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Contents
Contents
Introduction ......................................................................................................2 About This Book .............................................................................................2 Supporting Material ........................................................................................2 Engineering Design Practice ...............................................................................4 Characteristics of Different Sectors ..................................................................4 CAE And The Design Cycle ..............................................................................5 The Impact of Optimization on CAE .................................................................6 Summary: How Engineers Should Design.........................................................8 Optimization Theory ........................................................................................ 10 What is an Optimum Design? ........................................................................ 10 Analysis and Design...................................................................................... 11 Finding An Optimum..................................................................................... 13 The Optimization Model ................................................................................ 16 Workable Implementations ........................................................................... 19 Summary ..................................................................................................... 19 FEA Essentials ................................................................................................. 21 Why use Numerical Methods at all? ............................................................... 21 What is Finite Element Analysis? ................................................................... 22 Choosing a Numerical Model ......................................................................... 24 The Role of Physical Testing ......................................................................... 25 Quick Summary of Analysis Terminology........................................................ 26 What are Elements? ..................................................................................... 30 Steps in FE Modeling .................................................................................... 31 Guidelines on Element Choice ....................................................................... 34 OptiStruct ....................................................................................................... 35 Before We Start ........................................................................................... 35 Techniques to Design Optimum Products ....................................................... 38 Putting it all together.................................................................................... 47 Summary ..................................................................................................... 49 Laminates ....................................................................................................... 51 The Miracle Material Plastics....................................................................... 51 Reinforced Plastics: One Step Ahead ............................................................. 51 Data Required for Stress Analysis .................................................................. 53 Finite Element Approaches............................................................................ 57 Design Optimization Issues ........................................................................... 59 Glossary And References.................................................................................. 63
Introduction
Introduction
To make the most of this book you should be an engineering student, in your third or final year of Mechanical Engineering. You should have access to licenses of HyperWorks, to the Altair website, and to an instructor who can guide you through your chosen projects or assignments. You need not be familiar with the Finite Element Method, with 3D Modeling or with Finite Element Modeling. You do need to be familiar, however, with one the relevant engineering subjects.
Supporting Material
Your instructor will have the Tutorials that accompany these volumes they should certainly be made use of. Further reading and references are indicated both in this book and in the Tutorials themselves.
Introduction
If you find the material interesting, you should also look up the HyperWorks On-line Help System. The Altair website, www.altair.com, is also likely to be of interest to you, both for an insight into the evolving technology and to help you present your project better.
"Mach 2 travel feels no different." a passenger commented on an early Concorde flight. "Yes," Sir George replied. "That was the difficult bit."
Sir George Edwards
Aircraft and space vehicles are often clubbed in the aerospace sector. Cost is rarely an issue, but performance is of paramount importance. Safety regulations in passenger aircraft are among the most stringent in the engineering world. Combat aircraft are subject to harsh environments. Spacecraft can gain useful life with every gram of weight shaved off. Advanced materials ceramics, composites, honeycombs, and exotic alloys tend to be widely used, along with advanced manufacturing techniques. Ranging from the cardboard boxes that toothpaste tubes are sold in to the containers of cars that are loaded on to cargo ships, packaging is a multi-billion dollar industry. Not very surprising, in fact, when you stop to consider that products like toothpastes and soft-drinks are literally sold in billions. Packaging materials are often outside standard engineering technology Styrofoam and paper are rarely treated as load-bearing materials in engineering courses! Products such as cell phones, stereos, watches, washing machines, etc. rarely cause loss of life if they fail. Sometimes called consumer goods, these products are usually designed for elegance and cost. Product life is sometimes measured in weeks, translating into extreme time pressures on designers. Plastics are used very widely. One thing thats common to all sectors is the fact that designers are always under pressure to create better products in less time and at a lower price. And this, of course, is why optimization plays such an important role in product design.
The design cycle almost always originates with a drawing a sketch to illustrate a concept - and almost always ends with a drawing the manufacturing drawing. This is the biggest problem how to translate the sketch into an acceptable, manufacturable design. A typical design cycle involves numerous trade-offs: appearance vs. function, cost vs. ease of manufacture, etc. Every trade-off changes the design, and changes are inevitable. One of the rules written by Kelly Johnson, legendary head of Lockheeds Skunk Works, demands that A very simple drawing and drawing release system with great flexibility for making changes must be provided. The widespread use of 3D CAD software has made it easier for engineers to re-create manufacturing drawings when the design changes. But CAE1 is often viewed as a visit to the dentist: put off as long as possible, and usually painful. The reason for this is easy to find. Since CAE has traditionally been used to verify the preliminary design, analysts usually bear bad news: that the design has failed the verification and must therefore be changed. If the analyst carries good news, its often ignored since its too late in the design cycle to implement the changes! Wouldnt it be great if the concept-designer had a tool that could help suggest designs that are least likely to get rejected by subsequent CAE?
Short for Computer Aided Engineering. Usually taken to mean simulation of performance under operating conditions.
of fluids, equations that govern the stress-distribution, each as a different subject, with little if any interaction between the equations. How would you optimize a product that has some parts that move rigidly (i.e. act as mechanisms) and some that flex (i.e. behave as structures), and that has to withstand stresses and also be aerodynamic? MotionSolve, used in conjunction with OptiStruct, allows designers to find optimal solutions to some of these problems, while HyperStudy addresses others. Process Optimization A product thats been designed and verified still stands the risk of rejection: by the process engineers, if its too expensive to manufacture. How can you design the manufacturing process to be most satisfactory in other words, how can you optimize the manufacturing process? HyperForm is used to simulate the sheet-metal forming process, and, together with HyperStudy, can be used to arrive at optimal process designs.
Computer software continues to redefine the way products are designed. But that does not eliminate the need for engineering judgment. In fact, it increases the burden on the engineer, who now has to act both as the investigator and as an impartial and knowledgeable judge.
8
First, you phrase the design requirements in as realistic a way as possible. You may even want to try different statements of the different requirements. Then you ask the software to come up with its suggestions. Finally you sit in judgment: which of the statements was the most realistic, and which of the suggestions do you want to adopt?
Engineering problems are under-defined, there are many solutions, good, bad and indifferent. The art is to arrive at a good solution. This is a creative activity, involving imagination, intuition and deliberate choice.
Sir Ove Arup
Optimization Theory
Optimization Theory
What is an Optimum Design?
Its evident from the previous chapter that as a designer, you should search for an optimum design. What is not so clear is how exactly we can recognize the optimum design. The dictionary definition is a good place to start. An optimum, says the dictionary, is the greatest degree or best result obtained or obtainable under specific conditions. Its the phrase specific conditions that gives you your design freedom. As a designer, you define the conditions that allow you to evaluate your design alternatives. In engineering terms, this means you draw up mathematical equations that quantify the performance of a design. The statement good ride quality would translate, for instance, into a specification of the maximum values of the components of acceleration that the passengers seat can experience. The quantitative parameter that you use to evaluate a design is called the objective. Of course, you may well have multiple objectives. For instance, its very likely a car designer would simultaneously want excellent safety and low cost. Unfortunately, in many cases, the objectives are contradictory, making it increasingly difficult for the designer to reach the best compromise2. A working design almost always involves a compromise of some sort or the other. To make things harder for you, few designers have the luxury of infinite resources in the pursuit of their objectives. Whether the resources are the money you can afford to spend on materials, the amount of fuel the spacecraft can carry or the maximum drag coefficient permitted for a sports car, there are usually limits you have to work between. These limits, or constraints give rise to the subject named constrained optimization. A solution that satisfies the constraints is called a feasible solution, while one that does not is called an infeasible solution. Its important to realize that not all design is done from scratch. In several cases, we have to start from existing designs and improve them to the best extent possible. This could be for various reasons, ranging from the
10
Optimization Theory
necessity to liquidate existing inventory to the modification of a manufactured design that has failed a test. If youre starting from scratch, you can list the objectives and constraints and search for the best solution. If youre working on modifying an existing design things are usually a little harder since you have less flexibility to change things. Mechanical Engineers face one further requirement. Most components you design have to assemble with other components. They need to fit together. This means you have to work with a package space within which your component needs to fit3, and assembly points that cannot be varied since theyre decided by other components. In mathematics, the package space is referred to as the design space or the optimization domain. Finally, you may not be allowed to change every possible parameter. For example, the material you can work with may be restricted by factors beyond your control: working with sheet steel limits you to commercially available thickness. The parameters that you have the freedom to vary are called design variables. The dependence of the objective on the design variables is expressed as an equation, called the objective function. The statement of the design optimization problem then, consists of the package space, the design variables, the constraints and the objectives. If you have any of these wrong, its pretty likely your design proposals will be useless!
