Traditional Positivism/Postpo sitivism

They - Objectivist Media effects, uses and gratifications, cultivation, information theories, etc. Media economics, media functions, network theories, etc. Nomothetic

KARAKTERISTIK DAN QUALITY CRITERIA PARADIGMA PENELITIAN Constructionism / Constructivism Critical Theory critical theories Constructionism Constructivism Critical Constructionism
Media and the social constructions of realities, theories of discourse, etc. media and pop cultures, media and gender issues, media and identity, etc. Nomothetic / ideographic Trustworthiness Transferability Credibility Dependability Confirmability (peer inter-subjectivity) Qualitative dominant Methods Qualitative I / We - Relativist Symbolic interactions (Chicago school, atau di luar Iowa school), audience reception, theories of meaning, discourse, cultural studies, etc. Media literacy, media and gender/feminism, critical discourse theories, critical cultural studies, media and politics of identity, media policy theories etc. ) Ideographic / nomothetic Reflexivity / Authenticity: Ontological/educative auth Catalytic authenticity Tactical authenticity Confirmability (subjects researcher) Qualitative You - Realist Critical politicaleconomy of media (e.g. theories of hegemony, public spheres, media imperialism, media concentration and regulation) Ideographic / nomothetic Historical situatedness Enlightenment (conscience) Empowerment (action) Holistics Confirmability (theory) Qualitative

Ideographic Quality Criteria Reflexivity / authenticity Confirmability (subjects)

Objectivity External validity Internal Validity Reliability Confirmability (objects) Quantitative & qualitative (quantitative

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dominant) Survey, experiment, case study, Statistics,, comparative analysis, network, function,content analysis,

Survey, case study,

Interactional analysis, document/textual analysis, comparative analysis, etc

Case study Participatory, ethnography, ethnomethodology Life histories, ethnographic, explorative-dialogic analysis, discourse analysis

Case study, Participatory - action research CDA, ethnographic analysis, explorativedialogic analysis

Case study, Participatory, action, and advocacy research Historical, comparative analysis, interpretative analysis, CDA

Tabel direka penulis berdasarkan berbagai sumber, sekedar ilustrasi kompleksitas penentuan quality criteria. (Sumber a.l. Denzin and Guba, 1994, 2000, 2005), Crotty (1998), Patton (2002), Mats and Skolberg (2000). Teori-teori dalam Tabel hanya contoh, tidak mencakup keseluruhan teori dalam masing-masing paradigm. Post-modernism juga merupakan paradigma tersendiri dalam Ilmu Komunikasi, khususnya dalam analisis-analisis Baudrillard, dsb. Namun keterbatasan yang ada tidak memasukkan bahasan postmodernism.

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Perbedaan Antara Penelitian Kuantitatif dan Kualitatif

(Bryman, Quantity and Quality in Social Research, 1988; hal. 94)

QUANTITATIVE objective Kedudukan penelitian kualitatif Hubungan peneliti dan yang diteliti Hubungan teori/konsep dengan data empirik Strategi penelitian Lingkup/klaim temuan
Konsepsi

QUALITATIVE reflective penggalian interpretasi subjek dekat ( empati ) insider

studi awal

jauh (peneliti objek penelitian) outsider

konfirmatori

emergent

berstruktur

tidak berstruktur, atau flexible ideographic a truth prosesual, konstruksi sosial

nomothetic the truth statis dan eksternal

tentang realitas sosial

Analisis data subjek yg. diteliti

individual single-level analysis

kontekstual multi-level analysis

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QUALITATIVE VALIDITY
Depending on their philosophical perspectives, some qualitative researchers reject the framework of validity that is commonly accepted in more quantitative research in the social sciences. They reject the basic realist assumption that their is a reality external to our perception of it. Consequently, it doesn't make sense to be concerned with the "truth" or "falsity" of an observation with respect to an external reality (which is a primary concern of validity). These qualitative researchers argue for different standards for judging the quality of research. For instance, Guba and Lincoln proposed four criteria for judging the soundness of qualitative research and explicitly offered these as an alternative to more traditional quantitatively-oriented criteria. They felt that their four criteria better reflected the underlying assumptions involved in much qualitative research. Their proposed criteria and the "analogous" quantitative criteria are listed in the table.

Traditional Criteria for Judging Quantitative Research internal validity external validity reliability objectivity Credibility

Alternative Criteria for Judging Qualitative Research credibility transferability dependability confirmability

The credibility criteria involves establishing that the results of qualitative research are credible or believable from the perspective of the participant in the research. Since from this perspective, the purpose of qualitative research is to describe or understand the phenomena of interest from the participant's eyes, the participants are the only ones who can legitimately judge the credibility of the results.

