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How did people keep track of numbers before pen and paper were widely available? How does addition and subtraction work if you don't have a handy written form for your numbers? Say you can't read or write, but you can count - how do you add, subtract, multiply, or divide large numbers? The answer to all these questions is . . . the abacus! What is an abacus? An abacus is a device used for addition and subtraction, and the related operations of multiplication and division. It does not require the use of pen and paper, and it's good for any base number system. There are two basic forms for the abacus: a specially marked flat surface used with counters (counting table), or a frame with beads strung on wires (bead frame). Timeline of the Abacus
Chinese Abacus Japanese Abacus Aztec Abacus Counting Table ******* ****************************************** 600 BC 500 BC 0 900 AD 1600 AD 1826 AD 1999 AD ************************************* ***************************
| O -----------------+--O-O-O-O-------- Unit
Medieval counting table with counters reading 1,327,609 (Moon 26) These tables were used with counters to represent various values. Small stones, called calculi, were used with counting tables in Greece and Rome, and stamped metal counters, rather like coins, were used with counting tables in Europe and England (Pullan 18). Although the idea of doing sums with pencil and paper became widespread around 1600 in Europe, and the counting table became completely obsolete in the first quarter of the 18th century, our word 'counter' as used for 'a flat surface upon which business is transacted' is a direct survival of the medieval counting table.
This abacus is showing the value 5402. Moving beads towards the horizontal divider adds that value, moving beads away clears the value. The Chinese abacus was brought into Japan around the 17th century (Rentchz). It was studied by the Japanese mathematician Seki Kowa (1640 - 1708) and many refinements were made to the Chinese abacus, including removing one bead on each wire above and below the horizontal dividing bar. The transformation of the Chinese abacus into the modern Japanese form was completed by 1920 (Kojima 25). This modern form has 4 beads below the
horizontal divider, and only one bead on each wire above. It also usually has 21 columns (Fernandes). The Russian abacus is similar in form to the Chinese or Japanese abacus, and was probably brought to Russia from China. The Russian form is set up to do calculations in rubles and kopeks. It has no horizontal divider, but some of the beads on each wire are a different color, to help as place-keepers (Pullan 100). Older Russian abaci have some additional columns for quarter kopeck as well as quarter ruble values (Leipala). If you go to Russia today, you will still see the abacus used. Ed Oswalt made this observation when he went to Russia in 1997: "The same store . . . where you can buy a Pentium computer, computes your bill using an abacus." An interesting form of the abacus was found during archeological excavations in Central America. This abacus dates to around 900 AD and is constructed from maize kernels threaded on a string, all contained within a wooden frame (Fernandes). Grado states that an abacus of this form would have 7 beads by 13 columns.
Figures
Figure 1: Subtraction of 7 from 15 on the counting table
Step One
------------------+---------------- Thousand | ------------------+-----------------| --------------O---+-----------------O | O ------------------+--O-O------------- Unit value of 15 value of 7
Step Two
------------------+---------------- Thousand | ------------------+-----------------| ------------------+-----------------O O | O --------O-O-O-O-O-+--O-O------------- Unit value of 15 value of 7
Step Three
------------------+---------------- Thousand | ------------------+-----------------| ------------------+-----------------O O | O --------O-O-O-O-O-+--O-O------------- Unit
Final answer is 8 back to main section Figure 2: Adding 9 to 8 on the Chinese abacus Step One
+-------------------------------------------+ ||-----------------------------------------|| || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O | || || | | | | | | | | | | | | O || |-------------------------------------------| |-------------------------------------------| || | | | | | | | | | | | | O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O | || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || ||-----------------------------------------|| +-------------------------------------------+
Step Two
+-------------------------------------------+ ||-----------------------------------------|| || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O | || || | | | | | | | | | | | | O || |-------------------------------------------| |-------------------------------------------| || | | | | | | | | | | | O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O | O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O | || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || ||-----------------------------------------|| +-------------------------------------------+