Optimization Theory
saw in the previous Chapter, the separation of conceptual-design and design-verification into distinct steps was one of the main reasons analysis is frowned upon even though its essential for good product design. In the conventional design process, the designer would have to rely on experience or insight to come up with proposals. The analysis tool is then used to evaluate each proposal, with the designer using these analysis results or responses to choose the best. Optimization changes this. The designer outlines the constraints, and leaves it to the optimization tool to come up with proposals. The optimizer uses the analysis tool to decide how to change the initial design to arrive at a better one. In qualitative terms, an analysis problem has only one correct answer4. Design, of course, has no single correct answer. There are always a variety of options that can satisfy the same requirements, which is why it is extremely important to search for an optimum design. This is the reason a good analyst often does not make a good designer! For the designer, then, analysis and optimization are very much complementary functions. They are equally important parts of design optimization: a design optimization model consists of an analysis model and an optimization model. These are related and dependent but distinct areas, so we will take some care to understand which parts of the design problem will be defined in the analysis model and which in the optimization model. This chapter outlines the background of optimization, while the next outlines the basics of one of todays most popular analysis methods, Finite Element Analysis. Other analysis methods can also be used, of course, as in multidisciplinary optimization or non-linear optimization. These are covered in the other volumes of this series.
12
Optimization Theory
The world of optimization is a hard one to live in. Its a little like being asked to search for a black cat in a dark room. You know its in there somewhere, but have to feel your way forwards, backtracking and changing direction frequently since the cat changes its position every time you move5. In the world of linear equations, at least were assured that theres a cat in the room, and that theres only one cat to look for. In many real world problems, we cannot always count on this, as well see. Since a person who analyses is called an analyst, perhaps a person who seeks to optimize should be called an optimist! Our objective, then, is to find a better design than the one we are starting with. In some cases it will be the best while in other cases it may not.
Finding An Optimum
Since we will be happy to find a better solution even if its not the best, we are looking for an optimum solution, not necessarily the optimum solution. Why are we emphasizing this statement? In optimization theory, by convention, we search for the minimum of the objective function. This is not a limitation since maximization of an objective is equivalent to minimizing its reciprocal6. A function that has only one minimum within the optimization domain is called a convex function. Its useful to recall the basics of differential calculus. In calculus, a minimum (as well as any other turning point) of a curve is characterized by a zero slope (or first derivative). If the objective function is a quadratic function of the design variables, we are then guaranteed a global minimum. This is because a second order curve has only one turning point and therefore only one minimum in the design space.
In mathematical terms, this behaviour is a characteristic of implicit equations. The knowns and unknowns cannot be neatly separated into the right-hand-side and left-hand-side. 6 Sometimes maximization of x is addressed as minimization of the negative value of x, i.e. -x 13
5
Optimization Theory
A higher order curve may7 have multiple turning points within the design space. If it does, then we may have multiple minima8. The turning point at which the objective function has the least value is the global minimum, while the other minima are called local minima. A real life problem may well have hundreds, if not thousands of design variables. And the objective function may well be a non-convex function, with multiple local minima within the design space. How does optimization software arrive at a better solution within a reasonable time? How does it interface with or use analysis software?
Minimize Subject to
7 A higher order curve has more than one turning point, but some may lie outside the design space. 8 Recall your calculus: a turning point can be a maximum, an inflection point or a minimum.
14
Optimization Theory
where f(x) is the objective function, g(x) are the constraint functions, and x is a vector of design variables.
An Example
We may be asked to design a light-weight bracket that has to fit in a 300 mm x 300 mm x 600 mm volume. We want the bracket to be made of steel, to carry a load of 100 Kg. The maximum permissible deflection of the bracket is 0.1mm, and the maximum permissible stress is 20 Kg/mm2. We are allowed to use sheet-steel that can be 1 mm, 2mm or 4 mm thick. In this case, our design space would be the 300 mm x 300 mm x 600 mm volume. The objective would be to minimize the mass. The constraints would be the permissible stress and deflection. The design variables would be the thickness of the steel, and the layout of the steel (i.e. how the sheet should flow where material should be located - within the design space). To solve a problem like this, the optimizer would start with an initial configuration or proposal. It would ask the analysis software to evaluate the mass, stress and deformations of this configuration the values calculated by the analysis package and tracked by the optimizer are called responses. The optimizer would evaluate the sensitivity of the responses to the various design variables, and decide which to change and by how much. When the design variables change, the responses change too. If the steel thickness changes, the mass of the bracket changes. The displacement would probably change too, as would the stress. So the optimizer would again need to ask the analysis package to evaluate the responses. This iterative procedure would continue until the optimizer concludes it has found the best possible design for the given constraints and variables.
Evaluating Sensitivity
Evaluating the sensitivity of the responses to changes in design variables is, obviously, a very key part of the optimization process. If we define the response as a function of the deformation u by the equation
g=
then the sensitivity of the responses to the design variables is given by the equation
15
Optimization Theory
g T = u+ x x
u x
Some design problems have more constraints than design variables, while others have more design variables than constraints. Different algorithms are used by OptiStruct for each case, in order to efficiently arrive at the optimum solution.
Optimization Theory
wL3 3EI
The analysis model is linear since the equilibrium equation is a linear function of the state variable . If the Elasticity Modulus (E) were a function of the deflection, as in a plastic analysis, the analysis model would be nonlinear. Suppose we want to choose an optimum depth for the cross-section. The Moment of Inertia is given by
I=
bd 3 12
which is not a linear function of the design variable d. Depending on the objective function chosen, the optimizer might have to search for the minimum of a non-convex function. One of the parameters that determine whether the optimizer finds a global or a local minimum is the starting point of the search the initial configuration or proposal. Another is the move size, which is the step that the optimizer takes in the direction dictated by the Gradient Search algorithm. If the step is too large, the optimizer may overshoot the optimum, which means it will have to reverse its direction in the next iteration. If its too small, the optimizer may take too long to locate the optimum. What does this mean to you as a designer? First, you can vary the move size if the optimizer doesnt converge. Second, an intelligent choice of the initial configuration and design variables can significantly affect the design suggested by the optimizer.
Optimization Theory
of a bounded surface. The objective function, of course, can be viewed as a surface, with the constraints as boundaries. An interesting interpretation of the Lagrange Multipliers is provided by S.Jensen9:
the constraint function g(P) can be thought of as "competing" with the desired function f(P) to "pull" the point P to its minimum or maximum. The Lagrange multiplier can be thought of as a measure of how hard g(P) has to pull in order to make those "forces" balance out on the constraint surface
The Karush-Kuhn-Tucker conditions, also called the Kuhn-Tucker conditions, are a necessary condition for the solution of an optimization problem to be optimal. The KKT conditions are often used not to find the solution but to obtain information about the solution. This is useful to us, since we are looking for a design solution, not a mathematically precise solution. From our design perspective, it is important to understand that the search is an iterative procedure. First, we can instruct the optimizer how long to search, by telling it the maximum number of iterations. Further, we can tell it how fine the search should be. If the difference between two successive proposals is less than a convergence tolerance, the optimizer can be asked to conclude that this is acceptable to us from a design perspective.
Optimization Theory
The gradient search method, also called the method of steepest descent, is one of the many methods used by the optimizer to move from the initial configuration to the final solution. Non-linear optimization normally uses other methods, as described in CAE And Design Optimization - Advanced.
Workable Implementations
Very often, an exact answer is worthless if it comes too late. An approximate answer that is available in time is much more useful. In order to speed up the optimization process, the optimization model uses Constraint Screening, Constraint Linking and Constraint Deletion. The first, constraint screening, is a technique used to identify which of the constraints are critical to the current iteration. In an effort to reduce the number of variables, the optimizer uses one or more criteria to choose a subset of all variables for each iteration. This subset is likely to change from one iteration to another as the optimizer moves through the design space. Constraint linking is when you can use factors such as symmetry to reduce the number of constraints that need to be considered. Suppose you want all beams in a structure to use the same cross-section because it makes the purchase process easier. In this case, it makes sense to link all of them together, thereby reducing the load on the optimizer. As the optimizer searches through the design space, the current configuration may violate only 2 of 3 constraints. In this case, the third constraint is not important for the iteration. It can be marked inactive and ignored in other words, the constraint can be deleted for this iteration.
