points. The secondary winding outputs a signal coupled to the primary signal by the iron core. This signal is influenced by any change of core permeability (slope of the B-H curve) and appears as variation of the amplitude at the secondary output. The value for the magnetic field strength can be obtained by using a phase-sensitive detector and following signal processing. Phase-sensitive detection is a useful technique to recover small signals that are obscured by larger and/or background signals with the help of a reference or modulation signal.
Fig. 5: Fluxgate magnetometer operation [Caru98]
A fluxgate magnetometer can precisely measure direction and magnitude of constant or changing magnetic fields at sensitivities down to 1nT. The bandwidth however, is limited to some kHz and the dynamic range covers fields from 1nT to 1mT [Xiao03]. The Fluxgate magnetometer is therefore not suitable for fault detection. 2.1.5. Shunt Shunts are low resistance sensing elements that are directly inserted in the main current path. They operate on the principle of the Ohmic voltage drop and are suitable to measure currents. Shunts are relatively cheap and can be used to measure direct currents and alternating currents up to tens of MHz [Xiao03]. But since they have to be integrated directly into the circuit, efficiency decreases, especially at high currents and low voltages. Moreover, the output voltage is directly connected to the current to be measured. Shunts can therefore normally not be used with high voltage.
Chapter 2
2.1.6. Hall Sensor This sensor is based on the Hall effect, discovered by Edwin H. Hall in 1879. He found a potential difference (Hall voltage) on the sides of a thin sheet of conducting material in a magnetic field perpendicular to the surface when a current flows along the sheet, Fig. 6.
Fig. 6: Scheme of a Hall Effect Sensor [Lenz90]
This voltage is the result of the Lorentz force that every electron that moves through a magnetic field experiences. This force is perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the direction of motion of the electron. Electrons moving in the sheet perpendicular to the magnetic field will therefore be deflected to one side of the sheet resulting in the Hall voltage. Hall elements made of semiconductors have a much larger effect than those made of metallic conductors. Nowadays, Hall sensors are produced at low costs due to standard CMOS technologies and are mostly made of silicon or III-V semiconductors. They have good temperature characteristics, bandwidths from static fields up to 100MHz, resolutions of 100nT and a dynamic range from 50T to 30T [Maci00]. 2.1.7. Magnetodiode A magnetodiode is basically a semiconductor diode where the p-region is separated from the n-region by an area of undoped silicon. The silicon layer lies between, for example, a Sapphire substrate and a SiO2-layer, Fig. 7.
Chapter 2
Fig. 7: Structure of a Magnetodiode [Lenz90]
When a potential is applied between the p- and n-region, holes and electrons are injected into the silicon and move in opposite directions resulting in a current flow. In absence of a magnetic field, mainly recombination contributes to the resistance, especially at the surface Si-SiO2 and Si-Sapphire. When a magnetic field is applied, the electrons and holes are diverted in the same direction to one of the surfaces. Since the possibility to recombine at the Si-Sapphire surface is much greater than at the Si-SiO2 surface, the resistance is higher when the charge carriers are diverted towards the Si-Sapphire surface. Magnetodiodes have higher responses than Hall elements [Lenz90] at similar bandwidths and resolutions up to 0.5T, but they suffer from a high temperature dependency [Here93]. 2.1.8. Magnetotransistor The magnetotransistor is a version of an npn-transistor. Like a transistor, it consists of an n-doted emitter separated by a p-doped base from the n-doped collector. The difference is that there are two collectors instead of one, Fig. 8.
Fig. 8: Principle of a Magnetotransistor [Lenz90]
Chapter 2
Without any external magnetic field, equal numbers of charge carriers reach the two collectors. When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the direction of motion of the charge carriers, they will be deflected toward one collector or the other. The two collector voltages are fed to a differential amplifier, whose output is proportional to the applied magnetic field. Magentodiodes are about 100 times more sensitive than Hall elements, have a bandwidth up to 1MHz [Lando] and are based on more standard fabrication technologies (CMOS) than the magnetodiode [Lenz90]. 2.1.9. Magnetoresistor The MR (MagnetoResistance) effect describes the relative change of resistance of a conductor at the presence of a magnetic field. According to the orientation of the magnetic field vector and the electric current vector, the effect is named either longitudinal MR effect (magnetic field and current parallel) or transversal MR effect (magnetic field and current perpendicular). Several effects are known today: The AMR (Anisotropic MagnetoResistance) effect occurs in magnetic materials such as Permalloy (Ni-Fe alloy). This material is given an easy direction in the direction of the current. When a magnetic field is applied, the resistance will change with the angle between the field and the direction of the current. When the magnetic field is applied perpendicularly to the current, the magnetic orientation will rotate in direction of the field. This rotation is dependent on the magnitude of the field. Rotation results in higher resistance since electrons that move in direction of the magnetization have a higher probability to be scattered. The GMR (Giant MagnetoResistance) effect occurs in stacks of very thin layers of Fe and Cr with antiparallel magnetization of neighbouring layers. When the magnetization of the single layers is rotated to parallel magnetization due to an external magnetic field, the resistance will significantly change. Resistance changes of up to 50% are possible compared to the AMR effect where the resistance changes 3% at maximum. Fields from static to 5MHz can be measured [Xiao03]. AMR and GMR are both used as read/write heads in hard disc drives. The CMR (Colossal MagnetoResistance) effect is the strongest magnetoresistive effect known. It occurs mostly in manganese-based perovskite oxides and changes the electrical resistance of the material in the order of magnitudes at the presence of a magnetic field. This relatively newly found effect is subject to current research. Typically, magnetoresistors for field sensing have a dynamic range of B=1T to B=1T, a resolution of 10nT and a bandwidth from dc to 10MHz [Maci00]. Magnetoresistors do however, not give information about the direction of the field.
10
Chapter 2
2.1.10. SQUID Magnetometer The most sensitive magnetometer is the SQUID (Superconducting Quantum Interference Device) with a resolution of fT. The SQUID is based on the Josephson effect that arises in superconducting rings with a weak link (thin layer of insulator). Josephson discovered, that a current can flow through the weak link as an oscillating function of the magnetic field intensity. Typically, the ring is inductively coupled to a radio frequency circuit that both, supplies a known bias field and serves as detector output. Changes in the ring current alter the resonant frequency of the circuit. The change of the magnetic field can be measured by counting the maxima and minima. If there are two weak links in the circuit (DC SQUID), the voltage difference between them can be measured directly. This voltage also periodically changes with the change in magnetic field. [Lenz90] SQUIDs are very precise and expensive magnetic field sensors and need liquid Nitrogen cooling to allow superconductivity. They typically have a dynamic range from B=1pT to B=0.1mT, a resolution of 100fT and a low bandwidth from dc to 5Hz [Maci00] and are therefore not suitable for current fault detection. 2.1.11. Optically Pumped Magnetometer The optically pumped magnetometer is based on the Zeeman effect and precisely measures a scalar magnetic field. The measurand is the resonance frequency of a radio frequency source at which the electrons in a Caesium or Helium vapour change their spin angular momentum. The energy required to flip the electron spins, and thus the radio frequency, depends on the strength of the magnetic field. This sensor however, is relatively large, has a high power consumption, a sensitivity range from B=1nT to B=0.1mT and a low bandwidth from dc to 5Hz [Lenz90], [Maci00], which makes it unsuitable the purpose of this work. 2.1.12. Nuclear-Precession Magnetometer This magnetometer exploits the response of protons to a magnetic field in a hydrocarbon fluid, such as benzene. The precession frequency of the protons at a present magnetic field is proportional to the magnetic field strength and is picked up by a coil. Again, this magnetometer has a low sensitivity range (10pT to 100T) and is rather expensive. 2.1.13. Conclusion of the Applicability of Non-Optic Magnetic Field Sensors All presented sensing principles suffer from electromagnetic interference that is expected to be at a very high level in the application environment. Especially Lorentz force-based sensors, such as Hall element, magnetodiode and magnetotransistor are sensitive to EMI due to their typically low signal levels. The same holds for the search-coil magnetometer. The flux-gate magnetometer suffers 11
Chapter 2
from its low bandwidth. Shunts are not suitable owing their lack of insulation and the magnetoresitor does not detect the sign of the field. Costly high-precision magnetometers such as the SQUID, the optically pumped magnetometer and the nuclear precession magnetometer are not suitable due to their cost, dynamic range and low bandwidth limitations. Concluding this, there are no real alternatives to the conventional current sensors, such as current transformer and Rogowski coil among the presented non-optical principles. 2.2. Optical Current Transformers (OCTs) 2.2.1. Introduction A logical step to overcome the problems caused by electromagnetic interference on the sensor signal is to use a signal transmission that is immune to electromagnetic fields. Optical signal transmission using optical fibres are the best solution for that purpose. Normally, the optical signal is not influenced by electromagnetic fields. In a suitable designed sensor however, several properties of the light that is used as the signal carrier can be influenced, e.g. intensity, state of polarization, spectral properties and phase delay. Ideally, the sensor signal is directly generated by the interaction of the magnetic field with the sensor medium. Several such magnetooptical effects are known to occur in magneto-optic active materials. The most interesting magneto-optic effect in transmission for magnetic field sensing is the Faraday effect. It causes the polarization of linearly polarized light to rotate at the presence of a magnetic field when propagating in a material exhibiting the Faraday effect. It is widely used for magnetic field sensing and will be explained in detail in chapter 2.2.2.1. Another effect in transmission is the Zeeman effect, which causes the split of a spectral line into several components at the presence of a magnetic field. The most important effect in reflection is the MOKE (Magneto-Optic Kerr Effect). It occurs for example in thin magnetized metal films and exists in three different geometries: The PMOKE (Polar Magneto-Optic Kerr Effect) occurs with the magnetization direction perpendicular to the surface of the film, the LMOKE (Longitudinal Magneto-Optic Kerr Effect) with the magnetization in the film plane and also in the plane of incidence. In TMOKE (Transverse Magneto-Optic Kerr Effect) geometry, the magnetization direction is in the film plane but perpendicular to the plane of incidence. These effects are for example used in magneto-optic disks for reading the data with help of the Kerr effect but are not suitable for magnetic field measurements because of their non-linearity. Other magneto-optic effects are the Voigt effect, the Cotton-Mouton effect and the Majorana effect.
12
Chapter 2
But not only direct magneto-optic conversion is used as a sensor principle, also different magneto-mechanic-optical or magneto-electric-mechanic-optical transducers have been presented for magnetic field sensing purposes. Therefore, OCTs (Optical Current Transducers) are here defined as sensors that directly or indirectly use optical sensing methods to measure electrical currents. The advantage of direct magneto-optic transducers using opto-magnetic active materials is the absence of additional disturbance variables caused by mechanical or electrical sensor parts such as hysteresis, saturation, induction, temperature influence and damping. Over the last 30 years, numerous current measurement systems based on optical devices have been developed. OCTs have numerous potential advantages over conventional current transformers (CTs), depending on their sensor principle. Potential advantages are: immunity to electromagnetic interference (EMI) high electrical insulation large bandwidth potentially high sensitivity ease in signal light transmission being compact and lightweight potentially low-cost no danger of explosion ease of integration into digital control systems no saturation hysteresis-free passive measurement (dependent on the principle)
However, in most fields of application, OCTs have to compete with mature technologies. Consequently, many customers simply desire sensor systems having good performance with reasonable price (except for special uses) and choose conventional technologies. Therefore, only few optical devices, mainly developed by the customer itself, i.e. electric power companies and electric power distributors, or major industrial companies, are field-tested and used. Optical fibre sensors have been studied extensively over the last years. Fig. 9 and Fig. 10 show the distribution of measurands and measurement technologies in optical fibre technology based on the 15th Optical Fiber Sensors Conference 2002 [Lee03].
13
Chapter 2
Fig. 9: Distribution of papers according to measurands [Lee03]
Fig. 10: Distribution of papers according to used technologies [Lee03]
The diagrams shown above illustrate that there is a big interest in optical current/voltage sensors. Fibre grating technologies have a great share of the publications (Fig. 10) partly because this technology was at an intense research phase at that time. However, OCTs not only utilize fibre sensing elements. Also other geometries and principles or hybrid devices have been proposed. Optical Current Transducers will in the following be divided into five main groups: OCTs based on the Faraday effect Interferometric principles OCTs based on Bragg gratings Micromechanical sensors with optical readout Other optical current sensing principles 14
Chapter 2
These main groups will be presented in the following chapters. This classification is however, not accurately defined but rather used to give an overview over the existing principles. 2.2.2. OCTs based on the Faraday Effect 2.2.2.1. Explanation of the Faraday Effect The Faraday effect is a magneto-optical effect that causes a change of the state of polarization of light. Thus, the concepts of polarization and birefringence are briefly explained to give a better understanding of the Faraday effect and the problems arising in sensor applications. Polarization Light can be regarded as a plane wave and, like all electromagnetic waves, has the electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to the direction of propagation. r Conventionally, only the electric field vector E is described when speaking about polarization, since the magnetic field vector is always perpendicular and proportional to it. The two components of the electric field vector are defined as x and y components. For a simple harmonic wave, these components vary sinusoidally with the same frequency. However, their amplitude and phase might differ, compare Fig. 11.
Fig. 11: Linear, circular and elliptic polarization [Wiki06]
Special cases of polarization are linear polarization, which only occurs when both components have the same phase (Fig. 11 a)) and circular polarization which supposes that the two components are exactly 90 out of phase and have exactly the same amplitude, Fig. 11 b). The direction of rotation of the vector depends on which of the two components is 90 ahead of the other one. These cases are called right-hand circular polarization and left-hand circular polarization. All the other 15
Chapter 2
cases, where the two components differ in amplitude or phase are called elliptical polarization, Fig. 11 c). Birefringence Birefringence, or double refraction, is the decomposition of a ray of light into an ordinary ray and an extraordinary ray when it passes through an optically anisotropic material, depending on the state of polarization of the light. One can distinguish between two different kinds of birefringence: linear birefringence and circular birefringence. Linear birefringence occurs in an optically anisotropic material with different speeds of light propagation for different geometrical axes due to material anisotropy or geometrical constraints in an optical waveguide. The difference of the corresponding indexes of refraction n = nslow nfast is the linear birefringence. Linear polarized light passing through a linear birefringence medium experiences a phase difference in of
= 360 n l 0
Equation (2)
where l is the length of the light path and 0 is the wavelength of the light. This phase difference causes a change of the polarization state and is for example used to change the state of polarization (/4-plate). This effect may also occur in optically isotropic materials due to mechanical stress and electric and magnetic fields. Circular birefringence occurs in a material where the speed of propagation of the light is different for left-hand polarized and right-hand polarized light. The material is then called an optically active material. The difference of the two different indices of refraction, nc, is the circular birefringence n c = n right n left . Circular birefringence rotates the polarization of linearly polarized light by the angle
=
360 n c l 2 0
Equation (3).
In addition to the magnetic circular birefringence, a linear birefringence can be induced by a magnetization perpendicular to the light propagation direction. This effect is called Voigt or Cotton-Mouton effect, whereas the latter is often denoted to a molecule orientation effects to a magnetic field in fluids. There may also be a magnetic field dependent difference in optical absorption between the linear or the circular polarization states: MLD (Magnetic Linear Dichroism) and MCD (Magnetic Circular Dichroism).
16
Chapter 2
The Faraday effect
The Faraday effect is named after Michael Faraday who discovered this phenomenon in 1845. It describes the rotation of polarisation of light propagating in the direction of a magnetic field. When a beam of light is sent through a material exhibiting the Faraday effect, the polarisation of the light will be rotated by the angle in dependency of the magnetic field strength parallel to the light.
Fig. 12: The Faraday effect [Sohl93]
The Faraday effect is proportional to the magnetisation of the material, r = Lk M dl Equation (4) where is the polarisation rotation, M is the magnetisation, l is the length of the light path and k a constant dependent on the propagating material, the wavelength and the temperature. In paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials, the magnetisation and thus, also the polarisation rotation is practically proportional to the magnetic field strength [Sohl93]. The rotation can then be described in terms of the magnetic field strength H and the Verdet constant V, r = LV H dl Equation (5) The Verdet constant V is the specific rotation of a material and is defined as the angle over the magnetic Field times the length (/Tm).
V= B l
Equation (6)
V is determined by the magnetic properties of the material. B is the component of the magnetic flux density parallel to the light propagation direction. The Faraday effect arises from the interaction of the electron orbit and the electron spin with the magnetic field. The general principle can be understood as right17
Chapter 2
handed and left-handed circularly polarized light causing charges in a material to rotate in opposite senses. Each polarization therefore produces a contribution to the orbital angular momentum with opposite sign. A magnetic field gives rise to a spinpolarization along the magnetic field direction and the spin-orbit interaction then leads to an energy contribution for the two circular polarizations having the same magnitude but with opposite sign [Blun01]. This leads to right-handed and lefthanded polarizations having different refractive indices in the material. A linearly polarized wave can be seen as the sum of two circularly polarized waves with equal amplitude but opposite direction of rotation. As these two waves propagate with different speeds through the material, they will acquire a phase difference proportional to the travelled distance. In terms of their sum, these two beams, when they emerge, have a phase lag between them implying that the emerging beam has a rotated plane of polarization by an angle which is equal to half the phase change. The superposition of the left- and right-hand polarized components can be seen in Fig. 13.
Fig. 13: Polarization before and after polarization rotation
This effect is non-reciprocal, meaning a light beam passing a medium twice in opposite direction acquires a net rotation twice that of a single pass. It should be noticed that according to the material, the Verdet constant is temperature- and wavelength-dependent. Faraday Materials and Geometry A difference between on one hand diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials, and on the other hand ferrimagnetic and ferromagnetic Faraday materials has to be made. Diamagnetic (e.g. SF-57, SiO2, BK-7) and paramagnetic (e.g. TGG (Terbium Gallium Garnet), FR-5) Faraday materials have specific, but relatively low rotations. In contrast, ferrimagnetic and ferromagnetic materials have Faraday rotations orders of magnitude higher than diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials. The most
18
Chapter 2
prominent ferrimagnetic materials are RIGs (Rare Earth Iron Garnets). YIG (Yttrium Iron Garnet), Y3Fe5O12, and substituted YIGs are the most widely-used RIGs. Strictly speaking, in all materials, the Faraday rotation is proportional to the magnetization component along the direction of the optical propagation. For the diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials, the shape of the modulator element is not important in determining the magnetization. Also the magnetization is linearly dependent on the applied field, and equation (5) can be used. In ferri- and ferromagnetic materials the picture is more complex. In these materials, volumes of equal direction of magnetization, the so-called magnetic domains, will form. Thin transition regions, the Bloch walls, separate these domains of different magnetization directions. The domain size is determined by the magnetostatic energy balance that depends on the material properties and the sample geometry. In thin bulk samples and epitaxially grown films with uniaxial anisotropy perpendicular to the surface, the domains can form two-dimensional patterns extending through the entire thickness of the film, Fig. 14.
Fig. 14: Two-dimensional domain pattern: schematic and measured (YIG film, no field) [Sohl43]
These iron garnet films are sometimes also referred to as uniaxial garnet films. Larger bulk iron garnet crystals however, exhibit a more complex three-dimensional domain structure causing a higher non-linearity in the net Faraday effect and are less interesting for magnetic field sensing purposes. Hence, the definition of the Verdet constant V is not always suitable. Diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials have a specific rotation in every point of their volume and this rotation is independent of their geometry. The rotation for diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials can therefore be described with the Verdet constant V. Ferrimagnetic materials however, do not have a specific (constant) rotation, they exhibit a domain structure where all domains are fully saturated in different directions. Moreover, the rotation of those materials also depends on the geometry of the medium. It is therefore actually wrong to speak of a Verdet constant for those materials, many authors however do.
19
Chapter 2
The ferri- and ferromagnetic materials, such as RIGs, exhibit a very high Faraday rotation and are therefore interesting for sensor application. Iron garnets have widely been used for bubble memory and displays. At present, the main application is in optical isolators. These materials have therefore been studied extensively and are commercially fabricated. Bulk RIG crystals are grown similarly to silicon using the Czochralski technique. A YIG seed crystal, for example, is dipped into the melt and is slowly pulled upwards under constant rotation. Dopants can be added to the melt. These crystals normally exhibit a cubic magnetic anisotropy. Uniaxial anisotropy with stable direction of spontaneous magnetization, or easy axis, can occur in thin bulk samples and epitaxially grown garnet films, compare Fig. 14. Thin garnet films with a desired uniaxial anisotropy perpendicular to the film plane are commonly grown epitaxially on a GGG (Gadolinium Gallium Garnet) substrate. The common process is LPE (Liquid Phase Epitaxy), but also SPE (Solid Phase Epitaxy) [Jang04] has been proposed recently. An external magnetic field applied perpendicular to such a film causes the domains with magnetization in direction of the field to grow at the expense of the other domains, Fig. 15.
Fig. 15: Domain wall motion in thin films, schematic and recorded [Sohl93]
The resulting net polarization rotation can be approximated using the area ratio between the two kinds of domains. The high frequency behaviour of these domains depends on domain wall damping or domain wall resonance in the same way as the magnetic susceptibility and is in the range of several hundred MHz for low damping film materials [Wolf92]. A magnetic field applied in the plane of such a film rotates the magnetization of both types of domains in direction of the applied field equally, Fig. 16. Thus, magnetization rotation, as opposed to domain wall motion is the dominant response. These films can be employed in an optical waveguide geometry 20
Chapter 2
[Deet93/1]. Fig. 16 shows a possible planar waveguide geometry and the magnetization rotation of the domains at an applied magnetic field.
Fig. 16: Wave guide structure
While the polar geometry with a wide area of light-material-interaction gives a good average of the Faraday effect on the domain pattern in the film, the waveguide geometry gives only a one-dimensional average of the few domains along the path of light in the film. This geometry therefore gives a less linear signal. Thus, different principles have been proposed to increase the interaction length or to linearize the effect by using a bias field [Sohl91]. Also other problems, such as precise mode coupling to the planar waveguide arise with this geometry. Only a few principles have been proposed for sensor application. The rotation of magnetisation of the domains however, is a faster process than domain wall movement and therefore enables higher bandwidths of the planar geometry up to at least 1GHz [Deet93/1] respectively to 600MHz for a lowdamping film exhibiting domain wall movement [Wolf92]. Domain wall rotation also shows less hysteresis than domain wall motion [Deet93/1] and is not effected by possible imperfections in the material such as lattice dislocations [Sohl93] since no domain wall motion occurs. The most commonly used Faraday materials are, on one hand diamagnetic and paramagnetic glasses (e.g. SF-57 and FR-5) or TGG with relatively low Verdet constants, and on the other hand rare earth iron garnets (RIGs) and ferromagnetic materials with considerably higher Faraday rotations. Diamagnetic and paramagnetic glasses are transparent over a wide range of wavelength and are used in bulk form owing to their low Verdet constants. RIGs such as YIG have a limited transmission spectrum in the near-infrared region, Fig. 17. They are transparent, i.e. exhibit no noticeable loss in application, for wavelength of >1.1m [Sohl93].
21
Chapter 2