Subtract 1 from the units, giving answer of 17 Figure 3: Subtracting 9 from 27 on the Chinese abacus Step One
+-------------------------------------------+ ||-----------------------------------------|| || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O | || || | | | | | | | | | | | | O || |-------------------------------------------| |-------------------------------------------| || | | | | | | | | | | | O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O | | || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || ||-----------------------------------------|| +-------------------------------------------+
Add value of 1 for answer of 18 Figure 4: Multiplying 68 by 7 on the Chinese Abacus Step One
+-------------------------------------------+ ||-----------------------------------------|| || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O | | || || | | | | | | | | | | | O O || |-------------------------------------------| |-------------------------------------------| || | | | | | | | | | | | | O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O | || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || ||-----------------------------------------|| +-------------------------------------------+
|| | | | | | | | | | | O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O | || || O O O O O O O O O O O | O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O | O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || ||-----------------------------------------|| +-------------------------------------------+
7 x 6 is 42, so add 2 in tens column and 4 in hundreds column for final product of 476 Figure 5: Division of 15 by 5 on the Chinese abacus Step One
+-------------------------------------------+ ||-----------------------------------------|| || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O | || || | | | | | | | | | | | | O || |-------------------------------------------| |-------------------------------------------| || | | | | | | | | | | | O | || || O O O O O O O O O O O | O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || ||-----------------------------------------|| +-------------------------------------------+
Take 5 away, and add a marker bead on far left Step Three
+-------------------------------------------+ ||-----------------------------------------|| || O O O O O O O O O O O O | || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || | | | | | | | | | | | | O || |-------------------------------------------| |-------------------------------------------| || O | | | | | | | | | | | | || || | O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O ||
|| O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || ||-----------------------------------------|| +-------------------------------------------+
Take 5 away, and add a marker bead on far left Step four
+-------------------------------------------+ ||-----------------------------------------|| || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || | | | | | | | | | | | | | || |-------------------------------------------| |-------------------------------------------| || O | | | | | | | | | | | | || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || | O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || || O O O O O O O O O O O O O || ||-----------------------------------------|| +-------------------------------------------+
Take 5 away, and add a marker bead on far left for a remainder of 0 and a tally of 3
References
Accent Interactive. "Chinese Abacus" http://www.accent.co.uk/chinabacus.html: 28 March 1999 Bernazzani, Dave, "Chinese Abacus and Japanese Soroban", Dave Bernazzani's Home Page http://www.tiac.net/users/dber/abacus.htm: 28 March 1999. Dilson, Jesse. The Abacus: a Pocket Computer. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1968. Feibao, Du. "Abacus, the Earliest Calculating Machine in the World", The China Experience http://www.chinavista.com/experience/abacus/abacus.html: 27 March 1999. Fernandes, Luis. "Introduction", The Abacus, the Art of Calculating with Beads http://www.ee.ryerson.ca:8080/~elf/abacus: 28 March 1999 Grado, Victor M. "Nepohualtzitzin, A Mesoamerican Abacus" http://www.ironhorse.com/~nagual/abacus: 28 March 1999
Kojima, Takashi. The Japanese Abacus: Its Use and Theory. Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1954. Leipala, Timo. "Russian Abacus (Schoty)", http://www.dotpoint.com/xnumber/pic_abacus3.htm: 2 April 1999 Moon, Parry. The Abacus: Its history; its design; its possibilities in the modern world. New York: Gordon and Breach Science, 1971. Pullan, J.M. The History of the Abacus. London: Books That Matter, 1968. Oswalt, Ed. "Ridiculous Observations In Russia" http://www.jao.com/ace/ruslist.html: 28 March 1999 Rentzsch H., G. Ottenbacher. "History of Computing" http://wwwstall.rz.fhtesslingen.de/studentisches/Computer_Geschichte/grp1/seite2.html: 28 March 1999
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