Summary
Part of the challenge of optimizing a product is that designers are not always able to clearly define their design problem or state their definition of optimum. Dont let this deter you too much. Even if you dont arrive at the best design, any improvement over your current proposal is better. Optimization technology is fairly robust today. Most of the methods outlined above are implemented intelligently by the software. You can, however, make things easier for the optimizer and reduce your Design Variables
Things that can vary thickness, density, etc.
Responses
Things calculated by the analysis model, and of interest to the Optimizer. Mass, deflection, stress, etc.
Constraints
Limits on responses or design variables.
Objective
19
Value that measures quality of your design. Mass, frequency, center of gravity, etc.
Optimization Theory
design time by intelligent choices in both phases of design optimization: the Optimization Model and the Analysis Model. You can also, of course, set the optimizer an impossible task if the statement of your problem is itself wrong.
20
FEA Essentials
FEA Essentials
As weve seen, design optimization relies on CAE to calculate the response of the product. Computer Aided Engineering, unfortunately, is a catch-all phrase thats not very well defined. It can mean just about anything. And often does. In more general usage, CAE, sometimes also called Simulation, is the use of numerical analysis to study various behaviors of products. How they react to forces, what drag or lift they experience in a fluid, how they react to different thermal conditions, the forces generated as they experience accelerations, and so on. In the context of our study, however, well focus mainly on the Finite Element Method. Without going into the mathematics of the method, well look at those aspects that let us understand how it fits into our goal: using optimization to enhance product design. Building models for analysis involves making approximations to the initial geometry to omit irrelevant details, specifying conditions on the boundary or at initial time, specifying solver options, choosing output options, and so on. It can help, therefore, if you are familiar not just with the terms used but also with some of the background. This can help you make intelligent decisions when you prepare your models for optimization. This chapter is not intended to be rigorous numerous textbooks are available that do that job admirably well. Rather, this is a quick summary of some of the salient aspects of Finite Element usage and theory.
10
FEA Essentials
effort of finding an analytical solution is often so high that the solution cannot be found at an acceptable cost or in an acceptable time. For complicated problems, numerical methods provide approximate solutions that are usually of adequate accuracy. One way of setting up these numerical solutions is to discretize the original body. This means we break the original geometry into several smaller geometries. We first solve the equations governing the mechanics over these smaller bodies, then piece the results back together to get the complete solution. The two most widely used methods are Finite Element Analysis and Finite Difference Methods. The latter are used mainly for problems in Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), while the former is used in a wide range of applications.
22
FEA Essentials
deformation at any point, you can calculate the strain from this by taking the first spatial derivative. And once you know the strain, you can use the material properties to calculate the stress. For the Finite Element Method, every node has these parameters associated with it, just as in a trussstructure every member has forces associated with its end-points. From the values at the nodes, you can interpolate for the values between the nodes. Suppose you were asked to digitize a surface, using a Coordinate Measuring Machine. Unless your surface were absolutely flat, you would not space the measurement points evenly. Since you have to interpolate between measured values, you would naturally choose to have more measurement points at areas where the surface curves sharply. In maths, we say these areas have a high derivative, or rate-of-change. In a similar fashion, for an FE analysis you would create smaller elements (which means more nodes) at areas where you expect the stress to be high12. The choice of the sizes of elements depends on many things - the anticipated stress levels of a certain area, the detail wanted in the results, the stability of a solution algorithm, the available computational power, and so on. A Finite Element program takes the elements you have defined, lists the equations for each unknown value, puts them together as a matrix equation, then solves all these for the values of the unknown parameters. The equilibrium equation is of the form
[K ]{u} = { f }
Since its analogous to the equations of spring-deflection, K is often called the Stiffness Matrix, u is called the deformation vector, and f is called the load vector. K is a square matrix, with one row (and column) for each unknown variable in the problem-definition. If, for instance, you have used
11
The 6 components are the translations along the 3 axes, and rotations about the 3 axes 12 A high stress means a high strain, from Hookes Law. Strain is the first derivative of deformation. Hence a high stress area is one where the deformation has a high derivative. And this, of course, means the rate-of-change of deformation is high in areas of high stress. 23
FEA Essentials
100 nodes in your model, and each node has 6 unknowns13, your stiffness matrix would be 600 x 600. u and f are each column-matrices. In our example, each has 1 column and 600 rows. A computer is required because of the large number of calculations needed to analyze a part or assembly. It is not uncommon for a model to have more than 1,00,000 unknowns (called degrees of freedom). The power and low cost of modern computers has made Finite Element Analysis available to many disciplines and companies. Finally, remember that most Finite Element Analysis models are applicable only to structures they cannot be applied to mechanisms. Components such as the shackles that hold up the leaf-springs of a truck chassis require different treatment. These are not treated in this volume.
13
The 6 components of deformation are the translations along 3 axes and the rotations about the 3 axes
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FEA Essentials
Its important to remember that the product youre analyzing does not know whether it is linear or not. You, as the analyst, can choose to model it as linear or as non-linear, depending on which is more likely to give you useful results. Since we are designers, not mathematicians, we are not interested in results that are exactly correct. We are willing to settle for approximately correct provided we get the results in time and at a cost we can afford. As you know from your courses on Linear Algebra and Differential Equations, linear equations are far easier to solve than non-linear equations. Therefore, we very often choose to model behaviors as linear even if a non-linear model is more precise. We tend to choose non-linear models only if theres no linear model thats even reasonably accurate. Non-linear models are of several types the materials used, the geometry involved, or conditions on the boundary can cause the non-linear nature. Examples of material non-linearity are plastic deformation, melting and solidification the stiffness of the body changes as the material properties change. In other problems, the stiffness changes as the body deforms even if the materials properties do not change take for example the reduced rigidity of a plastic bottle as it is crushed. Examples of boundary nonlinearities are contact and thermal radiation. In the former, the stiffness of the part or assembly changes as sections come into contact with each other. In the latter, the heat lost is proportional to the 4th power of temperature. Some models, such as those required to simulate the behavior of a car when it crashes, can involve several of these types of non-linearities.
25
FEA Essentials
For two reasons. First, constructing test models is expensive and time consuming. In many cases, theres no way to reduce the time for the test. This is starkly different from computer-methods. In the computer-world, a faster computer produces results faster. This same time-compression effect cannot be obtained in most tests! Second, tests themselves are not very easily controllable. As a result, most engineering practice requries that the analysis model be validated against a test result. That is, the model is used to simulate performance of the product under conditions similar to an existing test. If the model is capable of doing this, then we assume it is capable of reproducing behaviour under different conditions too. As a result, we can dispense with the physical test for further studies.
[K ]{u} = { f }
where K, u and f are functions of x, y and z only they are independent of
t.
14
26
FEA Essentials
Linear, Transient
In stress analysis, this model is appropriate when operating within the elastic region (i.e. the stress-strain curve is linear) and when the deformations are small but when the external conditions do vary with time. Transient problems themselves are often subdivided into further classes, depending on whether the load varies with time in a periodic fashion or not. If the load is periodic, as for instance if the excitation source is a rotating unbalance, it is called Harmonic excitation. This is usually easier to solve than when the load is non-periodic. Its important to note that Finite Element mathematics is applicable only to spatial discretization. A Finite Difference method is usually used to step the solution forward in time, from the initial time to the final time. To setup the problem for analysis, then, the values at the boundary are specified at the initial time (often referred to as t = 0). Time-variant solutions can also be calculated by representing the solution15 as a weighted sum of the mode shapes. In the equilibrium equation
[M ]
u u + [C ] + [K ]{u} = { f } 2 t t
2
K is a function of x, y and z only it is independent of t. F and u, however, vary with t. M represents the mass, and C the damping.
Normal Modes
Sometimes our design problem is not just to calculate stresses or deformations. We may be interested in identifying the resonance frequencies of the system. In vehicle design, avoidance of resonance enhances ride comfort by cutting out unwanted rattles. When designing a loudspeaker or a megaphone, on the other hand, you may want resonance to occur. In cases like these, we need to solve the eigenvalue16 problem and evaluate the natural frequencies of the body.