I = I 0 exp( t )
I intensity of light t penetration depth absorption coefficient
Fig. 17: Absorption of light in YIG depending on [Paro84]
However, due to their high Faraday rotation, they can be used in thin film geometry and have therefore also been used at shorter wavelengths. Table 1 gives an overview over the magnitude of Faraday rotation for the most common Faraday materials.
Table 1: Faraday rotation for some common materials [Deet93/2]
Rare earth ions and other dopants can be added to improve the temperature behaviour of YIG crystals. Also the Faraday rotation can be altered by adding mainly rare earth ions. Numerous compositions with several substitutes have been studied. Bi0.98Gd0.92La0.03Y1.07Fe4.72Ga0.28O12 films for example achieve a good temperature linearity and high rotation in sensor application [Itoh99]. Bismuth is commonly added to achieve higher rotations. The Faraday rotation of RIGs is thus very much dependent on the substitutes and their concentration, but also the temperature and the wavelength of the light, Fig. 18.
22
Chapter 2
Fig. 18: Wavelength-dependency of the Faraday rotation for common materials [Dona88]
2.2.2.2. Magnetic Field Sensing The magnetic field in a Faraday medium can be measured by determining the rotation of polarization , that occurs after a linearly polarized light beam passed the Faraday medium. This can be done by measuring the intensity of the light beam after passing a second polarizer (or analyzer). The intensity of this light beam is a function of the angle of rotation and thus the magnetic field strength. (Fig. 19)
Fig. 19: General form of a Faraday current sensor [Sohl93]
23
Chapter 2
Utilizing a folded design with a reflective surface at the end of the Faraday material as shown in Fig. 20, leads to twice the polarization rotation for a given length of the Faraday material.
Fig. 20: Schematic of a folded design giving twice the Faraday rotation
The characteristic of the sensor is determined by the orientation of the two polarizers to each other. The angle between the transmission axes of the polarizers determines by which value the transmitted intensity varies with a varying magnetic field. The angles can be chosen anywhere between 0 and 90 giving the same results for all other quadrants. The resulting intensities can be calculated employing Malus law: considering a linearly polarized light beam incident on a polarizer, its perpendicular component of the beam is blocked. Therefore, the amplitude of the light transmitted by the polarizer is
E( ) = E0 cos( )
Equation (7)
Hence, the intensity of the transmitted light is given by