Transferability

Transferability refers to the degree to which the results of qualitative research can be generalized or transferred to other contexts or settings. From a qualitative perspective transferability is primarily the responsibility of the one doing the generalizing. The qualitative researcher can enhance transferability by doing a thorough job of describing the research context and the assumptions that were central to the research. The person who wishes to "transfer" the results to a different context is then responsible for making the judgment of how sensible the transfer is.

Dependability

The traditional quantitative view of reliability is based on the assumption of replicability or repeatability. Essentially it is concerned with whether we would obtain the same results if we could observe the same thing twice. But we can't actually measure the same thing twice -- by definition if we are measuring twice, we are measuring two different things. In order to estimate reliability, quantitative researchers construct various hypothetical notions (e.g., true score theory) to try to get around this fact. The idea of dependability, on the other hand, emphasizes the

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need for the researcher to account for the ever-changing context within which research occurs. The research is responsible for describing the changes that occur in the setting and how these changes affected the way the research approached the study.

Confirmability

Qualitative research tends to assume that each researcher brings a unique perspective to the study. Confirmability refers to the degree to which the results could be confirmed or corroborated by others. There are a number of strategies for enhancing confirmability. The researcher can document the procedures for checking and rechecking the data throughout the study. Another researcher can take a "devil's advocate" role with respect to the results, and this process can be documented. The researcher can actively search for and describe and negative instances that contradict prior observations. And, after he study, one can conduct a data audit that examines the data collection and analysis procedures and makes judgements about the potential for bias or distortion.

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The Debate
There has been considerable debate among methodologists about the value and legitimacy of this alternative set of standards for judging qualitative research. On the one hand, many quantitative researchers see the alternative criteria as just a relabeling of the very successful quantitative criteria in order to accrue greater legitimacy for qualitative research. They suggest that a correct reading of the quantitative criteria would show that they are not limited to quantitative research alone and can be applied equally well to qualitative data. They argue that the alternative criteria represent a different philosophical perspective that is subjectivist rather than realist in nature. They claim that research inherently assumes that there is some reality that is being observed and can be observed with greater or less accuracy or validity. if you don't make this assumption, they would contend, you simply are not engaged in research (although that doesn't mean that what you are doing is not valuable or useful). Perhaps there is some legitimacy to this counter argument. Certainly a broad reading of the traditional quantitative criteria might make them appropriate to the qualitative realm as well. But historically the traditional quantitative criteria have been described almost exclusively in terms of quantitative research. No one has yet done a thorough job of translating how the same criteria might apply in qualitative research contexts. For instance, the discussions of external validity have been dominated by the idea of statistical sampling as the basis for generalizing. And, considerations of reliability have traditionally been inextricably linked to the notion of true score theory. But qualitative researchers do have a point about the irrelevance of traditional quantitative criteria. How could we judge the external validity of a qualitative study that does not use formalized sampling methods? And, how can we judge the reliability of qualitative data when there is no mechanism for estimating the true score? No one has adequately explained how the operational procedures used to assess validity and reliability in quantitative research can be translated into legitimate corresponding operations for qualitative research. While alternative criteria may not in the end be necessary (and I personally hope that more work is done on broadening the

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"traditional" criteria so that they legitimately apply across the entire spectrum of research approaches), and they certainly can be confusing for students and newcomers to this discussion, these alternatives do serve to remind us that qualitative research cannot easily be considered only an extension of the quantitative paradigm into the realm of nonnumeric data.

Four general criteria for evaluation of research from both a quantitative and qualitative perspective Denzin and Guba (1988). Criterion Qualitative Approach Trustworthines Credibility Transferability Dependability Confirmability Quantitative Approach Validity Internal Validity External Validity Reliability Objectivity

Truth value Applicability Consistency Neutrality

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QUANTITATIVE "VERSUS" QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: THE WRONG QUESTION

. . . focus on method should not drive research. Rather, the ontological and epistemological stances of researchers assessed on a spectrum from subjective to objective are more indicative of the perspectives represented in library and information science research. (Olson, Hope; www.ualberta.ca/dept/slis/cais/olson.htm) From our perspective, both qualitative and quantitative methods may be used appropriately with any research paradigm. Questions of method are secondary to questions of paradigm, which we define as the basic belief system or world view that guides the investigator, not only in choices of method but in ontologically and epistemologically fundamental ways. (Guba dan lincoln, dalam Denzin dan Linclon, 1994; p.105)