Look up the use of Rayleighs method or Dunkerleys method. Also look up the Rayleigh-Ritz method for a rough idea as to how this works. 16 Refer to a course or a text on Dynamics of Machinery for more details 27
15
FEA Essentials
[M ]
u + [K ]{u} = {0} 2 t
2
where K and u are functions of x, y and z only they are independent of t. The solutions to this equation are pairs of natural frequencies and the corresponding mode shapes.
Random Response
In some situations, we cannot specify the exact value of the loads as a function of time, but can specify the total energy in these loads. An example would be the forces experienced by a plane when its engines are firing. We know the total energy being transferred from the jet engines to the frame, but cannot claim that we know the loads precisely as functions of time. In cases like these, the loads are characterized by Probability Density Functions, and the behavior is called stochastic. The designers goal then is to predict a probability of safety. The several ways to evaluate these responses is beyond the scope of this book.
Inertia Relief
Setting up a Finite Element model for static analysis requires that the structure be supported adequately. Some structures, like aircraft in steady flight, are not supported explicitly but are still best represented by staticanalysis models. Inertia Relief is an approach used to model such problems.
Frequency Response
In many designs where vibration is important, and correlation with testresults is essential, designers have to characterize the response of the structure as a function of frequency-of-excitation instead of as a function of time. In these cases a Fourier Transform converts the equilibrium equation from the time domain to the frequency domain.
28
FEA Essentials
In the equilibrium equation, the variables are expressed as functions of rather than time. This is called the frequency domain. Of course, the Inverse Fourier Transform can convert the solution back to the time domain.
Linear Buckling
Designers sometimes have to take into account the fact that even if stresses are less than permissible values, the structure may fail if it buckles like a tall column in compression. The equilibrium equation is similar to that of Normal Modes, but the results are interpreted as a buckling load factor. Buckling load factors are often important in the design of aerospace structures, where the quest for a minimal weight and the use of advanced materials leads to the frequent use of thin-walled designs.
[K ]{u} = { f }
K is a function of u, making the equation non-linear. The force, f, too can be a function of u.
FEA Essentials
Designing such a product requires that the equations of rigid-bodymechanics be coupled with the equations of structural deformation. Component Mode Synthesis also provides a way to do this.
Element Types
Choosing the element type is an important part of any Finite Element analysis. Elements are categorized based on their shape or topology, the number of nodes needed to define them, and the mechanics or behavior they represent. Element types are usually solver dependent they vary based on the solver used. The elements listed below are specific to OptiStruct, but are available in almost every commercially available analysis package.
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FEA Essentials
Categorization based on Mechanics Beams and Bars (or rods or trusses) are represented by one-dimensional elements lines or curves but can lie in 3D space. Plain Strain, Plane Stress and Axi-symmetric elements are two-dimensional shapes that can be used only if the entire model lies in one plane only. Plates and Shells represent surfaces that are two-dimensional in the sense that they have no volume, but lie in 3D space. Solid Elements represent volumes. Categorization based on Topology Standard 2D Elements (plane strain, plane stress, axi-symmetric, plate and shell) are either triangular or quadrilateral. Standard 3D elements are either tetrahedral, pentahedral, or hexahedral. A pyramid with a rectangular base is a pentahedron, as is a wedge. However the two are different element types: the pyramid has 5 nodes while the wedge has 6. Not all solvers support pentahedral elements, and some support only one of the two pentahedra. In most stress-analysis problems, quadrilateral and hexahedral elements are preferred over triangular and tetrahedral elements. For reasons that you can find in the references listed at the end of this volume, they give much better results: more accurate and less CPU intensive. 1D elements are all (topologically) curves either straight lines or arcs, depending on the number of nodes. Typical applications are as beams, bars, rods, pipes, springs, cold- or hot-runners, and axi-symmetric shells. Categorization based on Order The variation of the unknown quantity between nodes is assumed (by the analysis code) to be linear, or quadratic, or cubic, etc. Linear and parabolic elements are the most common. Linear elements have two nodes along each edge, while parabolic elements have three nodes along each edge. Further refinements do exist for instance, parabolic quadrilateral elements can have either 8 or 9 nodes.
Steps in FE Modeling
Geometry Preparation
While it is possible to build a model directly using elements and nodes, this is not often done today. The geometry that defines the area to be analyzed
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FEA Essentials
(also called the domain) is usually created first using a CAD program, and elements are created to encompass that boundary or represent the volume. CAD designers create models for manufacture. As many details are included as possible. For a numerical analysis, we often choose to ignore aspects that we think will not significantly affect the solution. For instance, a single hole of 1 mm radius in a plate that is 2 meters wide can probably be ignored safely when calculating the deformation of the plate. Therefore the first task that most analysts are faced with is that of preparing the geometry for analysis. This involves tasks like removal of features, extraction of mid-surfaces, extrapolation of surfaces, etc. Further, the CAD world has an abundance of data exchange formats, since most CAD applications use proprietary data storage formats. A transfer of data from the CAD package to the FE preprocessor sometimes results in a loss of accuracy gaps are introduced during the import process, for example. Also, CAD assembly models are sometimes made up of parts that were created in different CAD applications. Therefore a cleaning-up of the geometry is often required. This involves filling gaps, eliminating small edges or surfaces that will mislead the automatic-mesh-generation routines, eliminating dangling faces, and so on.
Mesh Creation
Once the geometry is more or less ready for discretization, you then start to subdivide the geometry into elements or grid points. The collection of elements is usually referred to as a mesh. Meshes that consist of triangular or quadrilateral elements can often be generated automatically, while tetrahedral or hexahedral meshes usually require considerable manual intervention.
Mesh Editing
Once a mesh has been created, the analyst checks if it meets the specifications several measures of quality are checked, depending on the analysis requirements. Usually, some editing of the mesh is required. Depending on the complexity of the mesh, this can be done either semiautomatically or manually.
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FEA Essentials
Solving
The model created in the earlier steps is now taken up for solution the computer program reads the data, calculates matrix entries, solves the matrix equations and writes data out for interpretation. This task is CPU-intensive, and is often called processing17. Most of the time, very little interaction from the user is required. In some cases, the analyst periodically monitors results to check that they are indeed on the right track. If the solution seems to be evolving in an unexpected direction, the analyst can stop the solver and modify the model, thereby saving valuable time.
Post-Processing
After the program has evaluated the results, the analyst examines and interprets the data looking for errors or improvements in design. As with pre-processing, this calls for substantial interaction from the analyst.
17
Hence the term pre-processing for the preceding steps, and post-processing for the subsequent steps. 33
FEA Essentials
Engineering is the art of modeling materials we do not wholly understand, into shapes we cannot precisely analyse so as to withstand forces we cannot properly assess, in such a way that the public has no reason to suspect the extent of our ignorance.
Dr.A.R.Dykes
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OptiStruct
OptiStruct
Before We Start
The previous chapters outlined the reasons we want optimization to be a part of the product design cycle, and introduced both the Optimization Model and the Analysis Model. The procedure, to summarize, is as follows: 1. As the designer, you decide the design variables, the constraints and the objectives. You also choose the design space, the loads and the restraints usually dictated by other components in the assembly. Its a good idea to list these as a design-specification document. 2. Next, you prepare the FE model. To do this, you i. inherit the product definition as a CAD model. If necessary, you must modify it to omit unnecessary details. Note that this step is optional. It makes sense if you are trying to improve an existing design, or if it is easier to build the design-space in a CAD modeler. You may choose to define the design space within the FE pre-processor itself if youre working on a new concept with a geometrically simple design space. ii. mesh the product-geometry or the design space, depending on which you are starting with. The design space can, but need not, span the entire product. For instance your design may not allow you to change mounting points. In this case, the restraint-areas will not be a part of the design space, although they will be a part of the analysis model. iii. specify material data for the elements Modulus of Elasticity, etc. iv. specify element properties the thickness of shell elements or the cross-section for beam elements
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v. define the forces acting on the body vi. specify the restraints on the body where and how its supported vii. choose the type of analysis you want to perform linear-static, modal, etc. 3. Before running the optimizer, you should check that the Analysis Model is adequate. A good way to do this is to run the analysis for meshes of different element-sizes. If the reported results (deformation, stress, frequency, etc., depending on your interest) do not vary with the mesh, its reasonable to conclude that its adequate. 4. Once the FE model is ready, you prepare the Optimization Model. This means you specify i. the design variables. Remember that different parts of the design space can have different variables. You may have the freedom to place cutouts in one region, but only to vary the thickness in others. ii. the responses that the optimization model needs from the analysis model. The optimizer will use these to evaluate sensitivities. iii. the design constraints. iv. the objective function. 5. Now you are ready to perform the optimization. 6. After the optimization is done, you review the results to check that the optimization has proceeded in line with your design requirement. You may have to revise or restate the optimization model to better reflect the statement of the design requirements. 7. When you are satisfied with the design configuration proposed by the optimizer, you take this geometry back to your CAD modeler for further CAD-related work such as drawing generation, etc.