I ( ) = I 0 cos 2 ( )
Equation (8),
where E0 is the electric field vector, and I0 is the intensity of the incident beam [Siro99]. Three angles of orientation of the analyzer to the polarizer are especially interesting for the sensor application, namely 0, 45 and 90. These three cases are shown and discussed in Table 2 to Table 4.
24
Chapter 2
Table 2: Characteristics of a 0-Sensor
I = I 0 cos 2 ( )
This sensor gives the same signal for positive and negative fields and has a quadratic characteristic for small fields. + This sensor is easy to fabricate since only one polarizer is needed in a folded design - It gives no indication of the direction of the field - Only small signal change for small fields
I = I 0 cos 2 ( 45 )
This sensor gives different signals for positive and negative fields. + This sensor is has a linear characteristic for a wide range of field + It detects the direction of the field
25
Chapter 2
I = I 0 cos 2 ( 90 )
This sensor gives the same signal for positive and negative fields. + This sensor is relatively immune to drift - It gives no indication of the direction of the field - It gives only a small and non-linear signal for low fields Another possibility to read out the state of polarization is to use a polarization separating prism (Wollaston prism) and two detectors, as shown in Fig. 21. The two orthogonal linearly polarized beams are detected separately. This technique has the advantage that optical losses in the fibres and sensor material can be compensated. The rotation of the polarization can directly be obtained by comparing the two sensor signals.
Fig. 21: Polarization state detection with polarization splitter [Sohl93]
A similar loss compensation has been demonstrated using conventional polarizers, but with light propagation in both directions through the sensor [Holm95]. All Faraday detection principles are fundamentally based on intensity detection. The structure, materials and the path of light of the different Faraday sensors however, differ greatly. The following overview is meant to give a brief and general idea of the major classes of optical Faraday transducers. Some examples for each group are presented.
26
Chapter 2
2.2.2.3. Magnetic Concentrator with Optical Measurement In this approach, a magnetic concentrator encloses the conductor, but instead of this magnetic loop forming the core of a transformer, the field inside the concentrator is measured optically in an air gap, Fig. 22. Due to the air gap, the field in the core is limited and core saturation is avoided. With a larger air gap however, the field in the gap becomes dependent on the position of the current conductor.
Fig. 22: Schematic of Faraday current sensor using a magnetic concentrator
Many sensors using this approach have been proposed. Using multiple-reflection in a glass bulk mounted in a ferromagnetic field concentrator increases the total effective optical path and therefore the sensitivity [Li97], [Yi00], [Yi02]. In order to prevent reflection-induced phase shifts that interfere with the polarization rotation, two methods have been proposed: critical angle reflection and dual-quadrature reflection [Ning95]. One example [Yi00] for multiple critical angle reflections is shown in Fig. 23.
Fig. 23: Faraday glass element showing 7 critical angle reflections [Yi00]
Matsushita Electric Industry (Panasonic) developed a small optical magnetic field sensor using a new garnet composition in 1999 [Itoh99], Fig. 24. This sensor is used in a magnetic core flux concentrator and shows high linearity (1% for alternating fields from 0.3 to 42mT) and temperature stability (2% from 20C to +80C). 27
Chapter 2
According to Forrest et al. [Forr96], this sensor and earlier versions with less linearity have been sold in thousands of units a year to a Japanese utility company for use as a current fault sensor.
Fig. 24: Schematic of OCT probe [Itoh99]
A similar current sensor based on Bi-doped YIG is used for fault section detection in Japanese underground transmission lines [Toya93]. This sensor is mounted in a ring core of laminated silicon steel plates around the conductor in order to measure the electric current. Possible disadvantages of using magnetic core concentrators with an air gap are sensitivities to currents in nearby conductors and dependency on the position of the conductor owing to a not entirely closed concentrator as well as nonuniformity of the magnetic field in the air gap. To overcome these drawbacks, alternative configurations allowing the light to pass through the Faraday material in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic field have been proposed. Using such a structure enables a design with a smaller air gap. Toshihiko et al. proposed a sensor with a transverse configuration of the light beam and the magnetic field in a small YIG bulk in 2001 [Yosh01], Fig. 25. The magnetic field changes the 3D local magnetization according to the domain characteristics in the crystal. The Faraday rotation of the light beam passing in zdirection is direct proportional to the integration of the magnetisation in zdirection over the 3D zone within the YIG crystal.
28
Chapter 2
Fig. 25: Measuring set-up for a transverse configuration in YIG [Yosh01]
In 2003, the same group proposed a similar scheme where a uniaxial garnet film was obliquely inserted in a narrow core gap and the light beam passes through the film in the transverse direction to the core [Yosh03], Fig. 26. The authors claim that in film form, the incident light beam undergoes an equal amount of Faraday rotation independent of the incident angle to the film plane.
Fig. 26: Scheme of a current sensor in transverse configuration [Yosh03]
These transverse schemes [Yosh01], [Yosh03] allow a very high sensitivity and a better insulation from surrounding currents due to a considerably smaller air gap width. Moreover, this transverse scheme is easier to construct than a longitudinal one. 2.2.2.4. Bulk Optics This type of OCT is analogous to an optical implementation of a conventional CT. It consists of a Faraday material completely enclosing the conductor, Fig. 27. Numerous designs have been proposed with light beams encircling the currentcarrying conductor exactly once or several times. These sensors are fabricated from diamagnetic or paramagnetic single-glass blocks with relatively low Verdet constants and do not suffer from problems such as intrinsic birefringence and bendinginduced linear birefringence occurring in optical fibre sensing elements (compare chapter 2.2.2.5).
29
Chapter 2
Fig. 27: Schematic of a Faraday OCT using bulk optics
The first proposed geometry by Takahachi et al. [Taka83] shows a square-shaped sensing element closing the optical path via three reflection corners, Fig. 28. In this sensor, the reflection-induced phase-differences cancel each other through doublequadrature reflections.
Fig. 28: Square-shaped OCT [Taka83]
A triangular-shaped sensing element has been introduced by Chu et al. [Chu92] using critical angle reflections to preserve the state of polarisation, Fig. 29. This design is easier to manufacture but the demand on the angular tolerance is very high (angles for internal critical angle reflection C are within 0.01).
Fig. 29: Triangular sensing element [Chu92]
30
Chapter 2
Later, an openable form emulating a conventional current clamp has been developed [Ning93]. Further designs have been published, including a circular ring using multiple criticalangle reflections of a light beam encircling the conductor five times [Ning91/1] and therefore increasing the current sensitivity by the same factor, Fig. 30.
Fig. 30: Circular geometry with optical path [Ning91/1]
Several bulk OCTs have been developed for commercial application, especially in Japanese power systems. This design however, is sensitive to shock and vibration. 2.2.2.5. Optical Fibre Sensing Elements This kind of current sensor basically consists of an optic fibre wound a number of times around the current-carrying conductor forming a coil, Fig. 31. The fibre itself exhibits a Faraday effect and acts as the sensing material.
Fig. 31: Schematic of an optical fibre sensing element
Although the Verdet constant of a fibre is not very high, a measurable rotation can be achieved with a long fibre wound around the conductor many times. A good approximation of the closed line integral of the field is achieved. These fibres are typically single-mode silica fibres and do not require a precision matching or alignment. The sensitivity can be adjusted by adding dopants to the core or by varying the number of turns. In order to remain the state of polarization in the fibre between the sensing region and the light source/detectors, polarization-maintaining 31
Chapter 2
single-mode fibres are used. These fibres have a core of elliptical cross-section or index of refraction anisotropy introduced by dopants or uniaxial stress. However, the sensitivity of the sensing part of the fibre is influenced by intrinsic and stress-induced linear birefringence due to bending of the sensing fibre or vibrations. Furthermore, since linear birefringence is temperature-dependent, the sensor will be sensitive to external temperature perturbations. In order to overcome the induced linear birefringence, a number of solutions have been presented [Ning95]. For example can the linear birefringence be removed by annealing the fibre coil [Rose96]. Another possibility is to suppress the influence of the bending-induced birefringence by using a fibre with a large degree of circular birefringence. A twisted fibre or a SEB (Spun Elliptically Birefringence) fibre is used so that the Faraday rotation is superimposed onto this circular birefringence. Optical current sensors using optical fibres as sensing elements have been produced by ABB for AC currents [Bohn02] (Fig. 32) and DC currents [Bohn05].
Fig. 32: Principle and picture of a fibre-optic AC-current sensor [Bohn02]
Siemens developed a similar AC current transducer [Will02]. Toshiba has developed a silica fibre OCT [Taka97] with a reflecting arrangement. This type has the double sensing length and can be used to suppress the influence of vibration-induced birefringence since the influence on the clockwise-propagating beam will be in anti-phase to the effect on the counterclockwise-propagating beam, Fig. 33.
32
Chapter 2
Fig. 33: Reflective-type wound-fibre OCT [Yu02]
NxtPhase Corp. has developed a commercial current sensor [Blak03], [Sand02] using the Faraday effect in a different architecture than the polarimetric technique. This sensor uses the Sagnac interferometer design and is based on the changes of the velocities of right- and left-hand polarized light waves propagating in the magnetic field around the conductor, Fig. 34. These two light waves travel with different velocities through a coil of a polarization-maintaining sensing fibre and the time-difference is measured. It is easier to accurately measure changes in light velocity than changes in polarization state. Since this is a velocity measurement scheme, there is no need to anneal the fibre. First field tests of this sensor started in 2000.
Fig. 34: NxtPhase sensor NXTC principle [Blak03]
Also Takahashi et al. developed a Sagnac interferometer-type fibre-optic current sensor [Taka04]. Faraday sensor techniques using fibres as sensing elements made great progress during the last few years. Some of the proposed sensors exhibit sensitivities of the highest standards and are produced for precise current metering.
33
Chapter 2
2.2.2.6. Unlinked Type This type of sensor, also referred to as witness sensor, is based on magnetic field sensing techniques. Instead of forming a closed loop around the conductor, this sensor only measures the magnetic field at a point near the conductor making it rather a magnetic field sensor than a current sensor, Fig. 35. However, this sensor can be used as a current sensor if the system is calibrated. Other applications are condition monitoring and fault-detection in electric power systems.
Fig. 35: Schematic of a Faraday-effect sensor, unlinked type geometry
In order to achieve a sufficient sensitivity for measuring magnetic fields at a point, the Faraday material needs to have a very high Faraday rotation. Therefore predominantly materials with high rotations such as YIG and substituted YIG are used. One example for such kind of sensor is proposed by Sohlstrm [Sohl93] using a Bisubstituted YIG film as Faraday material in a sensor head to measure magnetic fields, Fig. 36. The polarized light beam passes twice through a YIG crystal of 130m thickness being reflected at a mirror. This sensor can, after calibration, also be applied to measure electric currents.
Fig. 36: Principle of a magnetic field sensor head [Sohl93]
Unlinked type OCTs have been commercially produced by NGK Insulators, Ltd. in Japan [Imae92]. This sensor is based on a YIG crystal and is used as a ground fault current detector. The principle is shown in the picture below.
34
Chapter 2
Fig. 37: Principle of an optical magnetic field sensor [Imae92]
A current sensor using a TGG crystal to measure an electric current has been presented by Cruden et al. [Crud95]. In 1998, the same group proposed an unlinked type OCT made of a FR-5 glass piece [Crud98] (dimensions 22525mm3), Fig. 38.
Fig. 38: Reflective type OCT [Crud98]
In order to enhance the sensitivity of a YIG crystal-based magnetic field sensor, ferrite flux concentrators are used in [Deet96], [Roch00] and [Robl02]. The bandwidth of the sensor by Deeter [Deet96] is in the order of 10MHz and a noise equivalent field of 6pT/Hz, Fig. 39.
Fig. 39: Sensor head with flux concentrators [Deet96]
In 2003, Bai et al. proposed an OCT for integrated power electronic modules [Bai03] using Bi-doped YIG. A scheme of this point-sensor is shown in Fig. 40.
35
Chapter 2
Fig. 40: Sensing tip [Bai03]
An enhanced version [Inou95] of the current sensor presented earlier in the magnetic concentrator section [Toya93] is used as a magnetic field sensor in the vicinity of the conductor to detect the section of a fault current. Also the sensor head of the current transducer previously presented in the magnetic concentrator section [Itoh99] (Fig. 24) is used as a witness sensor with inferior characteristics. This device, produced by Matsushita, uses a Bi-substituted RIG-film as Faraday material, Fig. 41.
Fig. 41: Schematic of the opto-magnetic field sensor probe [Itoh99]
A different principle related to the Faraday effect is presented in [Dido00]. This principle is the same as in other conventional Faraday effect sensors but instead of measuring the average area of the up and down magnetized domains, the position of the domain wall is measured. A yttrium iron garnet crystal is mounted between two small magnets with opposite magnetisation directions. This special material forms two domains only (characterized by mutually opposite magnetisation direction) with opposite Faraday rotations, Fig. 42.
Fig. 42: Principle of a two-domain sensor principle [Dido00]
36
Chapter 2
A polarized light beam coming from the source (1) illuminates the crystal plate (2). This plate, closely located to the current-carrying conductor (3), forms a twodomain structure by means of two permanent magnets (not shown). The light, propagating through the analyzer (4), is detected by a position-sensitive photo receiver (5). For calibration the analyzer has to be rotated to a position where the light passing through the lower domain is extinguished for zero magnetic field. Measurements of the magnetic field (electric current) can now be made by detection of the position of the domain wall, Fig. 43.
Fig. 43: Dark and bright zones indicating opposite Faraday rotation
The boundary between bright and dark domains changes in accordance to the value of the magnetic field. Also ac currents can be measured evaluating the zone of intermediary brightness as shown below, Fig. 44.
Fig. 44: Intermediate zone at 100kHz
This relatively new sensor principle is able to measure high currents from dc up to hundreds of kHz and is relatively temperature-independent. 2.2.3. Interferometric Principles In an interferometer, the difference in length between two optical paths is measured. In order to use this principle to measure a current or a magnetic field, it must be transferred into a path length variation. In most cases, this change is accomplished through magnetostriction. This principle was first proposed by Yariv et al. [Yari80] in 1980: a magnetostrictive material is mechanically coupled to a fibre. When this material is exposed to a magnetic field, a change in shape occurs, which induces strain in the fibre resulting in a change of length of the fibre. This change in 37
Chapter 2
optical path length can be measured by bringing the fibre into one arm of a MachZehnder-Interferometer. Numerous different designs have been realized. A sensor exploiting the magnetostriction of a ferromagnetic core with a single-mode fibre coiled onto it is presented in [Pere02], Fig. 45.
Fig. 45: Fibre-optic current sensor [Pere02]
The best principle has been proven to be an optical fibre coated with magnetostrictive materials such as nickel, metallic glasses or ceramic magnetostrictive materials[Jarz80], [Sedl96], Fig. 46.
Fig. 46: Fibre coated with magnetostrictive material in an interferometer [Sedl96]
However, this sensor also reacts to all other kinds of parameters that can cause a change in optical path length, e.g. temperature. Many of these problems have however been solved, but still, the remaining non-linearity, hysteresis and saturation of magnetostrictive materials limit the applicability of this technique. Other sensor principles using interferometric detection have also been studied. For example by Ning et al. [Ning91/2], the optical path length change is caused by the strain of a piezoelectric element driven by the output-voltage of an ordinary current transformer around the current-carrying conductor ,Fig. 47.
38
Chapter 2
Fig. 47: Piezoelectric-optic current sensor [Ning91/2]
Another approach to change the optical path length is by creating a strain in the fibre caused by the Lorentzian force. This sensor utilizes a conductor-coated sensing fibre in one arm of a Mach-Zehnder interferometer [Okam90]. The DC or AC current flowing through the coating causes the metal-coated fibre to extend or vibrate elastically, which can be sensed in terms of an optical-phase change (Fig. 48).
Fig. 48: Lorentzian force current sensor [Okam90]
2.2.4. OCTs based on Bragg Gratings This principle is actually an interferometric one, but is grouped separately due to differences in detection mechanisms and structure. In recent years, several sensors that measure the mechanical strain of a material in a magnetic field with a Bragg grating have been proposed. A Bragg grating is an optical grating that works as an optical filter. A FBG (Fibre Bragg Grating) is a periodic or aperiodic perturbation of the effective refractive index and/or the effective absorption coefficient in the core of an optical fibre. Light propagating in the core will be reflected by the interfaces between regions having different refractive indexes. But the reflected light is generally out of phase and is extinct. However, for a certain wavelength, the Bragg wavelength Bragg, the light reflected by the periodically varying index of refraction will be in equal phase and added constructively. This leads to the reflection of light in a very narrow range of wavelength. Other wavelengths are nearly not affected and pass the fibre. When such a fibre is strained, the grating constant changes and consequently the reflected wavelength changes. That can be detected as a function of strain and thus the magnetic field. 39
Chapter 2
Many different types of FBG current sensors have been developed. A simple example is proposed by Feng et al. [Feng00] using a magnetostrictive rod with a FBG fibre mounted on it to measure the change in Bragg-wavelength, caused by the lengthened rod, Fig. 49.
Fig. 49: FBG sensor scheme, redrawn after [Feng00]
A different approach to measure a current is chosen by Fisher et al. [Fish97] using the output signal of a conventional current transformer to actuate a piezoelectric cylinder on which a FBG fibre is bonded, Fig. 50.
Fig. 50: Scheme of a FBG sensor [Fish97]
The output voltage of the current transformer is proportionally translated into the variation of diameter of the cylinder causing a linear current-frequency shift dependence. Cavaleiro et al. [Cava98] use a different approach. Their sensor is based on the temperature sensitivity of a fibre Bragg grating. A current passing through a thin conductive coating on the surface of the FBG causes the temperature change. This current is the secondary current of a Rogowski coil measuring the electrical current of the current-carrying conductor, Fig. 51.
Fig. 51: Bragg sensor with temperature induced phase shift [Cava98]
40
Chapter 2
By monitoring the temperature-induced Bragg wavelength shift, the value of the electrical current can be recovered. All these principles require a rather expensive wavelength-detection technique and suffer from temperature interference. However, a sophisticated fibre Bragg sensor has been introduced by Chiang et al. [Chia03], overcoming the temperature sensitivity and using a simple and cheap detection technique. This sensor consists of a fibre Bragg grating bonded on two joined metal alloys (Terfenol-D and MONEL 400). At zero magnetic fields, the sensor shows a single reflection peak. But when a magnetic field is applied, the Terfenol-D is stretched due to huge magnetostriction, while the dimensions of the MONEL 400 remain unchanged resulting in two separated reflection peaks, Fig. 52.
Fig. 52: Reflection peak separation [Chia03]
The reflection peak of that part of the grating on Terfenol-D shifts to a longer wavelength, while that of the other half on MONEL 400 remains on its original position. The magnetic field thus causes a split in the reflection spectrum making it easy to measure, using a simple photo detector to detect its intensity. Moreover, the almost identical thermal expansion coefficients of the Terfenol-D and MONEL 400 make the peaks shift in the same direction by the same amount keeping the overlap of the two reflection spectra constant and therefore the sensor insensitive to temperature changes. However, Terfenol-D-based sensors are limited in their bandwidth to only a few kHz [Gree90]. A potential advantage of a Bragg grating based system is the relative ease of multiplexing, which can potentially reduce the costs of the source and electronics when multiple devices are to be used. [Culs04]
41
Chapter 2
2.2.5. Micromechanical Sensors with Optical Readout With the rise in MEMS industry in the 1990s many well-known and widely understood principles have been applied in order to measure magnetic fields and thus, electric currents. Most principles use mechanical deformation basing on standard silicon-technology and optical readout to ensure electromagnetic immunity. However, no commercialisation of this technology has been seen yet. Some of the principles are presented below. Heredero et al. [Hede99] proposed a micromachined optical fibre current sensor measuring the magnetic field around a conductor. The sensing element consists of a square silicon membrane that has a cylindrical permanent magnet fixed on its central region. The vibration of this structure at the presence of the magnetic field gradient generated by an AC current is measured with white-light interferometry. There is a great advantage in feasibility and price for LEDs and detectors since there is no limitation for a central wavelength and standard single-mode optical fibres can be used. The actuator design is a simple one-mask process. The principle is shown in Fig. 53.
Fig. 53: Micromachined optical fibre current sensor [Hede99]
This sensor is mechanically limited by dynamic range and bandwidth and is not able to detect homogenous magnetic fields. The same group proposed a DC and AC sensor with a similar structure using a dual-wavelength fibre Bragg grating technique working in quadrature in order to interrogate the microcavity [Hede03]. Another micromechanical magnetometer has been introduced by Yang et al. [Yang02]. This sensor optically detects the deflection of a ferromagnetic-coated beam in a magnetic field, Fig. 54.
42
Chapter 2
Fig. 54: Principle and SEM image of the magnetometer [Yang02]
This principle is subjected to effects like squeeze-film damping, which considerably limits its performance. A similar sensor was proposed by Goedeke et al. [Goed04]. Here, the deflection of a cobalt-coated cantilever is measured optically. In [Kepl04], the sensing element is a U-shaped cantilever that bears a thin film lead. The magnetic field strength is converted into a movement of the cantilever when a current flows through the film, the resonant frequency of the cantilever being 5kHz, Fig. 55.
Fig. 55: Schematic of the sensor with optical readout of the cantilever position [Kepl04]
The front plane of the bended cantilever acts as a deflecting mirror enabling an optic readout system. The dynamic range of this sensor can be tuned by altering the current in the film. Another intensity type principle has been tested for fault detection on electric power transmission lines by Carome et al. [Caro91]. It consists of a pair of multimode optical fibres directly mounted end-to-end. One fibre is fixed while the other is deflected by a magnetic field. The miss-alignment results in change in intensity transferred from one core to the other and can be measured as function of the magnetic field.
43
Chapter 2
2.2.6. Other Optical Current Sensing Principles Following, some principles that allow to measure electric currents are briefly presented. These principles are rather unusual and might not be commercially used for current sensing. A new type of OCT based on a new physical effect, the thermal lens coupled magneto-optical effect in ferrofluid, is presented in [Chen98], [Ning91/1]. When a laser beam is focused on an absorptive ferrofluid thin film, an effective concave lens is resulted, which diverges rays in the beam and makes them interfere. A consequently appearing pattern of diffraction rings can be detected by two fibres, which detect the current-corresponding variation of light intensity of the diffraction rings. An OCT using liquid crystals and chromatic modulation has been presented by Pilling et al. [Pill93], Fig. 56. The CT attenuates a certain portion of the optical spectrum incident upon it by an amount dependent on the current flowing in the power line. The spectrum is analysed by a double-layer photodiode and the current in the power line can thus be indirectly measured by evaluating the ratio of the photodiode shortcut currents.
Fig. 56: LC modulator based on chromatic modulation [Pill93]
This principle however, suffers from temperature dependency and a very high response time. 2.2.7. Conclusion Optical Current Transformers Concluding the development in optical current sensing, one can say that OCTs are on the way to commercialisation and many have already been field-tested and commercially installed. There is an industrial need for two kinds of current sensors. One sensor with high accuracy for revenue metering of high currents and one fast, high dynamic sensor with a wide bandwidth for protecting the installation in case of overload currents [Mohr02]. For revenue metering, there are already numerous companies field-testing or commercially installing high-accuracy current metering systems. Most major electric 44
Chapter 2
companies like ABB, Siemens and GE show efforts in developing optical current metering systems. Great efforts are especially made in Japan but optical current sensors are still far from being widely used. It can be seen that during the last years there has been a shift from bulk-glass sensors to all-fibre sensors reflecting the progress in temperature- and birefringence-compensation techniques. For fault detection sensors, there has not been a steady commercial development. Most principles for fault detection fall into the group unlinked type (chapter 2.2.2.6.) since those sensors are simpler, potentially cheaper and sufficiently precise. These devices are commonly based on magnetic field sensing and primarily use iron garnets with high Faraday rotation as sensing medium. Many technologies have been proposed, predominantly in the first half of the 1990s, but only few are commercially installed. Again, Japanese companies seem to have made the greatest effort in developing these technologies. Several thousands of optical current fault sensors are reported to have been produced and sold within Japan since the late 1990s. Panasonic (Matsushita) alone reported the shipment of several thousand optical sensor heads for fault detection [Yu02]. However, there has not been an open market for optical current fault sensors. Noteworthy is the recent development of hybrid opto-mechanic systems, many of which are based on reflective intensity modulation. These devices have, however, not been industrialized yet, but are potentially cheap owing to standard optic components and batch processing production techniques. 2.3. Conclusion of the Technology Investigation Considering all presented techniques, it can be concluded that none of the nonoptical current or magnetic field sensors exhibits the demanded reliability in highEMI environments without additional shielding and isolation and/or fulfils the required bandwidth, dynamic range and size. Optical current measurement systems are favourable for that purpose because of their inherent insensitivity to EMI and galvanic isolation. Most of the indirect OCTs however, suffer from inherent problems such as bandwidth limitation, saturation and hysteresis due to their mechanical components or other interferences associated with energy conversions. Some examples for limitations are the low resonance frequencies of most MEMS sensors or saturation, hysteresis and actuation frequency limits of magnetostrictive components in Bragg sensors. The most suitable sensor principle for this application are OCTs with intrinsic optomagnetic effects, i.e. the Faraday effect. Considering the purpose of current fault detection, a simple and cheap unlinked type sensor in the vicinity of the conductors is sufficient since no precise current measurement using fibre-coils or magnetic concentrators is necessary. 45
Chapter 2
The best solution for that seems to be a Faraday sensor with point measurement of the magnetic field employing high-rotation materials such as RIGs. Two such sensors are available at the Microsystem technology department of KTH and will be used for some first measurements and fault detection tests in this work. The Faraday materials and properties of these sensors however, are unknown, but will be determined in chapter 4.2.
46
Chapter 3
FEM Simulation of the Magnetic Field Pattern
3. FEM Simulation of the Magnetic Field Pattern