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Strategies With Which to Establish Trustworthiness

Strategy Credibility Criteria Prolonged and varied field experience Time sampling Reflexivity (field journal) Triangulation Member checking Peer examination Interview technique Establishing authority of researcher Structural coherence Referential adequacy Transferability Nominated sample Comparison of sample to demographic data Time sample Dense description Dependability Dependability audit Dense description of research methods Stepwise replication Triangulation Peer examination Code-recode procedure Confirmability Confirmability audit Triangulation Reflexivity
Krefting, L. (1991). Rigor in qualitative research: The assessment of trustworthiness. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 45(3), 214-222.

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Maintaining The Validity Of Qualitative Research

Be a listener. The subject(s) of qualitative research should provide the majority of the research input. It is the researchers task to properly interpret the responses of the subject(s). Record accurately. All records should be maintained in the form of detailed notes or electronic recordings. These records should also be developed during rather than after the data gathering session. Initiate writing early. It is suggested that the researcher make a rough draft of the study before ever going into the field to collect data. This allows a record to be made when needed. The researcher is more prepared now to focus the data gathering phase on that information that will meet the specific identified needs of the project. Include the primary data in the final report. The inclusion of primary data in the final report allows the reader to see exactly the basis upon which the researchers conclusions were made. In short, it is better to include too much detail than too little. Include all data in the final report. The researcher should not leave out pieces of information from the final report because she/he cannot interpret that data. In these cases, the reader should be allowed to develop his/her conclusions. Be candid. The researcher should not spend too much time attempting to keep her/his own feelings and personal reactions out of the study. If there is relevance in the researchers feelings to the matter at hand, these feelings should be revealed. Seek feedback. The researcher should allow others to critique the research manuscript following the developmental process. Professional colleagues and research subjects should be included in this process to ensure that information is reported accurately and completely. Attempt to achieve balance. The researcher should attempt to achieve a balance between perceived importance and actual importance. Often, the information reveals a difference in anticipated and real areas of study significance. Write accurately. Incorrect grammar, misspelled words, statement inconsistency, etc. jeopardize the validity of an otherwise good study.
Wolcott, H.R. (1990). Qualitative inquiry in education: The continuing debate.

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Assessment of Trustworthiness Corroboration The purpose of corroboration is not to confirm whether peoples perceptions are accurate or true reflections of a situation but rather to ensure that the research findings accurately reflect peoples perceptions, whatever they may be. The purpose of corroboration is to help researchers increase their understanding of the probability that their findings will be seen as credible or worthy of consideration by others (Stainback & Stainback, 1988). Triangulation One process involved in corroboration is triangulation. Denzin (1978) has identified several types of triangulation. Triangulation of data sources Triangulation of data collection methods. Triangulation of investigators Negative Cases. Other procedures include research or inquiry audit, peer debriefing, and the seeking of negative cases in the field that might disconfirm interpretations.

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Some examples of

Qualitative Method of Analysis

Narrative Analysis
Detailed atheoretical description that organizes mass amounts of information

Ideal Types Analysis

Comparing evidence against pure standards to find patterns and exceptions

Successive Approximation Analysis

Repeated analysis to make theory accurately approximate the evidence

The Illustrative Method: Illustrating pre-existing theory with

select cases. Pre-existing theory or model provides the empty boxes. The researcher sees whether evidence can be gathered to fill them (Neuman, 2000). Two variations:

The Empty Boxes (single case) The Parallel Demonstration of a model (multiple cases)
M

Comparative Analysis
ethod of Agreement, Method of Difference (Mill) Pattern-Matching (Yin, 1988): Rival explanations as pattern

Network Analysis
Mapping relationships between units; determining influence by these relationships
(Yin, 1988);

Time-Series Analysis Analysis (Neuman, 1997)

Time Sequence

Event Structure Analysis (ESA) / Path dependency: establishing causal relationships through sequencing events Delphi method : a systematic interactive forecasting method based on inputs of independent experts

Functional Analysis
Determining function of each unit in a system which is required for the system to be functional and/or stable

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Metodologi Penelitian Sosial - Semester Ganjil 98

Program Pascasarjana Ilmu-ilmu Sosial Universitas Indonesia

CONTOH SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION METHOD - EXPLANATION BUILDING Sistem ekonomi liberal membentuk kelas menengah yang mampu menciptakan dan memperkuat tuntutan kearah demokratisasi (Structural Factor) NEGATIVE CASE: Kasus Singapore: Kelas menengah tidak cukup memiliki ide-ide budaya politik yang kondusif untuk terciptanya tuntutan yang kuat kearah demokratisasi (Agency Factors)

Sistem ekonomi liberal dan tumbuhnya ideide budaya demokrasi dikalangan kelas menengah (agency and structural factors) akan memperkuat tuntutan kearah demokratisasi system politik

Kasus Philippines: Walaupun ide-ide demokrasi Barat kuat dimiliki kelas menengah, namun demokratisasi baru dimungkinkan setelah terjadinya fragmentasi dikalangan elite penguasa.