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OptiStruct
In the subsequent sections well review the specific methods OptiStruct uses18.
Terminology
OptiStruct includes both an FE solver and an Optimizer. In other words, it can be used to solve the Analysis Model and the Optimization Model. The models themselves are created using HyperMesh, which is the preprocessor. HyperMesh is used to define both the Analysis Model and the Optimization Model. The table below lists the key terms used by HyperMesh and correlates them with the Analysis and Optimization Models. Analysis Model
Collector
A way to group related items together. For instance all elements that have the same thickness would be in the same collector. External forces acting on the boundary. Includes concentrated forces, moments, pressures, gravity, etc. Short for Single Point Constraint. Refers to restraints applied to the analysis model at locations where the body is supported19. Combination of SPCs and Loads. Since they represent values on the boundary, these are often clubbed together as Boundary Conditions. A subcase is sometimes called a Load Case. Some data in the analysis model, such as the material properties, cannot be displayed graphically. Such data is entered as a card image by typing in text or numerical values.
Load
SPC
Subcase
Card
Optimization Model
Response
Any quantity calculated by the Analysis Model, and of interest to the Optimization Model. This could include
18 19
Some of these features are unique to OptiStruct. Do not confuse these with design constraints, which are applicable to the optimization model. 37
OptiStruct
mass of the model, volume, deformation, stress, frequencies, etc.The Analysis Model calculates a lot of things, not all of which are relevant to the design problem. Any quantity or variable that you want to use as a design-constraint or as an objective must be identified as responses.
Design Space
One or more component collectors that contain entities that can be altered as part of the design effort. All other component collectors are non-design areas. Short for Design Variable. Design variables that can vary only in predefined steps rather than continuously.
Objective
The goal of the optimization. This must be a quantity that has been tagged as a response. An objective can either be minimized or maximized. MultiObjective Optimization is not covered in this book. We restrict our attention to a single objective function20. This means you want to minimize the maximum value of the objective function. Used when you want to maximize the minimum value of the objective function.
OptiStruct
But your design could be rejected for other reasons too. Having a design criticized on the grounds that it is too hard or too expensive to manufacture is no fun for the designer. It is even worse if your proposal is impossible to manufacture. Mechanical engineering designs can be manufactured in a wide variety of ways: they can be cast, machined, molded, drawn, blanked, forged, welded, and so on. As we saw in the earlier chapter, materials used can range from steel to paper. You may be limited to working with predefined sizes and shapes, as for instance with standard-section beams or metal sheets of standard thickness. With all these complications, how can you work towards designs that are not only likely to pass verification, but also likely to be approved as manufacture-able? In this section, well first run over the techniques OptiStruct offers, and then see how to put these together in a meaningful way for product design.
Types of Analyses
OptiStructs Finite Element solver can address several different types of linear analyses: static, inertia relief, normal modes, linear buckling, transient, and frequency response21. Component mode synthesis and multibody dynamics are also supported. Non-linear analysis is restricted to simulation of gaps. From an optimization perspective, this means that we can obtain responses for any one of, or any combination of these analyses. All we need to do is tell the Optimization Model which responses of the Analysis Model it should track.
Types of Responses
Responses are quantities that are calculated by the Finite Element solver and are important for the optimizer.
21
Transient analysis and frequency response analysis can be performed using either direct-integration or modal-superposition. 39
OptiStruct
They can be any of, or any combination of, mass, volume22, center of gravity, moments of inertia, compliance, natural frequency, deformation, von Mises stress, strain, and buckling load factor. For transient and frequency response analyses, velocity and acceleration can be identified as responses. For laminates23, the failure index can be a response.
Types of Objectives
The objective can be any of the responses, but some care needs to be exercised. Choosing an objective thats insensitive to the design variables makes it harder for the optimizer to reach a minimum. Some guidelines on appropriate choices for the objective function are included in the assignments that accompany this book. A more detailed description for each optimization method is available in the on-line documentation.
Types of Constraints
Constraints are of two types; first, design constraints, which are any responses that can be obtained from the Finite Element solver. Second, manufacturing constraints. These are guidelines we give the optimizer to reflect our preferred manufacturing method. It would certainly be nice if the optimizer could tell us which of the available materials is best for the design. Engineering designers, unfortunately, know that the factors that govern material choice are often impossible to quantify. And we have been clear that the objective function should be clearly quantifiable. Therefore the choice of material is the responsibility of the designer, as is the choice of the manufacturing method. Having made this choice, we use manufacturing constraints to restrict the set of available designs to those that can be manufactured. The various manufacturing constraints available, and their relevance, are summarized below, with examples to illustrate the difference between design-optimization with and without these options.
OptiStruct
or injection molding. Size control avoids designs like the one shown on the left, producing cleaner designs, as shown on the right.
Draw Direction: Cast or molded components must be ejected from the cavity, which means undercuts must be avoided, and a positive draft must be provided. Split molds require drafts on either direction of the parting surface. Draw direction constraints yield designs such as the one on the right, which is far better than the one on the left. Extrusion: Materials like Aluminum are often extruded. The design on the right, obtained using extrusion constraints, can be manufactured in an extrusion die. The one on the left cannot. Pattern Repetition: Components like airplane wings have different sections (ribs) that are linked together by spars, covered with a skin and then subjected to a load. The different ribs must match topologically so that the spar can connect
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all of them, as shown on the right. Pattern repetition constraints enforce this behavior. The wing sections on the left are worse from a manufacturing perspective.
Pattern Grouping: Symmetry affects the aesthetics of a product. Repetitive patterns often look nicer. OptiStructs pattern grouping constraints enforce several types of symmetry: planar, linear, cyclical, radial and circular. The figure on the right uses radial grouping, while the one on the left doesnt. Its easy to decide which the better looking design is!
Laminated Composites require different manufacturing methods. Some of these are covered in the next Chapter.
Types of Optimization
There are six distinct approaches that OptiStruct can take to arrive at the optimum design. These can be used either singly, or in sequence, or simultaneously. In order to decide which to use when, you obviously need to understand the methods themselves. As with our review of the Finite Element method, we will focus on a qualitative effort to grasp the spirit of the methods.
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OptiStruct
Topology Topology is a well-established branch of mathematics, dealing with continuous transformations24. From one point of view, it is the study of the relationships between the edges, faces, vertices and volumes of 3D objects, independent of the dimensions. A circle and an ellipse, for example, are topologically identical, though their dimensional characteristics are obviously different. Several theorems in mathematics require that the topology of the domain remain the same. From a stress analysis perspective, vertices are particularly troublesome. Stress is unbounded or singular at a vertex, so introducing new vertices can change the scenario drastically. Obviously, restricting a designer to a single topology is unacceptable: even a simple cutout changes the topology of a design, but cutouts are an essential part of design! OptiStructs Topology Optimization approach provides an excellent way to allow the design configuration to change, neatly sidestepping the mathematical problems caused by changes in topology. There are two approaches used by OptiStruct. These are called the density method and the homogenization method, but for the purpose of our qualitative discussion we will not distinguish between them. Think of the difference between a steel sieve and a steel plate, both of the same size. The plate is solid metal, while the sieve has a mesh of holes. As the holes in the sieve get larger and larger, the sieve not only gets lighter, it also gets weaker. Making the holes smaller results in a heavier, stronger and stiffer sieve. From a mathematical perspective, we can treat the solid plate as a sieve that has holes of zero diameters. We can also calculate an equivalent density for the sieve. When the diameter of the holes is zero, the equivalent density is the density of steel. As the holes get larger and larger, the equivalent density approaches zero. In the Topology Optimization approach, OptiStruct treats each element as a sieve. It treats the equivalent density of each element as a design variable. The equivalent density is normalized so that 1 is equivalent to no holes or 100% material, while 0 is equivalent to no material in the element. Now given the constraints and the objective, OptiStruct can calculate what equivalent density to assign to each element in order to yield the best design.