3.1. Introduction The chosen technique using Faraday point-sensors to detect a fault in the described system with parallel IGBTs gives the possibility to use a single sensor to detect a fault in each of the current lines. This is possible when the sensor is brought into the exact middle between the two conductors (Fig. 57) and the sensor has a 45-characteristic (compare chapter 2.2.2.2.) with polarizer and analyzer having a 45 rotation to each other. The magnetic field around an infinitely long, thin and straight conductor can be calculated using
H= I 2 r
Equation (9)
where I is the current in the conductor and r is the distance from the conductor. The case for the application with two conductors with rectangular cross-section is more complex.
Fig. 57: Magnetic field between parallel conductors
The magnetic fields caused by both conductors in the exact middle will cancel each other when the current in both conductors flows in the same direction due to the symmetry of the geometry, Fig. 57. When one of the IGBTs fails, only one of the lines will be conducting, resulting in a positive or negative field at the sensor depending on which of the IGBTs failed. This can be detected with a 45-sensor. In order to reliably detect the current or in this case a current fault in the conductors, the magnetic field and its pattern around the conductors has to be known. 47
Chapter 3
The conductors in the actual application will have a non-circular cross section and will be placed in proximity to each other. The current in the conductors might change with a frequency of tens of kHz. That makes it difficult to calculate the magnetic field and its distribution, since eddy currents and skin effect will occur and significantly influence the magnetic field. Therefore, a FEM (Finite Element Method) simulation of the two conductors and the surrounding magnetic field was made. From this we can get some essential information. Firstly, it is essential to know the expected magnitude of the field between the two conductors in order to conclude the necessary sensitivity of the sensor to detect a fault. Secondly, the distribution of the field between the conductors is important to know in order to determine the best location of the sensor. Lastly, the frequency behaviour of the magnetic field is very important. The frequency response has to be flat up to hundreds of kHz in order to detect faults with minimum delay. The simulation has to be done for two cases: The case when both conductors are carrying the same current in the same direction and the case of a fault where only of the conductors is conducting. Since at higher frequencies, skin effect and induction are expected to have a very large influence on the current density distribution in the conductor and thus the magnetic field, the field has to be investigated for a range of frequencies. The FEM software COMSOL Multiphysics (formerly Femlab) was used to simulate the two conductors and the magnetic field around them. The simulation can be done in 2D with a cross-section of the conductors perpendicular to the direction of the currents as the 2D plane. A 2D model implies that the length of the conductors is infinite which is not strictly true in application. In principle, for a correct simulation with finite conductor lengths a much more complicated 3D simulation would be necessary, but since the 2D simulation is expected to give a sufficiently good indication of the resulting magnetic fields, a 2D model has been used. In order to model the two copper conductors and the resulting field around them, the Femlab model Quasi-Statics, Magnetic, Perpendicular Induction Currents, Vector Potential from the Electromagnetics Module is used. To set and maintain the correct currents in the conductors, an additional Weak Form, Point model had to be added that integrates the actual current density over the conductor and recalculates the input potential for each conductor.
48
Chapter 3
Geometry and dimensions for the simulation are chosen in the order of the presumable actual application. The cross section of the conductors carrying a current perpendicular to the simulation plane (z-direction) is 10010mm2, Fig. 58.
Fig. 58: Sketch and dimensions of the two conductors
In normal operating condition, both conductors carry the same current I0. In order to simulate the case of fault in one of the conductors, the current in the right conductor was simply set to I=0A and the current in the left conductor was set to twice the initial value 2I0. The y-component of the magnetic field strength between the conductors is the determinant one representing currents in both conductors and will therefore be investigated as the measurand. The sensor also will be able to measure the magnetic field in only one axis and will be placed between the two conductors in a way to detect the magnetic field in y-direction (Hy). 3.2. Normal Working Condition The picture below shows a surface plot of the simulation with two copper bars, both carrying a current of 1000A in the same direction at a frequency of 1Hz. This state represents the normal working condition at a very low frequency to show the field distribution without any considerable skin effect or induction influences.
49
Chapter 3
Fig. 59: Hy between conductors carrying 1000A each, f=1Hz
It can be seen, that the y-component of the magnetic field in the middle between the two conductors is about zero and increasing, respectively decreasing, in direction of the conductors. The field in equidistance to both conductors is, as expected, zero because the magnetic fields around each conductor cancel each other when both carry the same current in the same direction. To examine the distribution of the magnetic field between the conductors in dependency on the frequency, the simulation was run for a variety of frequencies from 1Hz to 1MHz. A plot of the magnetic field (y-component) in dependency on the x-coordinate between the conductors for a wide frequency range is shown in Fig. 60. The values of the field are taken along the x-axis for y=0.
50
Chapter 3
Fig. 60: Hy in dependency on x coordinate, both conductors carrying 1000A
The graph shows that the magnetic field in equidistance to both conductors has zero magnitude for all frequencies. It can be seen that the field shows almost no dependency on the x-location for higher frequencies. This behaviour is due to the current being diverted to the corners of the conductor resulting in a inhomogeneous current density. This phenomenon is called skin effect and can for circular conductors be described with the skin depth d:
d= 2
Equation (10)
where d is the depth below the surface of a circular conductor at which the current density is 1/e the current density at the surface. is the resistivity of the conductor, is the angular frequency of the current and is the absolute magnetic permeability of the conductor. This description for the skin depth however, does not hold for non-circular conductors. The behaviour is similar but more complex. The same effect of deflection of the current density occurs. An uneven distribution of the current density for different frequencies in the conductor halves can be seen in Fig. 61, obtained by FEM simulation.
51
Chapter 3
1Hz
20Hz
50Hz
200Hz 1000Hz
Fig. 61: Distribution of the current density due to the skin effect for different frequencies
From the asymmetry of the current density can be seen that the magnetic field caused by the parallel conductor (carrying the same current) also influences the current density distribution. It has to be noticed, that similar colours in the images for different frequencies correspond to different current densities. The homogeneous current density in the very left image (f=1Hz) is J1106A/m2, whereas the current density in the corner of the very right image (f=1000Hz) is J9.5106A/m2. Fig. 62 shows the magnetic field (y-component) around both conductors at a frequency of 100Hz.
Fig. 62: Magnetic field (y-component), both conducting 1000A, f=100Hz
Fig. 62 shows a large area of relatively homogeneous field between the two conductors. This behaviour is very distinctive for frequencies greater than about 100Hz, compare to Fig. 60. In the vicinity of the corners of the conductors however, a greater field gradient can be seen. 52
Chapter 3
3.3. Case of Failure In order to investigate the field in the case of failure of one of the conductors, the simulation is run for only one conductor additionally carrying the current of the faulty conductor. The resulting magnetic field is the indication for a fault of one of the conductors and has to be reliably detected by the sensor. Fig. 63 shows the field distribution for the case of fault in the right conductor at f=100Hz.
Fig. 63: Left conductor carrying 2000A, right conductor 0A, f=100Hz
The resulting field distribution between the two copper bars from Fig. 63 appears to be relatively homogeneous. Fig. 64 shows the distribution of the y-component of the magnetic field in dependency of the x-coordinate between the two conductors for different frequencies.
53
Chapter 3
Fig. 64: Hy in dependency on x coordinate, only one conductor carrying 2000A
Fig. 64 clearly shows that for frequencies greater than about 100Hz, the field is fairly independent of the location in x. This behaviour can be explained with the additional influence of eddy currents circulating in the right conductor. In Fig. 65, it can be seen that the induced eddy currents that circulate in the right conductor also show skin effect behaviour for higher frequencies. The resulting distribution of positive current density in the corners of the conductor and negative current density in the middle of the faulty conductor contribute to a relatively homogenous field between the conductors. Induced currents and skin effect are thus the major reasons for the resulting homogeneity of the magnetic field pattern between the conductors.
54
Chapter 3
Fig. 65: Total current density (z-component) at 200Hz, only left conductor carrying 2000A
In order to estimate the equalizing influence of the faulty conductor, a simulation of a single copper conductor of the same geometry was carried out, Fig. 66.
Fig. 66: Magnetic field around a single conductor (100Hz, 2000A)
To compare the equalizing effect of the second conductor, Hy is plotted similarly to Fig. 64 for a range of frequencies. The result is shown in Fig. 67.
55
Chapter 3
Fig. 67: Hy in dependency on x coordinate, single conductor carrying 2000A
The comparison of Fig. 64 and Fig. 67 clearly shows that the second conductor greatly homogenizes the magnetic field between the two bars. Following, also the magnetic field distribution along the y-axis (x=0) is investigated. Therefore, the magnetic field (y-component) is plotted for: a) the case of failure, when only the left conductor is conducting. (Hy along the yaxis for x=0, distance to both conductors is 15mm)
Fig. 68: Hy along the y-axis for x=0, two conductors (I1=2000A)
56
Chapter 3
b) the single conductor at a distance equal to above (15mm) :
Fig. 69: Hy along the y-axis at 15mm from the single conductor (2000A)
Comparing Fig. 68 and Fig. 69, it can clearly be seen that the presence of the second conductor also significantly equalizes the magnetic field along the y-axis for higher frequencies. For frequencies above 100Hz the magnetic field is practically independent of the location of the sensor. 3.4. Conclusion Concluding the results of the simulation, one can say that the design with two parallel conductors of rectangular cross-section relatively close to each other greatly equalizes the magnetic field between them. This effect is noticeable when both conductors are conducting, as well as for the case of failure, when only one conductor carries the current. The magnetic field equalizes in magnitude at higher frequencies for a wide area (in x-and y-direction) between the conductors resulting a large area of relatively homogeneous field. This induced homogeneity makes the correct placement of the magnetic field sensor uncritical. The resulting field per current in the centre position of the conductors is about 3.2 higher than 100Hz, compare Fig. 68. Fig. 64 and Fig. 68 also show that the resulting magnetic field for frequencies greater than 100Hz is almost frequency-independent. This frequency-independence of the magnetic field together with the relative homogeneity of the magnetic field makes this build-up favourable to detect a fault with great safety. The magnetic field is
Am for frequencies A
57
Chapter 3
virtually frequency- and location-independent only representing the currents running in both conductors. The simulation also shows that the definitely best point to place the sensor is right in the middle and at equidistance to the conductors. A placement between the edges of the conductors exposes the sensor to a much greater field gradient and a higher frequency-dependence and is therefore not favourable. Another result of the simulation is, that the field gives a very flat frequency response into the MHz range, which is important to detect a failure within microseconds. That also means, that non-sinusoidal currents, as they are expected in the actual application with fast switching IGBTs, can equally be measured. Everything mentioned makes the proposed geometry favourable for the detection of current faults in both conductors. It has to be noticed that the described favourable behaviour is geometry-dependent. Different cross-sections and distances exhibit different equalization characteristics.
58
Chapter 4
Experiments
4. Experiments
4.1. The Sensors The chosen technique to measure the magnetic field and thus the current is to use a magnetic field sensor exploiting the Faraday effect. Two such sensors are available in the department of Electrical Engineering at KTH. These sensors have been developed by Hans Sohlstrm in 1990 within a project at KTH [Svan90].
Fig. 70: Faraday sensor head
These sensors use a folded design with two multimode fibres (Cladding=140m, Core=100m) fixed in a plastic jacket. The polarizers are fixed at the ends of the fibres. A gradient index lens collimates the polarized light to a reflective gold layer on the backside of the Faraday film. The reflected light beam again transverses the Faraday film and the second polarizer and is focused into the second multimode fibre, compare Fig. 71. The two available sensors have a similar physical appearance and will following be named Sensor I and Sensor II.
Fig. 71: Schematic of the used Faraday sensor
59
Chapter 4
Experiments
Also the appendant electronic circuitry with a light source (InGaAs diode, =1300nm), a photo detector and an amplifier is available. All components are mounted in a box with two optical connectors for the sensor fibres, three connectors for the power supply (U=15V, ground) and a BNC connector for the signal output. This device will following be called amplifier box. The fibre-optic connectors on the sensors were of an obsolete kind and had to be replaced with SMA fibre-optic connectors to match the amplifier box. By connecting the fibres with the connectors to the amplifier box, a big difference in the output signal level was found every time the connectors are screwed to the connection threads of the box. This could be explained with alignment errors in the connectors or problems with the optic quality on the fibre end. The zero-field output voltage (U0) is therefore always different when the fibres are reconnected. The connection to the detector is uncritical because the sensitive area of the detector is much bigger than the emitting area of the LED. All sensor characteristics, even the used Faraday materials of the two available sensors were completely unknown. Hence the sensor characteristics had to be determined. 4.2. Characterization of the Sensors In order to use the sensors as reliable magnetic field sensors, or in this case as current fault sensors, their properties have to be known. But, since the available sensors are only used to make first tests in order to prove that the proposed technique to detect current faults is applicable in praxis, not all sensor characteristics have to be precisely determined. The most important properties of the sensor are its sensitivity, linearity and temperature dependency. 4.2.1. Sensitivity The sensitivity of a sensor is the ratio of output signal or response of the instrument to a change of input or measured variable [Copp85]. Here, the input variable is the magnetic field strength or magnetic flux density and the output signal is the corresponding change of the output voltage. In order to correlate the input measurand to the output signal, the output voltage has to be related to the change of a known magnetic field. Therefore, an alterable, homogeneous magnetic field has to be generated. Such a field can easily be produced in a coil. The magnetic field in a coil can be directly modified by changing the current in the coil. For that purpose a coil with properties as in Fig. 72 was used.
60
Chapter 4
Experiments
r1=30mm - inside radius of the coil r2=52mm - outside radius of the coil l=51mm - length of the coil N=1100 - number of windings of the coil I x1, x2 - current in the coil in amperes - distances, on axis, from the ends of the solenoid to the magnetic field measurement point
Fig. 72: Schematic cross section of a solenoid of finite length and radial thickness
The axial magnetic field in a finite solenoid can be calculated for any point along the axis of the solenoid using the following formula [Denn06]:
2 r22 + x 12 + r2 r22 + x 2 + r2 0 In x 1ln 2 B= x 2 ln 2 2 2( r2 r1 ) r1 + x 12 + r1 r1 + x 2 + r1
Equation (11)
where n is the number of turns of wire per unit length in the solenoid. N (n = = 21569 ) l For the magnetic field measurement point at the centre of the solenoid, x1=(-x2), the formula reduces to:
r22 + ( l / 2 ) 2 + r2 0 IN ln 2 B= 2( r2 r1 ) r1 + ( l / 2 ) 2 + r1
Equation (12)
This point is used for the calibration measurements. Inserting the data of the coil into equation (12) at a current of I=1A gives magnetic field-current relation of
mT B = 14.45 A
or
H = 11505
m A
Equation (13)
All following sensitivity calibration measurements were done in the centre of the coil. The change of output voltage of the sensor will subsequently be related to the change of the magnetic field using the relation above. In order to validate the theoretical field in the coil, a test measurement with a Hall sensor element was done in the field of the coil. Due to geometrical reasons the sensor could not be placed in the centre of the coil, hence the field had to be measured at the end of the coil (x2=l and x1=0). Using equation (11) for x2=l and x1=0 gives a value of B=10,56mT/A. This value coincides with the measured values
61
Chapter 4
Experiments
within the relatively large uncertainty of the instrument and therefore the previously done calculations and relations can be considered to be correct. All calibration measurements were made with the set-up shown in Fig. 73.
Fig. 73: Measurement set-up for sensitivity determination
In order to determine the sensor sensitivity, linearity and the rotation of the two polarizers to each other, B-U curves for high magnetic fields were recorded. The magnetic field was generated by a direct current (Imax=4A), supplied by a DC current source, running through the above described coil. The sensing element was placed in the exact centre of the coil. Fig. 74 and Fig. 75 show the B-U characteristic curves of sensor I and sensor II for a large range of field. The maximal field generated by the current source (Imax=4A) is corresponds to B=57.8mT using equation (13). Both measurements were made for a field cycle starting at 0mT 57.8mT +57.8mT 0mT.
62
Chapter 4
Characteristic curve sensor I
Experiments
1155 1105 1055