Tumbuhnya ide-ide budaya demokrasi, terbentuknya kelas menengah, dan terjadinya fragmentasi kekuasaan (faktor budaya, struktural, dan politik) akan memperkuat tuntutan kearah demokratisasi sistem politik

Kasus Indonesia: Tuntutan demokratisasi politik yang cukup signifikan baru muncul setelah adanya tekanan internasional, baik berupa krisis moneter dan tekanan pasar internasiona ataupun tekanan politik lembaga dan negaranegara asing.

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Metodologi Penelitian Sosial - Semester Ganjil 98

Program Pascasarjana Ilmu-ilmu Sosial Universitas Indonesia

Kemunculan tuntutan signifikan kearah demokratisasi sistem politik, ditentukan oleh peran kelas menengah, kuatnya ide-ide demokrasi, adanya fragmentasi kekuasaan, serta munculnya tekanan internasional (faktor-faktor struktural, budaya, politik, dan intnal) THE ILLUSTRATIVE METHOD URBANIZATION LITERACY ECONOMIC - MEDIA PARTICIPATION 1990 Perbaikan transportasi memperbesar akses pendidikan warga pedesaan, ditambah migran yang telah memperoleh akses pendidikan. Karenanya, semakin banyak warga terserap ke sektor ekonomi di luar pertanian (pemerintahan, industri jasa,dan manufaktur.). POLITICAL PARTICIPATION 2000 Ketrlibatan para migran dan penduduk pedesaan dalam aktivitas politik, a.l. melalui keanggaotaan dlm Parpol, demo buruh industri, dsb. Di kota2 besar yang secara politis penting

1970 Peningkatan arus urbanisasi di Indonesia. Ketimpangan sarana dan akses pendidikan antara daerah rural dan urban

1980 Terjadinya peningkatan literacy yang disebabkan karena keluarga migran memperoleh akses pendidikan yg lebih besar. Ketimpangan akses pendidikan rural-urban tidak berobah signifikan

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Metodologi Penelitian Sosial - Semester Ganjil 98

Program Pascasarjana Ilmu-ilmu Sosial Universitas Indonesia

Perbaikan pendidikan dan ekonomi menyebabkan mereka mampu memanfaatkan media, dan diperhitungkan dalam kebijakan2 media

CAUSAL COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS METHOD OF AGREEMENT Variabel Industrialization and Trade Policies Domestic Savings and Finacial Development External Financial S.KOREA TAIWAN HONG KONG

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Metodologi Penelitian Sosial - Semester Ganjil 98

Program Pascasarjana Ilmu-ilmu Sosial Universitas Indonesia

Flows and External Debt Structure of Production Human Resources Development The Role of Government

per Capita Income HIGH HIGH HIGH Contoh variable diambil dari:James, Naya, and Meier (1988) Asian Development: Economic Success and Policy Lessons. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. Apakah faktor-faktor tersebut, yang relatif sama diantara ke-3 negara tersebut merupakan faktor yang menyebabkan tingginya per capita income negara-negara tsb di atas?

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Metodologi Penelitian Sosial - Semester Ganjil 98

Program Pascasarjana Ilmu-ilmu Sosial Universitas Indonesia

METHOD OF DIFFERENCE Newly Industrializing Countries (HongKong, S.Korea, Spore, Taiwan) Industrializati on and Trade Policies Domestic Savings and Finacial Development External Financial Flows and External Debt Structure of Production Human Resources Development The Role of Middle-income Southeast Asian Countries (Msia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand) Low-income South Asian Countries (Bangladesh, India, Burma, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka)

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Metodologi Penelitian Sosial - Semester Ganjil 98

Program Pascasarjana Ilmu-ilmu Sosial Universitas Indonesia

Government per Capita Income High Medium Low Contoh variable diambil dari:James, Naya, and Meier (1988) Asian Development: Economic Success and Policy Lessons. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.

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