24
Interested students should look up the litho-cuts of M.C.Escher for some remarkable topology-related art. 43
OptiStruct
In most cases, you cannot take the same sieve approach in your design. Manufacturing constraints will limit the sizes of holes as well as the thickness of material between holes25. Therefore, you take this equivalent density plot and exercise your design discretion to decide where to omit material completely (i.e. create holes) and where to retain material.
The density plots closely follow the flow of forces in the domain. As a result, this approach provides a very intuitive understanding of the package space:
where material is wasted, and where its most effective. The original-design and the topology-optimized design are shown above. The improvement is clearly visible in the performance-evaluation shown below. The technique is applicable to shell elements, to one-dimensional elements like bars, and to solid elements. In the assignments that accompany this book, we will restrict our attention to shell and solid elements only. Topography Every mechanical engineer knows of the fact that the further a fiber is from the neutral axis, the better it is at resisting bending forces. A plate with ribs can be much lighter than, but just as strong as, a thicker plate. This effect has long been used by designers to strengthen thin plates by providing them with beads or swages. The presence of beads stiffens the plate by moving the fibers away from the neutral surface of the plate. In effect, this alters the topography of the plate. Applicable only to shell elements, OptiStructs Topography Optimization makes use of the change in stiffness with depressions in the plate. With an
25
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OptiStruct
intelligent use of manufacturing constraints, this can yield structures that are very efficient, and outside the realm of experience-based design.
Asked to stiffen a water tank, most designers would suggest regular stiffening, as shown on the right. The water tank shown on the left is unlikely to be suggested by any experience, but is the optimal shape and is eminently manufacturable! Remember that beads can also be interpreted as ribs, which means topography optimization can also be used to decide where to add ribs! Size Suppose you are assigned the task of increasing the strength of a pressure vessel that has already been manufactured because subsequent testing has identified weaknesses. Ribs are ruled out because of assembly requirements. You obviously cannot form beads on the vessel. The only alternative you have is to weld reinforcing plates over selected areas, thereby increasing the effective thickness, and consequently the strength. Using reinforcement plates indiscriminately is not a sensible answer. Not only is it expensive, it may alter the dynamic response of the vessel. How can you address this?
Free-size Optimization also treats the thickness of shell elements as design variables, but with a slight difference. Unlike size optimization, which treats elements in groups, it allows the thickness to vary for each element individually. To achieve the same effect using size optimization, you would have to define one collector for each element.
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Ideally suited for machined components or laminates, it provides an effect somewhat similar to topology optimization. In the latter the equivalent density is allowed to vary continuously, while in Free-Size, the element thickness can vary continuously. If you specify a minimum thickness of 0, Free-Size Optimization can even provide for cutouts. If you have a thick structure that must be modeled with 3D elements, topology optimization will do the job. If you model a plate with layers of hexahedral elements, the equivalent-density approach allows you to remove elements, thereby achieving a variation in thickness. Free-size is ideal if you have a thin structure that would be prohibitively expensive, from a CPU-time point of view, to model using 3D elements. Free-size also provides a powerful approach for the optimization of laminates, as addressed in the next Chapter. Shape Stress is a very local phenomenon. It often dies away very rapidly. Unfortunately, it also peaks surprisingly rapidly. Any designer who has been faced with a cracked product would rue the fact that adequate fillets were not used. Unlike other types of optimization, here you are dealing with the very definition of the external boundary of the design space. In some sense, this is a little like CAD modeling, treating the dimensions of selected feature as design variables. While Topography, Topology and Size Optimization tell you about overall behavior, Shape Optimization helps you pay attention to detail. The external boundaries of the analysis model are modified by OptiStruct to improve performance. This can dramatically increase your power as a designer, allowing you to step beyond the limits defined by the Finite Element method, giving you capabilities that have traditionally been seen as pure-CAD. The figure on the left shows the initial design, with the shapeoptimized design on the right. As you can see, the optimizer has changed the fillet radius significantly. Shape Optimization requires you to specify the perturbation of the boundary. This is not an easy task if the product has more potentially-modifiable boundaries than the designer can specify with reasonable effort.
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An excellent example of usage of OptiStruct can be found at www.altairindia.com/edu/chassisdesign. This discusses how design optimization was used to arrive at a better design for the chassis of an SUV.
modelname.hm
The model you create using HyperMesh. This is a binary file containing the geometry, analysis model and optimization model. This is an intermediate file. It contains the analysis and optimization models only, without any geometry. It is created by HyperMesh and read by OptiStruct. Its a text file and can be interpreted using the format-definitions listed in the OptiStruct On-line Help. This is a text file created by OptiStruct. The contents depend on the instructions you specify in HyperMesh when creating the model. This file is created only if you explicitly tell OptiStruct to record all reactions. It is a useful
modelname.fem
modelname.out
modelname.spcf
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modelname.stat modelname.h3d
This is a text file created by OptiStruct, containing statistics on CPU usage. People who dont have access to HyperWorks licenses but want to view results of analyses use HyperView Player, freely downloadable from www.altair.com. The Player reads this binary file that is created by OptiStruct. This is a quick summary of analysis and optimization results. Viewable using any webbrowser. This is a text file, intended for use by HyperView. You will use this file to view stresses, displacements, density, convergence history, constraint violation, etc. This is a binary file containing the results of the analysis and optimization. Its readable only by HyperMesh and HyperView. If you have Macromedias Flash installed on your computer, you can use this file to view the results using HyperView Player.
modelname.html
modelname.mvw
modelname.res
modelname_frames.html
modelname_oss
OSSmooth is a module that helps you take your optimized design back to a CAD model in either STL or IGES format. This file controls the performance of OSSmooth.
There are several other files26, most of which you can ignore in the normal course of events.
Summary
Youre now well equipped to use Design Optimization as an integral part of the design process27. Remember that while this changes the way CAE has
Detailed in the on-line help documentation If you want to learn about design using laminated composites, you should read the next Chapter before going on to the assignments.
27
26
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traditionally been viewed, it puts some burden on you to think of your problem as one of design rather than as a problem in analysis. Dont be discouraged if your optimization does not yield results at first. Learning from failure is an integral part of design. Use your understanding of the Optimization Model to revisit the design variables, constraints and objective. Verify that you have indeed used your knowledge of manufacturing technology and machine design properly, and you will be rewarded with safe, elegant, and effective designs.
Aeroplanes are not designed by science, but by art in spite of some pretence and humbug to the contrary. I do not mean to suggest that engineering can do without science, on the contrary, it stands on scientific foundations, but there is a big gap between scientific research and the engineering product which has to be bridged by the art of the engineer.
British Engineer to the Royal Aeronautical Society, 1922. Quoted by Walter G Vincenti in 'What Engineers Know and How They Know It'.
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Laminates
The Miracle Material Plastics
First used extensively in packaging products like PVC pipes and polythene bags, plastics are today the visible part of almost any product, from expensive automobiles to cheap MP3 players. The reason for this is easy to find: plastics are an industrial designers delight because of the ease with which they can be shaped into almost any form you can think of. With metals, manufacturing planners are likely to reject shapes that its hard to hammer the metal into. Plastics, on the other hand can be formed, extruded, molded, sintered and even machined with a fraction of the effort it takes to work metals. Most plastics are also much lighter than metals. Unfortunately, from a stress-analysis perspective, while few engineering students have trouble finding design equations that govern the behavior of steel, plastic is another story altogether. While the material is present everywhere you look, calculating the stresses in plastics is a bit of an art. Another disadvantage of plastics, from a designers point of view, is just as easy to find. As the name shows, they are not elastic. They cannot carry loads as well as most metals can, and certainly not as well as steels. As with many other milestones in engineering history, Nature showed the way out of this. Wood has long been used as a structural material. Its fibers give it strength. As carpenters know, it is easier to saw a piece of wood along the grain than against.
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Laminates
The development of composites is a science all by itself. Composite materials come in many forms, including MMCs metal matrix composites. Our focus, however, is restricted to FRPs fiber reinforced plastics.