U [mV]
1005 955 905 855 -60 -40 -20 0

B [m T]
20
40
60
Fig. 74: Characteristic curve of Sensor I, large fields (0mT -57.8mT +57.8mT 0mT)
Sensor I shows a relatively linear curve and neglectable hysteresis. However, a drift due to temperature increase during the measurement can be seen.
Charcteristic curve sensor II 730 700
U [mV]
670 640 610 580 550 -60,00
-40,00
-20,00
0,00
B [m T]
20,00
40,00
60,00
Fig. 75: Characteristic curve of Sensor II, large fields (0mT -57.8mT +57.8mT 0mT)
Sensor II exhibits a more non-linear characteristic for larger fields and a hysteresis for small fields. Sensor I shows the more linear behaviour and is free of hysteresis. Both sensors exhibit similar sensitivities. From the slope and shape of the characteristic curves, it can also be concluded that in both sensors polarizer and analyzer have an orientation of 45 to each other. This feature is advantageous because also the
63
Chapter 4
Experiments
direction of the field and therefore the information about which of the parallel IGBTs in test set-up failed can be determined from the sensor signal. The resulting sensitivity for sensor I and an average sensitivity for sensor II for high fields are given in Table 5. Because of the fact that the zero-field output (U0) of the sensor differs each time the fibres are reconnected to the amplifier box, the sensitivity is rather given in % per field than in signal voltage per field.
Table 5:Sensitivities for large fields
Sensor I (U0=1.011V)
Sensor II (U0=0.858V) 0.228
Sensitivity [%/mT] Sensitivity [mV/mT]

*
0.250
2.52*
is different for different U0, here given for certain U0
1.96*
The magnetic field of the test set-up in chapter 3 is expected to be smaller than shown in Fig. 74 and Fig. 75. Therefore sensitivity measurements of a lower field range of 7000A/m or 8.7mT (corresponding to about 600mA in the coil) were made. The results of the measured sensitivities are shown in Table 6.
Table 6: Sensitivities for small fields
Sensor I (U0=0.795V)
Sensor II (U0=0.693V) 0.147

*
0.212
1.69*
1.02*
It can be seen that the sensitivities of both sensors are smaller for low magnetic fields. Especially sensor II exhibits a lower sensitivity due to its stronger non-linear characteristic, compare Fig. 75. Fig. 76 shows the characteristic curve of an undoped YIG sensor that was presented in a work conducted at KTH [Svan90].
64
Chapter 4
Experiments
Fig. 76: Characteristic curve of an undoped YIG sensor [Svan90]
The sensitivity of this sensor was re-calculated from the graph to be S=0.267 %/mT. This sensitivity is similar to the sensitivity measured for sensor I (S1=0.250 %/mT) for a similar range of field. Furthermore, the two curves have a similar linearity and the dimensions of the Faraday film of the sensor (area of 2mm2mm and 300m thickness) coincide with those of sensor I. It can therefore be assumed that sensor I is the in [Svan90] described undoped YIG sensor. This sensor has two plastic polarizers (Polaroid) with a 45-orientation and a structure as described in Fig. 71. Sensor II, however, can not be clearly matched to one of the sensors that were developed at KTH. The sensitivity of sensor II is close to that of the mentioned pure YIG sensor but its characteristic curve and the dimensions of the Faraday film (area of 1mm1mm) do not match one of the earlier presented sensors. Sensor II might be one of the substituted YIG sensors that were developed at KTH but can not be assigned to one of them. 4.2.2. Temperature Behaviour In order to determine the influence of the temperature on the sensor signal, the output signal for both sensors was measured at different ambient temperatures. Therefore the sensor was placed in a temperature-controlled chamber. The output voltage of both sensors was measured for a temperature range from T=10C to T=60C at zero field. For the actual application a wider temperature range has to be covered but this is only to give some indication of the temperature influence. The resulting temperature curves are shown in Fig. 77 and Fig. 78 below.
65
Chapter 4
Temperature response Sensor I
0,815 0,81 0,805 0,8
Experiments
U [V]
0,795 0,79 0,785 0,78 0,775 0,77 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Tem perature [C]
Fig. 77: Temperature response Sensor I
Temperature response Sensor II

660 650 640 630 U [V] 620 610 600 590 580 570 560 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 Tem perature [C]
Fig. 78: Temperature response Sensor II
From the graphs can be concluded that the temperature has a large influence on the output signal of both sensors. Sensor I exhibits a strong non-linear, somewhat chaotic temperature dependency. The same holds for sensor II but with a more linear temperature dependency. The maximal temperature drift for sensor I is about U=0.25%/K and the average temperature drift for sensor II is around U=0.28%/K. That means that even small temperature changes result in a larger voltage change than the signal from a weak magnetic field would be. In order to reliably and precisely measure magnetic fields with these sensors, they either have to be held at a constant temperature or some kind of temperature compensation has to be done.
66
Chapter 4
Experiments
A possible change of sensitivity with temperature was not determined. This probable effect can only be neglected when the temperature is kept constant. 4.2.3. Modification of the Electronics Concluding the results of the sensor sensitivity measurements and the temperature behaviour, the response of the sensor system has to be changed in order to get a reliable signal for small magnetic fields. Significant sensor parameters such as amplification and bandwidth can be altered by tuning the amplifier circuitry of the amplifier box. A schematic of the electronic circuit in the amplifier box is shown in Fig. 79.
Fig. 79:Schematic of the amplifier box
The first amplifier stage acts as a transimpedance amplifier converting the current from the light detection diode into a voltage. The second amplifier stage is an inverting operational amplifier amplifying the voltage level from the first stage. The signal response of the sensor can be increased by increasing the total amplification of the circuitry. The voltage amplification of the second stage can be calculated using the following equation:
V = R2 RS
Equation (14)
In order to reduce the influence of the temperature drift, the second amplifier stage can be AC-coupled. That can be done by inserting a capacitor CS between RS and the operational amplifier stage, Fig. 79. RS and CS behave like a high pass with a cutoff frequency of
67
Chapter 4
f3 = 1 2 C SR S
Experiments
Equation (15)
To reduce the influence of the high frequency noise, the upper bandwidth can be limited by altering the relation C1 to R1 and C2 to R2. Both RC links behave like a low pass:
f1 = 1 2C 1R1
and
f2 =
1 2C 2 R 2
Equation (16)
The initial values for the bandwidth and amplification are calculated from the values in Fig. 79 using equation (15) and equation (16): V=1.45 f1=234051Hz f2=428758Hz In order to get a better signal from the electronics, some changes in the circuitry are made. A useful new value for the amplification would be V15, which results in an about tenfold zero-field voltage of the initial output level U0 but without exceeding the supply voltage level of 15V. In order to suppress the slow parameter changes, i.e. the temperature drift, a high pass is introduced into the circuit by AC-coupling the circuit, i.e. introducing a capacity CS. A suitable value for the lower limit of the bandwidth would be f3=flow10Hz. The upper bandwidth limit is to minimize high frequency noise and eliminate any risk for instability in the amplifier. The design parameter for the upper bandwidth is the maximal time delay of the sensor to the signal. A fault in one of the current lines should be detected in less than 3s. The two upper bandwidth limiting first order links in the circuitry are C1,R1 and C2,R2. Both act as low pass filters, but only the one with the lower cut-off frequency will significantly influence the bandwidth limit. Both RC links can be treated as first-order low pass circuits. The rise time (tr) is the time for the leading edge of a pulse to rise from 10% to 90% of its final value (Fig. 80) and is the limiting factor for resolving the demanded 3s.
Fig. 80: Rise time
68
Chapter 4
Experiments
The rise time is related to the bandwidth by the following approximate equation [Ghau85]:
BW t r = 0.35
Equation (17)
Not only the rise time, but also the time delay of the amplifiers and following signal processing electronic has to be regarded. Therefore a rise time of about 2s is acceptable, leaving a delay of 1s for appending electronic circuitry. Thus, the minimal upper bandwidth to resolve 2s is
BW = f up = 0.35 0.35 = 175000Hz 2s tr
Equation (18)
The desired properties of the sensor electronics (V15, f310Hz, fup175000Hz) were attained by altering the capacities and resistances according to equation (15) to equation (18).
Table 7: Resistors, capacitors and properties of the tuned electronic box
As a compromise, values for the resistors and capacitors were chosen as below R1=100k (unchanged) C1=6.8pF (unchanged) RS=2k CS=10F R2=30k C2=15pF. (unchanged)
resulting in new properties for the sensor electronics as below V=15 f1=fup=234051Hz f3=flow=7.96Hz f2=353677Hz tr=1.5s
These properties promise a tenfold sensitivity and a negligible temperature influence on the signal. The rise time allows to detect a fault within 1.5s, the response time of the Faraday material to a magnetic field is in the high MHz range and is therefore negligible. A response of the sensor in the range of a few microseconds should therefore be possible. A complete sensitivity analysis and phase delay measurement with the changed electronics is done in the following chapters.
69
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Experiments
4.2.4. Noise The sensor output has a noise level in the range of about 3mV. This noise arises from the shot noise of the detector and noise in the detection amplifiers (probably dominant). The level of noise can be minimized by using low-noise photo detectors and high-quality operational amplifiers. The noise level however, is not a big problem for the current fault detection, whereas precise field measurement is only possible using the averaged waveform measurement function of the oscilloscope. 4.2.5. Characterization of the Sensor Sensitivity The expected field for the actual application and the following measurements is much smaller than the previously measured field range of 57.8mT. Therefore, a more precise measurement with the tuned circuitry was done for small fields. The simulation in chapter 3 predicts a field of around 6400A/m for currents of 2000A, that corresponds to B=8.04mT, which is created in the coil at a current of only 556mA. Fig. 81 and Fig. 82 show the characteristic curves of sensor I and sensor II for the range of the expected field with the tuned electronic circuitry. In order to get a signal for the DC characterization of the curve, the AC-coupling capacitor CS was bypassed.
Characteristic Curve Sensor I
8,4 8,35 8,3 U [mV] 8,25 8,2 8,15 8,1 8,05 -9,0 -7,0 -5,0 -3,0 -1,0 1,0 3,0 5,0 7,0 9,0
B [m T]
Fig. 81: Characteristic curve Sensor I, small fields
70
Chapter 4
Characteristic Curve Sensor II
4,93 4,91 4,89 U [mV] 4,87 4,85 4,83 4,81 4,79 4,77 -9,0 -7,0 -5,0 -3,0 -1,0 1,0 B [m T] 3,0 5,0 7,0 9,0
Experiments
Fig. 82: Characteristic curve Sensor II, small fields
The characteristic curve of sensor I shows an almost linear dependency of the output voltage to the current in the magnetic field. Sensor II exhibits a linear behaviour in one direction of the magnetic field but a non-linear dependency in the other direction. This behaviour might be caused by effects related to domain wall movement. For this smaller range of field, sensitivities as below are measured.
Table 8: Sensitivities measured for small fields
Sensor I (U0=8.231V) Sensitivity [%/mT] Sensitivity [mV/mT]

*
Sensor II (U0=4.849V) 0.152 7.3517*
0.212 17.46*
The following sensitivity and validation measurements (chapter 4.3) however, were made for changing magnetic fields caused by alternating currents. The rms (root mean square) value of the AC-coupled signal is measured with an oscilloscope. It is therefore more accurate to measure the sensitivity of the sensors the same way by relating the acquired rms signal of the oscilloscope to the rms value of the coil current. By doing that, influences of hysteresis effects and not perfect sinusoidal waveforms are reduced. Also the zero-level drift due to the temperature change, that occurred during the DC measurements, is eliminated. Fig. 83 shows a plot for the measured points of Sensor I. Each point in the graph resembles the waveform, the sensor signal gives for a whole cycle.
71
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AC-Sensitivity Sensor I
140 120
Experiments
Urms [mV]
100 80 60 40 20 0 0,00 1,00 2,00 3,00
Brms [mT]
4,00
5,00
6,00
7,00
8,00
9,00
Fig. 83: AC Sensitivity for Sensor I
This graph has a linear characteristic. The resulting AC-sensitivity is shown in Table 9.
Table 9: AC-sensitivities measured for small fields
Sensor I (U0=7.73V)

*
0.209
16.14*
Further tests however, showed that both sensors are not only sensitive to magnetic fields in the axis of propagation of the light but also in one axis perpendicular to the axis of light in the plane of the YIG crystal.
Fig. 84: Sensitive axes of the sensor
72
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That is surprising since this behaviour was not expected. In order to characterize this behaviour, the sensor signal was investigated at different angles to a homogeneous magnetic field which was created by the coil. First, the sensor was brought into the magnetic field with its sensitive y-axis perpendicular to the field and then was rotated around its y-axis with the angle , Fig. 85.
Fig. 85: Sensitivity test in plane of the film
The resulting curve in a static field of about 2.5mT is shown in Fig. 86.
U(beta)
8,13 8,11 U [V] 8,09 8,07 8,05 8,03
13 5 18 0 22 5 27 0 31 5 36 0 45 90 0
beta []
Fig. 86: Measured in-plane sensitivity U()
This curve has a sinusoidal characteristic. A small voltage drop with increasing is caused by the temperature increase of the coil during the measurement. The sinusoidal behaviour has similarities to the polarization rotation, a simplified longitudinal Kerr effect would cause. This effect occurs in reflection of linearly polarized light on a magnetized surface with the magnetization in the plane of incidence. The in-plane magnetization results from the rotation of the magnetization domains in direction of the applied field, compare Fig. 16. The direction of the rotation changes when the magnetization direction is opposed. This effect is zero at incident angles of 0 and 90 but the magnitude of the rotational angle of the Kerr effect for a ferromagnetic material is generally between 10-4 to 10-3 degrees with a 73
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maximum circular rotation at incident angles of about 65 [Mans02]. The transverse Kerr effect however, does not rotate the polarization, but changes the reflectivity of the sample and is of lower magnitude. For comparison, a theoretical calculation of the longitudinal Kerr effect is shown together with the measured data in Fig. 87.
U(beta) measured and calculated
8,13 8,11
Measured Calculation
U [V]
8,09 8,07 8,05 8,03