Laminated Composites
Laminates are one form of composite materials, in which the reinforcing
fibers are laid out in thin mats or laminae. The lamina or mat is also often referred to as a ply. Remember that fibers are like cables. They are good at resisting tension, but poorer at handling bending and compression. To take advantage of this behavior, the mats are laid out so that the fibers lie along the direction in which you expect tensile forces to act. If the mats are oriented along one direction only, the laminate is called a uniaxial laminate. It has good strength in one direction, but much poorer resistance to forces applied in any other directions. Most laminates, however, have multiple layers of mats. Also, a lamina may consist of fibers woven together to form a mat. The designers job is to determine how many layers to use in which part of the product, and how to orient each layer. Now somethings needed to fill the gaps between the fibers, and to hold the layers together. This is achieved using a binder. The binder, which is usually an epoxy, is sometimes referred to as the matrix. Laminates are widely used in applications that demand excellent strength and low weight. They are also sometimes used in non-load-bearing situations, such as the cowls of motorcycles, but these stylistic applications are not in the scope of our study. Aircraft, spacecraft, and sports equipment are excellent examples of sectors where laminates are very widely used for their excellent strength-to-weight ratio. Most high-performance bicycles, for instance the ones ridden in races such as the Tour de France or the Olympics, have frames constructed from laminated composites. Aircraft like the Stealth Bomber also make extensive use of these advanced materials. You will sometimes hear them referred to as CFRPs and GFRPs. These stand for Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastics and Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastics. Numerous fibers can be used for reinforcement. As with plastics such as Kevlar, trade names are widely used to refer to the materials.
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Laminates
As shown in the picture of the Airbus, developments in composites technology are driven by the fact that the fraction of composites used in aircraft is increasing steadily!
28
Laminates
Second, Steels are nicer for the designer since the Elasticity Modulus and Poissons Ratio are largely independent of heat treatment, rolling, etc. The permissible stress is the property that varies. In fact, the Modulus and Poissons Ratio of steel do not even vary much with alloying elements. This means the first step in stress-analysis, estimating the stiffness, can be done using standard properties. This is not the case for laminates. Unfortunately for the designer, as with all plastics, the properties of the laminates are strongly dependent on processing conditions or manufacturing conditions. Accordingly, its essential that properties be obtained from the manufacturer. It is a foolhardy designer who relies on standard properties for a plastic or a laminate! The next question that the designer faces is whether the laws of elastic stress analysis are applicable at all. Plastics are known to creep at lower temperatures than metals, they behave differently under fatigue loads, and most important of all theyre not elastic. In other words, the behavior of plastics, and therefore of laminates, is best described using non-linear relations between stress, strain and deformation. Remember what we discussed earlier linear models of behavior are often chosen even if a non-linear model is more accurate. Designers of plastic components often use the same approach. Even if the material behavior is best modeled as non-linear, linear models are used at the preliminary design stage to narrow down the choices. If the component is critical enough, however, you may need to use non-linear analyses right from the start. To sum up, there are two classes of data we require to design laminates. First, the material constants that characterize the stiffness. Second, the failure criteria we can use to estimate if calculated stress is within permissible limits.
Material Constants
Strain is the first derivative of deformation thats a definition thats independent of the material properties. The stress-strain relationship, however, is material dependent. The 3D equivalent of Hookes Law relates the six components of stress with the six components of strain. In the equation,
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Laminates
11 c11 12 c 21 13 c 31 = 22 c 41 23 c 51 33 c 61
c15 c 25 c 35 c 45 c 55
c 62 c 63 c 64 c 65
the constants Cij represent material behavior, and the matrix C is called the Constitutive Matrix. Since the stress and strain components are symmetric (that is, ij = ji), C is symmetric too. This means that the general relationship between stress and strain in 3D requires 21 constants to fully characterize the behavior of the material. An anisotropic material, then, requires 21 constants to be specified for stress-analysis. For an isotropic material, it can be shown that two constants are enough. All others can be derived from these two. Most often, we specify the Modulus of Elasticity (E) and the Poissons Ratio (). For an orthotropic material in 3D, 9 constants are required, while for an orthotropic material in 2D (as in a ply) 4 constants are required. Usually, we specify the Elasticity Modulus along the two principal directions, and the Shear Modulus and Poissons ratio in the 12 direction: E1, E2, G12 and 12. In this notation, the subscripts refer to the plys coordinate system. The 1 direction is along the direction of the fiber, the 2 direction is in the plane of the fiber but perpendicular to the fiber. The 3 direction can be obtained by taking the cross-product of the 1 and 2 vectors.
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Y 1 - Fiber Direction
Failure Theories
From a design perspective, there are a number of different ways in which a component can fail it may buckle, it may deform too much and interfere with another part, it may deform permanently, it may rupture, and so on. In this section, we will restrict our attention to stress as a measure of failure. You are familiar with the use of the von Mises condition, the Tresca condition, etc. to characterize the failure of steel under the permissiblestress mode of design. We will look for a similar method to quantify laminates: how can we determine whether the stresses within the laminated composite are within safe limits or not? Failure criteria, historically, have been derived from experimental observations, not from fundamental laws. One extreme view is that most
Failure Criteria are meaningless curves passed through unrelated data points29! Experimental Mechanics is the field in which engineers subject
materials to various conditions, then attempt to define boundaries on acceptable environments. These are called Failure Theories. For ductile materials some theories extend till yield (or permanent deformation, which is the elastic limit) while others extend till rupture or fracture. Composites are no different. There are several different failure theories that have been propounded to allow the designer to decide whether or not the stresses are within safe limits. Since composites are unlike ductile materials, they have different failure modes. A composite, for example, can fail by delamination when the binder fails and a layer peels off, like the bark on
29
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Laminates
a tree. Since the failure can occur either within the fiber or within the binder, characterizing failure is far more difficult. Just as there are no standard properties that you can use for a composite, there are no standard failure theories you can apply. Most failure theories are valid only for a select set of materials or within a select range of conditions. Extensive testing is often resorted to, with numerical analysis being used as a guideline. Some commonly used theories are the Hill theory, the Hoffman theory, the NASA Larc02 theory, the Tsai-Hill theory, and the Tsai-Wu theory, all of which apply to failure of plies. The Strain Invariant Failure Theory is often used to estimate failure of the matrix.
Choosing Elements
Most laminated composites are thin, which means they are best modeled using shell elements. If the component is not thin, as for example in the hub of the propeller, shear stress plays a more prominent part than bending stress. In this case, solid elements are better used than shells. From this perspective, the guidelines for laminated composites are no different than the general guidelines we saw earlier. The main difference from FE models of isotropic materials lies in the way the material data is specified.
Laminates
Rather than investigate the behavior of each ply and the matrix separately, an average approach is taken. In this approach, we assume the stiffness of the laminate can be separated into bending, extensional, and coupled bending-extensional stiffness. Each of these is represented by a 3 x 3 matrix. To calculate the strains in a laminate, given the forces and moments, the equation used is
B11 B 21 B 31
B12 B 22 B 32
where N and M are the Force and Moment components, A represents the extensional-stiffness, D represents the bending stiffness, and B represents the coupled bending-extension stiffness. The 6 x 6 matrix is often referred to as the ABD matrix. In this formulation, the entries in the ABD matrix depend on the thickness of each ply, the orientation of each ply, the distance of each ply from the neutral surface of the laminate, and the material properties of the plies and the binder. If the ABD matrix is available, the stresses and strains can be calculated from the forces. In other words, the problem can now be solved.
Laminates
lamina, and the orientation of each lamina with respect to some reference coordinate system. Finally, for each element, we need to specify the coordinate system with reference to which laminae orientations are specified. Given this data, the Finite Element Solver calculates the ABD matrix for each element and proceeds with the solution. Remember that the analyst does not directly specify the ABD matrix itself: it is derived from the data of the constituents of the composite. This is very convenient. Why? Remember that we make frequent use of experimentally measured data. It would be impossible for an experimental scientist to generate data for every single possible combination of plies! This is because a fabricator buys the lamina and binder, then lays up the laminae as required. There are literally infinite ways in which the same laminae can be stacked up and oriented. With the approach described above, the analyst only needs to ask the material supplier for the properties of each constituent. Then, when building the model, the analyst specifies the specific stackup-sequence used.
Interpreting Results
Having solved the problem, how do you use the results for your design? Unlike a ductile material where a single equivalent stress can be compared to the permissible stress of the material, the composite designer is often faced with the necessity to examine the laminate layer by layer. Youll see how to do this in the project that addresses optimization of composites. Fortunately, the HyperWorks approach makes it fairly easy to present the data in the form thats most convenient.
Laminates
constructed using laminates. The figure shows the junction in the detailed view. The approach we will follow ignores these areas.