18 0 22 5 13 5 27 0 31 5 36 0 45 90 0
beta []
Fig. 87: In-plane sensitivity compared to theoretical longitudinal Kerr effect
The following equation was used to represent the theoretic behaviour of the longitudinal Kerr effect:
I = I 0 cos 2 (cos( ) Kerr 45 )
Equation (19)
Where Kerr is the polarization rotation caused by the Kerr effect. The variables intensity I0, Kerr rotation Kerr and the axis of have been altered to match the measured curve. The resulting Kerr rotation Kerr is 0.0029, which is in the range of the rotation a longitudinal Kerr effect would have. Higher fields exceeding about 5mT however, result in a more complex non-sinusoidal curve. From this we can say that a Kerr effect occurring in the interface between the YIG crystal and the gold layer or, more probably on the lens side of the crystal (compare Fig. 71) could be the cause of these results. A delamination of the epoxy bond, creating a YIG-to-air interface could also have contributed. Other explanations are possible. Further investigation of this however, fall outside this work. This sensitive direction is defined as the z-axis. When the sensor is now fixed in the r orientation z H and is rotated around the z-axis with the angle (Fig. 88), the sensor only responds to the field part in y-direction exhibiting a sinusoidal graph r with a maximum at y || H .
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Fig. 88: Rotation with in a homogenous field
That indicates that the sensor is sensitive in two directions. For the use of these sensors, it is important to know if both sensitivities superimpose and if the sensitive axes are perpendicular to each other. That can be done by comparing a theoretical superimposition of both sensitive axis with experimental measurements. Therefore the sensitivities in the y-axis (Sy) and in the z-axis (Sz) are measured. Now a theoretical rotation of the sensor with the angle from 0 to 180 around the xaxis (compare Fig. 88) is calculated with following function:
f ( ) = S y sin( ) + Sz cos( )
Equation (20)
This function sums up both components in dependency of . All measurements were made at the end of the coil with an alternating current of 50Hz and Ir.m.s.=300mA corresponding to a field of about 3mT. This proceeding is feasible since both sensitivities shown sinusoidal characteristics. The measured values for Sy and Sz are presented in Table 10.
Table 10: Perpendicular sensitivities in sensor I and sensor II (B3mT)
Sy [mV]
Sensor I
Sz [mV] 70 82
52
Sensor II
23
Fig. 89 shows the theoretical calculations of sensor I and sensor II with the values from the table above.
75
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Experiments
Fig. 89: Theoretical sensitivity curve in dependency on alpha, Sensor I and Sensor II
This theoretical experiment was repeated in praxis rotating the sensor around its xaxis and measuring marked values such as the maximum response voltage Umax, the angle for the maximum response max, and the angle for zero response 0. It has to be noted, that these measurements were not very precise because no mechanical fixation was used. The theoretical and experimental results in Table 11 however, indicate that both sensitivities superimpose and the two sensitive axes are perpendicular to each other.
Table 11: Comparison theoretical and experimental results
Sensor I theoretical max 0 Umax 36,6 126,6 87,2mV experimental 38 127 88mV 15,7 105,7
Sensor II theoretical experimental 18 105 86mV
85,2mV
Although the sensitivity in the z-axis is greater than the desirable sensitivity in the yaxis, it will not be used for field measurement since the occurring effect is unknown and non-linear for fields above around 5mT. From the characterization results of both sensors it can be concluded that it is definitely favourable to use sensor I for further experiments and measurements. Sensor I shows a 40% higher sensitivity in the y-direction and a lower sensitivity in the z-direction than sensor II. Sensor I also has a more linear characteristic curve and exhibits less hysteresis and will therefore be used for the following measurements.
76
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4.3. Validation of the Simulation Results The fact that the sensors are sensitive in two perpendicular directions does not make them unusable as current fault sensors in the proposed geometry between two parallel conductors. The geometry of the proposed application with two parallel conductors (compare chapter 3.) exhibits only magnetic field components in the x- and y-direction, Fig. 90. Only very low fields in the direction of the current (z-axis) are expected between the two conductor bars. That enables a measurement of only the y-component if the sensor is oriented in a way so that its sensitive z-axis is parallel to the direction of the current.
Fig. 90: Sensor and conductor coordinate systems
Proper alignment of the sensors z-axis parallel to the direction of the current enables measurement of the y-component only. 4.3.1. Measurement Set-up For validation of the simulation results and to confirm the predicted behaviour of the magnetic field, a measurement set-up similar to a possible industrial application was built, Fig. 91. A current source with the frequency of 50Hz can be connected to the ends of both conductors. A non-conducting medium separates the two conductors by 30mm.
Fig. 91: Set-up with two separated conductors
77
Chapter 4
Experiments
Instead of two copper bars as simulated in chapter 3, two aluminium bars with the same cross sectional area of 10100mm2 and a length of 620mm were used. Because copper and aluminium have different electrical conductivities, the FEM simulation was re-run with aluminium as the conductor material. The resulting magnetic field pattern predicts a similar behaviour to the simulation results with copper as the conductor material. However, the equalizing effect with the aluminium occurs at higher frequencies and can be seen in the simulation results in Fig. 92. The lower electrical conductivity of the aluminium (Al=3.774107S/m compared to Cu=5.998107S/m) results in smaller eddy currents and a less distinct skin effect that causes the current concentration in the corners of the conductor. Consequently, the equalisation effect between the aluminium bars occurs at higher frequencies than for copper as the conductor material.
Fig. 92: Comparison of the field pattern (Cu vs. Al) obtained by FEM simulation, f=50Hz
Because of its more linear behaviour and greater sensitivity in the y-direction, sensor I is used to measure the magnetic field pattern. In order to only measure the ycomponent of the magnetic field, the second sensitive direction (z-direction) has to be determined and aligned parallel to the conductors in direction of the current flow, compare Fig. 90. The magnetic field was measured along the y-axis over the entire width of the conductor from one side to the other side (from y=-0.5 to y=0.5, resembling the coordinate system of the simulation). The measured output voltage of the sensing unit was transferred into a value for the magnetic field strength according to equation (13).
78
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These conditions of the experimental set-up are similar to those in the simulation, except that the length of the conductor is not infinite and potential secondary fields might also influence the current in the conductor or superimpose the field pattern. Furthermore, the signal will not only be the response to the y-component of the field and the y-sensitivity of the sensor. There will also be a contribution of fields and sensitivities in other directions due to a not-perfect alignment. The so measured magnetic field pattern between two conductors, whereof only one is carrying a net current, and the simulated magnetic field pattern of two aluminium conductors is shown in Fig. 93. The current in the conductor is Irms=20A and the measured voltage Urms is directly translated to a field Hrms. The sensor signal was measured with an oscilloscope using an averaged cycle-rms value. That was necessary because the maximum signal (U=1.83V) was within the noise level. The measured values correspond to the amplitude of the magnetic field strength caused by a sinusoidal current of Imax=20A.
Fig. 93: Comparison simulated and measured field, two conductors
Fig. 93 clearly shows a similarity of the simulated field pattern and the measured values. The measured curve indicates an equalizing behaviour in the middle position as indicated by the simulation. With copper as conductor material or at higher frequencies, this behaviour would be more distinct, compare Fig. 92. In order to give the simulation results more significance, a second magnetic field pattern measurement for the case of a single aluminium conductor (compare Fig. 69) was performed. The measured magnetic field pattern and the simulated field distribution are shown in Fig. 94. 79
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Fig. 94: Comparison simulated and measured field, one conductor
Again, the measured field pattern reflects the predicted field distribution. A slide asymmetry in the field pattern can be seen which is due to the not perfectly aligned z-axis of the sensor to the direction of the current and hence, resulting sensitivity contributions in opposite directions (positive and negative) at the two edges of the conductors. Fig. 95 shows the magnetic field in the centre position between the conductors (x=0, y=0) in dependency of the current (fault condition).
Magnetic field between the conductors
3,5 3 2,5
U [mV]
2 1,5 1 0,5 0 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
I [m A]
Fig. 95: Magnetic field dependency on current in one conductor
80
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Experiments
The field linearly increases with the current in the conductor as predicted by the simulation. The magnitude of the simulated field however, is about 15% lower than that of the measured field. The reason for this discrepancy has not been determined. A difference of the calculated and actual field in the coil for sensitivity determination as well as a temperature difference between the measurements and inaccuracies in the used measurement devices might have contributed to the difference. 4.3.2. Conclusion of the Simulation and Measured Results The experiments proved that the simulation is applicable for designing the conductors an their arrangement, as well as to predict the magnetic field pattern. The equalizing effect of the magnetic field between the conductors has been demonstrated. The simulated magnetic field strength is about 15% lower than the measured values but still gives a good indication of the expected field strength. The equalization of the field in terms of magnitude, the predicted independency of the field of frequencies f>100Hz as well as the expected flat frequency response make the proposed geometry with two parallel conductors advantageous for current fault measurements. 4.4. Phase Shift Measurements The time delay of the sensor signal to a change of the current in a conductor is an essential parameter for this application. Therefore, the phase shift of the sensor signal to the current in the conductor was measured. The phase shift measurements were done by comparing the two signals at the oscilloscope. Channel one shows the sensor signal from the amplifier box. Channel two is the voltage from a coaxial shunt resistor which is in series with a load (200) and a low-inductance coil which generates the magnetic field for the sensor. A highfrequency power source (fmax=10kHz) was used to generate a measurable current. Due to the high pass that was necessary to AC-couple the signal, a phase shift occurs at low frequencies. The phase shift measurements were therefore made for higher frequencies. Fig. 96 shows that the value of the phase shift does not change with increasing the frequencies higher than 8kHz, thus this value is the time delay of the sensor to a current fault.
81
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Phase shift
Experiments
2,25 2,2
phase shift [s]
2,15 2,1 2,05 2 1,95 3000 5000
f [Hz]
8000
10000
Fig. 96: Phase shift
Fig. 97 shows the measured curves of the sensor signal and the shunt voltage imported from the oscilloscope.
Fig. 97: Screen shot of the phase shift (f=10kHz)
The phase delay between the current and the sensor signal was measured to be tdelay=2.06s. This agrees reasonably well with the calculated rise time of the amplifier box of tr=1.5s. The additional delay may be caused by the photo detector and the second low pass that was neglected in the bandwidth calculation in chapter 4.2.3. A faster response can be achieved by using faster amplifiers and changing the bandwidth.
82
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4.5. Current Fault Measurements In this chapter, a provisional parallel conductor geometry is investigated in terms of magnetic field pattern and applicability for current fault tests. Electronic circuitry is designed to detect a fault in one of the lines from the analogue sensor signal and output a digital flag for the corresponding fault. The sensor with appending evaluation electronics is tested in an IGBT-switched set-up to examine the capability of the sensor to immediately detect occurring current faults. 4.5.1. Test Conductor Set-up In order to test the sensors under conditions as close to the actual application as possible, a set-up for high currents and fast switching IGBTs is build at the electrical engineering department of KTH within the thesis work of Martin Skoglund [Skog06]. This set-up will provide currents of up to 180A and will be able to switch them at frequencies of 200Hz. In order to test the sensors in this set-up, a different conductor geometry was built by Martin Skoglund. Two thin copper plates with a half-circular profile are separated by a thin insulator foil, Fig. 98. This geometry is smaller in dimensions and promises higher fields.
Fig. 98: Dimensions and arrangement of the conductors
For fault measuring, the sensor is placed in the centre of the circular conductor halves. 4.5.2. Magnetic Field Measurement Results Since the above mentioned conductor geometry is used in the set-up to detect the current faults, it has to be investigated in terms of the magnetic field at the sensor position. The magnetic field in the middle of the two conductor half-circles can approximately be calculated by assuming that the field caused in the centre of a halfcircle of one conductor roughly equals half the field in a solenoid with the same dimensions. The influence of the second conductor is neglected.
83
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Experiments
The magnetic field in the centre of a finite solenoid with zero winding thickness calculates as:
B = 0 N I l
Equation (21)
In this case, the number of the windings is N=1, the length of the solenoid is l=0.02m and I is the current in the solenoid (conductor). That results in a magnetic field strength in the centre of the half-circle conductor of
H= NI 2l
Equation (22)
This value resembles the expected field in the case of failure. In normal working condition, the field in the centre should be zero due to the axial symmetry of the structure. The following graph shows the measured values for fault and no fault as well as the calculated field for a fault using equation (22).
Magnetic field, test set-up
900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 One conducting Calculated Both conducting
H [A/m]
I [A]
Fig. 99: Magnetic field in test set-up
The results show that the magnetic field for the case of failure is much higher than for the no fault case. The no-failure-field can be even smaller when the sensor is precisely placed in the centre of the conductors and no second sensitivity axis would influence the results. It should also be noticed that in the case of a fault, the fault current will be twice the current of normal working condition. It should therefore easily be possible to detect a fault by setting the detection threshold between the expected values. The calculated curve (Fig. 99) gives a good indication of the expected field.
84
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The placing of the sensor, however, is expected to be more crucial for this geometry. Fig. 100 shows the magnetic field pattern for an infinitely long straight copper bar with the cross-section of the actual conductor (120mm2).
Fig. 100: Plot and image of Hy of the test-geometry, I=20A
Fig. 100 shows that induced currents and skin effect in this geometry are much smaller, especially due to the small thickness of the conductor (1mm). These effects are only significant at frequencies greater than about 1000Hz. It can be concluded that equation (22) holds to calculate fields up to about 1000Hz since no change in the magnetic field can be seen for lower frequencies. 4.5.3. Design of the Detection Electronics In order to interface the sensor signal to the test set-up, the analogue output signal from the sensor has to be edited. The fault handling logic of the test set-up requires CMOS level signals of 15V. A digital high is to be fed to the logic in each case of a fault to immediately switch the corresponding IGBT. Therefore, an electronic circuit was built, Fig. 101. The sensor signal passes through an amplifier and is then fed to two comparators. This first amplifier was introduced as an attempt to isolate the input voltage from possible transients caused by feedback from the comparator output. The used open breadboard construction however, still caused signal oscillations when the comparators switched. Both comparators compare the signal to a changeable reference signal. Comparator 1 gives a high output if the signal exceeds a positive reference signal and the output of comparator 2 goes into the high-state if the signal is lower than the negative reference signal. Both outputs are fed into an RS flip-flop after passing an necessary
85
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Experiments
inverter. The RS latch is necessary for the set-up logic to indicate that a failure has occurred. The latch can be mechanically reset by switch S1 and switch S2.
Fig. 101: Comparator and latch circuit for failure indication
86
Chapter 4
Experiments
Both comparators have a positive feedback (feedback resistor R2=1M) to limit the disturbing influence of the noise at reference level. The resulting hysteresis for comparator 1 (non-inverting hysteresis) is
Hyst .1 = R1( U high U low ) R2 = 100 15 V = 1.5mV 1M
Equation (23)
The resulting inverting hysteresis for comparator 2 is

Hyst. 2 = R 1 ( U high U low ) R1 + R 2 = 100 15 V 1.5mV 100 + 1M
Equation (24)
These values are well below the expected signal of about U91mV (calculated using equation (22) H=4500A/m and the sensitivities from Table 9 U91mV) for the maximal current in the set-up of I=180A . A screen shot of the output signal of comparator 1 can be seen in Fig. 102.
Fig. 102: Comparator 1 signal with hysteresis (positive feedback)
The reference level was set to U45mV. The measured hysteresis of about =1.6mV is in the same scale of the calculated hysteresis of 1.5mV.
87
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4.5.3.1. Delay measurement of the detection electronics The comparator and latching circuit causes an additional time delay to the phase delay of the sensor with the electronic box (tdelay=2.06s), compare chapter 4.4. This additional delay was measured with the oscilloscope giving a step signal to the input of the circuit and comparing it to the latched output O0, Fig. 103.
Fig. 103: Time delay for comparator and latch circuit (=280ns)
The resulting time delay of the circuit was tcircuit=280ns. The resulting overall delay of the sensor and appendant comparator and latching circuit is approximately ttotal=tdelay+tcircuit=2.34s. That enables the sensor to detect an occurring fault in less than the demanded 3s.
88
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4.5.4. Current fault detection In order to test the sensor in an application-like set-up, the sensor was installed in a simplified early version of the set-up built by Martin Skoglund. The half-circular conductor pair with the sensor in the centre was installed in the set-up, Fig. 104.
Fig. 104: Sensor installed in the set-up
This simplified set-up is capable of switching currents of 70A (235A in the nofault condition) at a frequency of 1kHz. Failure handling and triggering from the fault signal to the IGBT drivers was not possible at the time of the test. Therefore, only the sensor signal and the latched fault signal can be displayed and investigated. A simplified schematic of the set-up is shown in Fig. 105.
Fig. 105: Simplified schematic of the set-up
In normal-working condition, both IGBT simultaneously switch 35A each. In case of a fault, only one IGBT continues switching 70A. The magnetic field at the sensor in normal-working condition should be close to zero. In case of a fault (one IGBT is switched off at a random point of time of the switching cycle), the sensor signal is 89
Chapter 4
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proportional to the current in the IGBT that continues switching. Fig. 106 shows an oscilloscope plot of the sensor signal and the latched fault after an induced fault of one of the IGBTs. The expected sensor signal for a fault current of I=70A with the sensor between the half-circular conductors is U37.2mV (calculated using equation (22) H=1750A/m and the measured sensitivity of the sensor). The reference level for fault detection was therefore set to Uref=30mV.
Fig. 106: Sensor signal and latch signal in case of current fault (Uref=-30mV)
It can be seen that the sensor signal increases with the magnetic field (current) after the fault occurs, and latches the fault when the reference voltage is reached. The time delay of the comparator and latching circuit between the signal reaching the reference voltage (Uref=-30mV) and the latched signal is, as measured before, 280ns. Also the rise time of the electronic box seems to agree with the designed value (designed to be tr=1.5s). Only a few test runs were possible, but the sensor with the appending electronics reliably indicated a fault each time it occurred. Normal-working condition with both IGBTs switching simultaneously did not trigger the fault latch. Further tests however, will have to be made with the set-up fully working to compare the fault signal to the IGBT drivers and the current-signals in both IGBTs with the sensor signal. Further experiments with a complete set-up however, could not be made due to time limitations.
90
Chapter 5
Conclusion
5. Conclusion
It has been shown that the proposed technique employing a high-Faraday rotation point sensor using YIG as sensing material is suitable to detect current faults in a parallel conductor geometry. The proposed geometry and detection scheme enables the detection of a current fault in two parallel lines with a single sensor only. Measurements demonstrate that a fast detection of a fault in under 3s is possible. The sensor electronics have been adapted to indicate a fault in either of the lines and interface a CMOS-level protection circuit. A FEM simulation showed the favourable influence of the proposed parallel conductor geometry with intermediate field detection. An equalization of the field in frequency and distribution was predicted by the simulation and proved by magnetic field pattern measurements. First tests with the sensor in an application-similar set-up showed promising results for fast and reliable current fault detection, even for low fields. The proposed optical sensor technique is insensitive to electromagnetic interference and is inherently galvanically insulated. A reliable detection of current faults in highEMI and high-voltage environments should therefore be possible using this technology.
91
Outlook
6. Outlook
The proposed technique for fault detection has been proved to be applicable in high-voltage and high-EMI environments. The performance of the tested sensor however, can be considerably increased. Different Faraday materials, for example substituted YIGs, can be used to obtain higher sensitivities and lower temperature dependencies. Hence, the sensor can also be used in DC-coupling and for static fields. The sensitivity of the device can be further increased using a magnetic concentrator in the form of a partial iron core. The sensor can also be used as a true current sensor in a small air gap of a magnetic concentrator completely encircling the conductor. Optimised electronic amplification circuitry integrated in a printed circuit board and high-quality light sources and detectors can considerably lower the noise level of the device. Faster response to the input signal is possible using faster amplifiers and CMOS logic and a further optimised configuration. The proposed technique for current fault detection is easily integratable, reliable, virtually maintenance-free and potentially low-cost for high-quantity production.
92
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
The presented work was carried out from October 2005 to March 2006 at the Microsystem Technology (KTH) research group at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm. I want especially thank my supervisor at KTH, Ass.-Prof. H. Sohlstrm, for the skilled support and fruitful discussions during my work here. Beyond, I want to thank Kjell Noren for technical support and the entire research group of Microsystem Technology for making the time in Sweden enjoyable. I further want to thank Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dr. h.c. H. Wurmus and Dr.-Ing. S. Hecht of the Technical University of Ilmenau for supervision and for giving me the possibility to write my thesis at KTH. I also want to thank Martin Skoglund for the great cooperation during the project as well as ABB AB, especially Lennart ngquist, who made the whole project possible. Special thanks go to my family, who greatly supported me during my entire studies.
93
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[Taka83] [Taka97]
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[Yang02]
[Yari80]
[Yi00]
[Yi02]
[Yosh01]
[Yosh03]
[Yu02]
100
Symbols and Abbreviations

symbol description unit
B BW C d E f H I I J k l M n n n N r R S t t T U V V
magnetic flux density bandwidth capacity skin depth electric field frequency magnetic field strength current intensity current density material constant (Faraday rotation) length magnetization index of refraction number of turns per unit length turns ratio number of windings radius/distance resistance sensitivity time penetration depth temperature voltage Verdet constant amplification absorption coefficient
T Hz F m V/m Hz A/m A W/m2 A/m2 /A m A/m m s cm C V /Tm cm-1
101

Kerr 0 AMR CMR CT EMI FBG FEM GGG GMR IGBT LMOKE LPE MCD MLD MOKE MR OCTs PMOKE PWM RIG rotation angle (sensitivity measurement) rotation angle (sensitivity measurement) phase difference wavelength Faraday rotation of polarization Kerr rotation of polarization magnetic permeability (vacuum) resistivity electrical conductivity angular frequency Anisotropic Magnetoresistance Colossal Magnetoresistance Current Transformer Electromagnetic Interference Fibre Bragg Grating Finite Element Method Gadolinium Gallium Garnet Giant Magnetoresistance Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor Longitudinal Magneto-Optic Kerr Effect Liquid Phase Epitaxy Magnetic Circular Dichroism Magnetic Linear Dichroism Magneto-Optic Kerr Effect Magnetoresistance Optical Current Transducers Polar Magneto-Optic Kerr Effect Pulse Width Modulation Rare Earth Iron Garnet 102 m H/m /m S/m 1/s

rms SEB SPE SQUID TGG TMOKE YIG root mean square Spun Elliptically Birefringence Solid Phase Epitaxy Superconducting Quantum Interference Device Terbium Gallium Garnet Transverse Magneto-Optic Kerr Effect Yttrium Iron Garnet
103
List of Figures
List of Figures
Fig. 1: Proposed geometry with parallel IGBTs................................................................ 2 Fig. 2: Conventional ABB transformer for high voltages [ABB06]............................... 5 Fig. 3: Scheme of a Rogowski coil [Xiao03] ...................................................................... 6 Fig. 4: Scheme of a search-coil magnetometer [Lenz90] ................................................. 6 Fig. 5: Fluxgate magnetometer operation [Caru98] .......................................................... 7 Fig. 6: Scheme of a Hall Effect Sensor [Lenz90] .............................................................. 8 Fig. 7: Structure of a Magnetodiode [Lenz90] ................................................................... 9 Fig. 8: Principle of a Magnetotransistor [Lenz90]............................................................. 9 Fig. 9: Distribution of papers according to measurands [Lee03] .................................14 Fig. 10: Distribution of papers according to used technologies [Lee03].....................14 Fig. 11: Linear, circular and elliptic polarization [Wiki06] .............................................15 Fig. 12: The Faraday effect [Sohl93]..................................................................................17 Fig. 13: Polarization before and after polarization rotation ..........................................18 Fig. 14: Two-dimensional domain pattern: schematic and measured (YIG film, no field) [Sohl43]................................................................................................................19 Fig. 15: Domain wall motion in thin films, schematic and recorded [Sohl93]...........20 Fig. 16: Wave guide structure .............................................................................................21 Fig. 17: Absorption of light in YIG depending on [Paro84]......................................22 Fig. 18: Wavelength-dependency of the Faraday rotation for common materials [Dona88]........................................................................................................................23 Fig. 19: General form of a Faraday current sensor [Sohl93].........................................23 Fig. 20: Schematic of a folded design giving twice the Faraday rotation ....................24 Fig. 21: Polarization state detection with polarization splitter [Sohl93]......................26 Fig. 22: Schematic of Faraday current sensor using a magnetic concentrator ...........27 Fig. 23: Faraday glass element showing 7 critical angle reflections [Yi00]..................27 Fig. 24: Schematic of OCT probe [Itoh99] ......................................................................28 Fig. 25: Measuring set-up for a transverse configuration in YIG [Yosh01] ...............29 Fig. 26: Scheme of a current sensor in transverse configuration [Yosh03] ................29 Fig. 27: Schematic of a Faraday OCT using bulk optics................................................30 104
List of Figures
Fig. 28: Square-shaped OCT [Taka83]..............................................................................30 Fig. 29: Triangular sensing element [Chu92]....................................................................30 Fig. 30: Circular geometry with optical path [Ning91/1] ..............................................31 Fig. 31: Schematic of an optical fibre sensing element ..................................................31 Fig. 32: Principle and picture of a fibre-optic AC-current sensor [Bohn02]..............32 Fig. 33: Reflective-type wound-fibre OCT [Yu02] .........................................................33 Fig. 34: NxtPhase sensor NXTC principle [Blak03] ..................................................33 Fig. 35: Schematic of a Faraday-effect sensor, unlinked type geometry .....................34 Fig. 36: Principle of a magnetic field sensor head [Sohl93]...........................................34 Fig. 37: Principle of an optical magnetic field sensor [Imae92]....................................35 Fig. 38: Reflective type OCT [Crud98] .............................................................................35 Fig. 39: Sensor head with flux concentrators [Deet96]..................................................35 Fig. 40: Sensing tip [Bai03]..................................................................................................36 Fig. 41: Schematic of the opto-magnetic field sensor probe [Itoh99] .........................36 Fig. 42: Principle of a two-domain sensor principle [Dido00]......................................36 Fig. 43: Dark and bright zones indicating opposite Faraday rotation .........................37 Fig. 44: Intermediate zone at 100kHz...............................................................................37 Fig. 45: Fibre-optic current sensor [Pere02] ....................................................................38 Fig. 46: Fibre coated with magnetostrictive material in an interferometer [Sedl96] .38 Fig. 47: Piezoelectric-optic current sensor [Ning91/2]..................................................39 Fig. 48: Lorentzian force current sensor [Okam90] .......................................................39 Fig. 49: FBG sensor scheme, redrawn after [Feng00]....................................................40 Fig. 50: Scheme of a FBG sensor [Fish97].......................................................................40 Fig. 51: Bragg sensor with temperature induced phase shift [Cava98]........................40 Fig. 52: Reflection peak separation [Chia03]....................................................................41 Fig. 53: Micromachined optical fibre current sensor [Hede99] ....................................42 Fig. 54: Principle and SEM image of the magnetometer [Yang02]..............................43 Fig. 55: Schematic of the sensor with optical readout of the cantilever position [Kepl04] .........................................................................................................................43 Fig. 56: LC modulator based on chromatic modulation [Pill93] ..................................44
105
List of Figures
Fig. 57: Magnetic field between parallel conductors.......................................................47 Fig. 58: Sketch and dimensions of the two conductors .................................................49 Fig. 59: Hy between conductors carrying 1000A each, f=1Hz ......................................50 Fig. 60: Hy in dependency on x coordinate, both conductors carrying 1000A..........51 Fig. 61: Distribution of the current density due to the skin effect for different frequencies.....................................................................................................................52 Fig. 62: Magnetic field (y-component), both conducting 1000A, f=100Hz................52 Fig. 63: Left conductor carrying 2000A, right conductor 0A, f=100Hz .....................53 Fig. 64: Hy in dependency on x coordinate, only one conductor carrying 2000A ....54 Fig. 65: Total current density (z-component) at 200Hz, only left conductor carrying 2000A .............................................................................................................................55 Fig. 66: Magnetic field around a single conductor (100Hz, 2000A) ............................55 Fig. 67: Hy in dependency on x coordinate, single conductor carrying 2000A..........56 Fig. 68: Hy along the y-axis for x=0, two conductors (I1=2000A) ...............................56 Fig. 69: Hy along the y-axis at 15mm from the single conductor (2000A)..................57 Fig. 70: Faraday sensor head...............................................................................................59 Fig. 71: Schematic of the used Faraday sensor................................................................59 Fig. 72: Schematic cross section of a solenoid of finite length and radial thickness.61 Fig. 73: Measurement set-up for sensitivity determination ...........................................62 Fig. 74: Characteristic curve of Sensor I, large fields (0mT 57.8mT +57.8mT 0mT) .......................................................................................63 Fig. 75: Characteristic curve of Sensor II, large fields (0mT 57.8mT +57.8mT 0mT) .......................................................................................63 Fig. 76: Characteristic curve of an undoped YIG sensor [Svan90]..............................65 Fig. 77: Temperature response Sensor I ...........................................................................66 Fig. 78: Temperature response Sensor II .........................................................................66 Fig. 79:Schematic of the amplifier box .............................................................................67 Fig. 80: Rise time ..................................................................................................................68 Fig. 81: Characteristic curve Sensor I, small fields..........................................................70 Fig. 82: Characteristic curve Sensor II, small fields ........................................................71 Fig. 83: AC Sensitivity for Sensor I ...................................................................................72 106
List of Figures
Fig. 84: Sensitive axes of the sensor ..................................................................................72 Fig. 85: Sensitivity test in plane of the film ......................................................................73 Fig. 86: Measured in-plane sensitivity U() ......................................................................73 Fig. 87: In-plane sensitivity compared to theoretical longitudinal Kerr effect...........74 Fig. 88: Rotation with in a homogenous field ..............................................................75 Fig. 89: Theoretical sensitivity curve in dependency on alpha, Sensor I and Sensor II .........................................................................................................................................76 Fig. 90: Sensor and conductor coordinate systems.........................................................77 Fig. 91: Set-up with two separated conductors ...............................................................77 Fig. 92: Comparison of the field pattern (Cu vs. Al) obtained by FEM simulation, f=50Hz...........................................................................................................................78 Fig. 93: Comparison simulated and measured field, two conductors..........................79 Fig. 94: Comparison simulated and measured field, one conductor............................80 Fig. 95: Magnetic field dependency on current in one conductor................................80 Fig. 96: Phase shift ...............................................................................................................82 Fig. 97: Screen shot of the phase shift (f=10kHz) ..........................................................82 Fig. 98: Dimensions and arrangement of the conductors .............................................83 Fig. 99: Magnetic field in test set-up .................................................................................84 Fig. 100: Plot and image of Hy of the test-geometry, I=20A ........................................85 Fig. 101: Comparator and latch circuit for failure indication........................................86 Fig. 102: Comparator 1 signal with hysteresis (positive feedback) ..............................87 Fig. 103: Time delay for comparator and latch circuit (=280ns)...............................88 Fig. 104: Sensor installed in the set-up..............................................................................89 Fig. 105: Simplified schematic of the set-up ....................................................................89 Fig. 106: Sensor signal and latch signal in case of current fault (Uref=-30mV)..........90
107
List of Tables
List of Tables
Table 1: Faraday rotation for some common materials [Deet93/2]............................22 Table 2: Characteristics of a 0-Sensor .........................................................................25 Table 3: Characteristics of a 45-Sensor.......................................................................25 Table 4: Characteristics of a 90-Sensor.......................................................................26 Table 5:Sensitivities for large fields ...................................................................................64 Table 6: Sensitivities for small fields .................................................................................64 Table 7: Resistors, capacitors and properties of the tuned electronic box .................69 Table 8: Sensitivities measured for small fields ...............................................................71 Table 9: AC-sensitivities measured for small fields ....................................................72 Table 10: Perpendicular sensitivities in sensor I and sensor II (B3mT)...................75 Table 11: Comparison theoretical and experimental results ........................................76
108

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Optical Measurement of Currents in Power Converters

Optical Measurement of Currents in Power Converters

Masters thesis project

Fig. 1: Proposed geometry with parallel IGBTs

Investigation of applicable Techniques

2. Investigation of applicable Techniques

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Fig. 2: Conventional ABB transformer for high voltages [ABB06]

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Fig. 3: Scheme of a Rogowski coil [Xiao03]

Fig. 4: Scheme of a search-coil magnetometer [Lenz90]

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Fig. 5: Fluxgate magnetometer operation [Caru98]

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Fig. 6: Scheme of a Hall Effect Sensor [Lenz90]

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Fig. 7: Structure of a Magnetodiode [Lenz90]

Fig. 8: Principle of a Magnetotransistor [Lenz90]

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Fig. 9: Distribution of papers according to measurands [Lee03]

Fig. 10: Distribution of papers according to used technologies [Lee03]

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Fig. 11: Linear, circular and elliptic polarization [Wiki06]

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Fig. 12: The Faraday effect [Sohl93]

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Fig. 13: Polarization before and after polarization rotation

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Fig. 16: Wave guide structure

Investigation of applicable Techniques

I intensity of light t penetration depth absorption coefficient

Fig. 17: Absorption of light in YIG depending on [Paro84]

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Fig. 19: General form of a Faraday current sensor [Sohl93]

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Hence, the intensity of the transmitted light is given by

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Table 3: Characteristics of a 45-Sensor

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Fig. 21: Polarization state detection with polarization splitter [Sohl93]

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Fig. 22: Schematic of Faraday current sensor using a magnetic concentrator

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Fig. 24: Schematic of OCT probe [Itoh99]

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Fig. 25: Measuring set-up for a transverse configuration in YIG [Yosh01]

Fig. 26: Scheme of a current sensor in transverse configuration [Yosh03]

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Fig. 27: Schematic of a Faraday OCT using bulk optics

Fig. 28: Square-shaped OCT [Taka83]

Fig. 29: Triangular sensing element [Chu92]

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Fig. 30: Circular geometry with optical path [Ning91/1]

Fig. 31: Schematic of an optical fibre sensing element

Investigation of applicable Techniques

Fig. 32: Principle and picture of a fibre-optic AC-current sensor [Bohn02]