Laminates
makes a compelling case in the design of weight sensitive equipment. A reduction of even a few percentage points can make the difference between a product thats good enough and a product thats outstanding. With OptiStruct, its surprisingly easy to specify an initial configuration and ask the software to come up with a suggestion thats better.
Discrete Optimization
When optimizing laminates, one of the challenges lies in the fact that the laminae can have finite thickness only. Further, the designer should have the freedom to cut a layer off at any point. In other words, some of the design variables can vary in steps, rather than varying continuously. As you will recall from your calculus courses, gradients of a discontinuous function are not defined at the discontinuity. Gradient Search Methods, therefore, need to be modified to work effectively. The mathematics used to solve such problems is called Discrete Optimization. Topology optimization, as weve seen, uses a density-based approach. Freesize, on the other hand, uses the elements thickness as the design variable. Note that this is not the same as size optimization. Using free-size, we can obtain results similar to those of a topology-optimization, but with a more even spread of material through the design space. Problems where bucklingstiffness is the main objective would be better off with topology optimization, while problems where stress is a constraint would yield better results with free-size optimization. Free-size optimization changes the thickness of the laminae during the optimization cycle. Remember that the A matrix represents the extensional or in-plane behavior. Consequently, its largely independent of the sequence in which the plies are laid up. (The D matrix is sequence sensitive, since bending stiffness varies with distance from the neutral surface). For most shell-like structures, the extensional stress dominates the behavior, so Freesize works quite well. This makes things much easier for the designer, since you only need to specify which plies you want to choose from you do not need to specify the number of layers of each ply. OptiStruct will add or remove layers of plies as required!
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Laminates
Its important to note that laminate optimization problems often have a number of local minima, so the optimization-for-design precept holds good: you are looking for a better design, not necessarily for the best design.
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Arthur C. Clarke
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Bandwidth
Response Surface
Sensitivity
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CAE and Design Optimization Basics the design variables. A zero sensitivity is an indicator of a badly phrased problem: If the objective is independent of the design variable, the optimizer is lost!
A function that has only one minimum in the domain. This minimum is the global minimum. An iterative process can be terminated when it has converged to a solution that is, when subsequent iterations do not change the solution. OptiStruct offers a choice between soft and hard convergence. The former is faster while the latter is more precise. Multi-disciplinary Optimization. Used, for example, when your product needs to be designed for optimal performance as a mechanism and as a structure. Reflects the reciprocal of the stiffness. Maximizing the compliance is the same as minimizing the stiffness. Usually referred to as the stiffness matrix in FE models, relates the applied loads to the deformation of the structure. The matrix is square, with n rows and columns. n is the number of unknowns (dofs) in the FE model. Something that involves chance or probability, but with an overall and measurable trend or direction this makes it possible to predict the behavior. Engineers frequently encounter stochastic processes and stochastic variables. A design method to reduce sensitivity of the design to inherent unpredictability of design parameters. Material whose properties are independent of direction. Applies to most metals. 2 elasticity constants are required to fully specify the material for stress analysis. The Modulus of Elasticity and the Poissons Ratio are most frequently used. In OptiStruct, these materials are of type MAT1. Material whose properties vary along principal or orthogonal directions. Applies to many fibrous materials, and to composites that have 2 ply directions. Upto 9 elasticity constants are required to fully specify the material for stress analysis. In OptiStruct, these materials are of type MAT8 for shell elements. Material whose properties vary with direction, but not necessarily along orthogonal directions. Several fused or sintered materials are anisotropic. 21 elasticity constants are required to fully specify the material for stress analysis. In OptiStruct, these materials are of type MAT2 for shell elements. MAT9 should be used for solid elements.
MDO
Compliance Stiffness
Stochastic
Orthotropic
Anisotropic
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Supported Responses
Responses can be used either as constraints or as an objective. Choices can be quite complex, particularly when multiple optimization-techniques are used simultaneously. Exercise your discretion when assigning responses as objectives. For instance, a topography optimization is unlikely to have much affect on mass, since no material is being added or removed. The responses that OptiStruct supports include:
compliance, frequency, compliance index, volume, mass, volume fraction, mass fraction, moments of inertia, center of gravity, displacements, velocities, accelerations, buckling factor, stresses, strains, composite failure, forces, synthetic responses, external (user-defined) functions.
Its a bad idea to work with a response that you do not understand from an engineering and a mathematical point of view. Its a good idea to search for a tutorial problem (part of the on-line documentation) that uses the responses you plan on using.
Errors
Its frustrating, and often confusing, to have the solver reject your model because it contains errors. As a general practice, use the check option before running an analysis or optimization. It can save you considerable time. Reading the output file (modelname.out) is usually the best way to figure out what went wrong. Common errors include:
putting elements in a wrong collector. For instance, shell elements in a PSOLID collector, or mass elements in a PSHELL collector forgetting to create loads and / or restraints creating restraints and loads in the same load-collector neglecting to specify density when using gravity loads or calculating dynamic response mixing up units
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References
Engineering Optimization: Theory and Practice, 3rd Edition, Singiresu S. Rao, Engineering Optimization: Methods and Applications, 2nd Edition, A. Ravindran, K. M. Ragsdell, G. V. Reklaitis Optimization Methods for Engineering Design, R.L.Fox, Addison Wesley Arora, J., Introduction to Optimum Design (McGraw-Hill, 1989). Bendsoe, M.P., and Sigmund, O., Topology Optimization - Theory, Methods and Applications (Springer, 2003). Haftka, R.T., and Guerdal, Z., Elements of Structural Optimization (Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996). Rozvany, G.I.N., Topology Optimization in Structural Mechanics (Springer, 1997).
Other Resources
www.altair.com which is periodically updated, contains case studies of actual usage. It also carries tips on software usage.
Refers to
Mat Coordsys Grids,
Data 1
Matid CompName PropId Gridid Elemid
Data 2
E ElemType+ X Propid
Data 3
Nu Mat Id Y Grid Id 1
Data 4
etc. Prop Data# Z Grid Id 2
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CAE and Design Optimization Basics Load@ Restraints! SubCase$ Props Grids/ Elems Grids Loads, Spcs Loadid Spcid SubCaseid Gridid Gridid
Notes: &
A Mat needs a card image. Use Mat1 for linear isotropic, Mat8 for orthotropic shells, Mat9 for linear anisotropic. The component collector is either a PSOLID or a PSHELL. Composites use a PCOMP or PCOMPG. Data depends on the element type. For a solid, theres nothing. For a shell, theres the thickness. For a composite, thickness is derived from the PCOMP or PCOMPG data. A Prop collector is needed only for 1D elements like beams or special elements such as springs, connectors, etc. Forces and Moments need no card image. Loads such as gravity, which cannot be depicted graphically, require card images. Restraints normally will not require a card image. Remember that nonzero displacements may be specified, in which case you will need to enter values. Restraints on non-existent dofs are ignored (for instance, specifying restraints on all the rotational dofs of a solid element). Sub-Case definitions are followed by a set of cards, each with a keyword (Load, Spc, etc.) followed by the relevant id. These can be viewed in the fem file, not using the card editor.
of Elasticity
Ratio
Permissible Stress
Units
Steel Aluminum Wood30 Cast Iron ABS Plastics Epoxy
N/m2
200x109 69 x109 13 x109 190 x109 2.3 x109
Kg/m3
N/m2
250x106 110 x106 50 x106 170 x106 40x106
1790
Sample properties for a Carbon Fiber Composite material: E1 181 GPa E2 10.3 GPa G12 7.17 GPa 12 0.28 Density 1.60 gm/cm3
Consistent Units
Mixing up units is one of the most common errors. Its also the least forgivable if committed by an engineer who is allowed to use the SI system of units. While FPS can be challenging, the SI system is very straightforward. The table below lists some common properties of Steel in consistent units.
Mass Length Time Force Stress Density Youngs Modulus
2.07e+11 2.07e+09 2.07e+12 2.07e+11 2.07e+05
kg kg g g ton
m cm cm mm mm
s s s s s
Pa dy/cm Pa MPa
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In compression
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CAE and Design Optimization Basics lbfs2/in slug kg in ft mm s s s lbf lbf mN psi psf 1.0e+03 Pa 7.33e-04 1.52e+01 7.83e-06
Glossary, Tips and References 3.00e+07 4.32e+09 2.07e+08 386 32.17 9.806e+02
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