A TRAINING REPORT

ON

POWER ELECTRONICS
(CES-PLANT)
RELIANCE INDUSTRIES LIMITED HAZIRA, SURAT, GUJARAT

TRAINING PERIOD: 16/05/11 TO 15/06/11 GUIDED BY: Shri SHEKHAR SINGH CES (Power Electronics)

SUBMITTED BY: SURYAPRAKASH BARNWAL Btech Electronics & Communication (III year). Mewar University Rajasthan...

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This training program was of immense support to my theoretical knowledge. This formed a bridge between theoretical and practical knowledge. And to build this bridge, many helped me during the entire training program. I am grateful to the management of RIL who gave me this golden opportunity to undergo training in their complex. I wish to thank everyone who had great patience to answer all my queries all along this program. Everyone extended full co-operation and concern towards my training. They overlooked all the disturbances and inconvenience caused by me in their work. The learning center and CES Power electronics department were very co-operative and supportive. I would like to thank Mr.Himanshu Bhatt and Mr.Roy Choudhary at Learning center for guiding me about what and how to learn during this training period. I am thankful to Mr.M.S.Shetty (H.O.D., Power Electronics Dept.) for his extreme cooperation to give me an opportunity to take training in this department. I am thankful to Mr. Shekhar Singh for his special consideration to check that I have been given proper guidance at every step. I am also extremely grateful to Mr Rajesh Bushan Mr Paresh Patel Mr Gaurav Patel Mr Pramod Patil Mr R K Singh Mr Pramod Dave Mr Vihar Raval Mr Suresh Patel

For their guidance and help throughout my training program. Thanking you

SURYAPRAKASH BARNWAL Btech Electronics & Communication (6th sem). Mewar University Rajasthan...
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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. SURAPRAKASH M. BARNWAL a student of (Btech ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION) from MEWAR UNIVERSITY, Gangrar Chittaurgarh, has undergone vocational training at RELIANCE INDUSTRES LIMITED in Central Services Department (Power electronics Section) from 16th May to 15th June, 2011. His training included the Study of Telecommunication Network, UPS, Variable Speed Drives, Fire Alarm and Detection Systems, Battery & Battery Chargers, CP Systems, etc. He had Worked under our Guidance and direction.

For Reliance Industries Ltd. Hazira

Shri M. S. Shetty CES Power Electronics (HOD.)

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RELIANCE INDUSTRIES LIMITED

Growth has no limit at Reliance. I keep revising my vision. Only when you can dream it, you can do it

Dhirubhai H. Ambani Foundr Cairman Reliance Group December 28, 1932 July 6, 2002
Dhirubhai Ambani founded Reliance as a textile company and led its evolution as a global leader in the materials and energy value chain business. He is credited to have brought about the equity cult in India in the late seventies and is regarded as an icon for enterprise in India. He optimized the spirit dare to dream and learn to excel. The Reliance Group is a living testimony to his indomitable will, single-minded dedication and an unrelenting commitment to his goals. 3|Page

HISTORY OF RELIANCE
The Reliance group founded in 1958 by Dhirubhai Ambani (1932 2002) is Indias Largest Business House with total revenue of over Rs.99, 000 crores; cash profit of Rs. 6200 crores and exports of Rs. 15900 crores. The Reliance Industriies hazira complex near Surat in Gujarat is situated on a 1000 acres land near the Bank of river Tapi. The group activities span exploration and productivity and marketing, petrochemical (Polyester), polymers and intermediately textile financial services and insurance power, telecom and infocom initiatives. The group exports its product to more than 100 Countries of the world over reliance emerged as Indias most admired business, for the fourth successive year in TNS mode survey or 200. The history of Reliance is thus replete with Landmarks such as 1977 Initial Public offering 1982 polyester startup 1986 fiber intermediates, chemical startup 1992 first international offering 1993 Indias first International offering 1997 hazira phase 2 expansions completed.

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Executive Summary
Reliance Industries Limited is the Largest private sector company (on all major financial parameters) and its activities include exploration and production of oil and gas, textiles, refining and marketing, petrochemicals (polyesters, polymers and intermediates), textiles, financial services and insurance, power, telecom, and infocom. Reliance Industries limited, Hazira manufactures petrochemicals and polymers. The products manufactured at RIL Hazira include PP, PE, VC, VCM, MEG, DEG, TEG, PTA, PET, PFY, POY, etc. The Finance & Accounts department of Reliance Industries Limited, Hazira deals with Plant level expenses only. The various activities by the different sections are in view of manufacturing activities done. All the activities are undertaken and executed by H.O. based on facts and figures received from Hazira. So the different manufacturing activities like costing, material accounting, insurance claims, various cash activities, bills reimbursement and remittances, employees wages salaries, banc reconciliation and other activities like budgeting and excise and custom activities are done at Hazira. The Finance & Accounts department has mainly six sections Cash & Bank section, Insurance section, central Accounting section, Payroll section, Project Accounts section and Account Payable sections. The Accounts Payable sections main function is to process the bills of payment and after verification gives an order for the payment of the same. The Insurance section takes care of covering all the assets of the plant under insurance and to follow up payments of premium and settlement of claims. The Central Accounting section takes care of costing & budgeting. The Costing section is mainly concerned with finding out the cost per unit of the products manufactured, controlling and reporting the costs by using techniques like standard costing, marginal costing, and variance analysis. The section is also responsible for budgeting of various Plants at Hazira. The cash and Bank section is responsible for making timely payments to the vendor and to maintain minimum required cash balance. The payroll section takes care of the reimbursements to be made to the employees in accordance to their basic pay and allowances accounting monthly. At Reliance Industries limited, SAP (Systems, Applications, and Products) is used for data processing. This ERP (enterprise resource planning) is one of the commonly used programmers by many business houses globally. Reliance Industries Ltd. uses SAP/R3 in every branch.

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INDEX
Contents Role of CES in Reliance Power Electronics Telecommunication Fire and Alarm System Cathodic Protection Page no. 07 08 26 46 54

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ROLE OF CES IN RELIANCE

The role of CES (CENTRAL ENGINEERING SERVICES) in RIL is very important, because this department provides maintenance and services to all plants. The following are the areas, which make utilization of this department.

MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT
Inspection & corrosion Condition & monitoring Contrast line up Drawing & FCO Documentation/ technical library Machining & overhauling

ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT
Motor overhauling Relay testing & calibration Transformer oils filtration & oil checking Air-conditioning

INSTRUMENTATION
Testing & calibration of instrument/ control valves Maintenance of analyzer Maintenance of DCS Maintenance of PLC

CIVIL
Maintenance of buildings and roads Mini project execution Township maintenance Purchase management

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CHAPTER - I
POWER ELECTRONICS
Activity:

-UPS -DRIVES -BATTERIES -CHARGERS

Periodically shut down of UPS & lining up all the problems. Maintenance of battery charger, variable speed drives battery, repairing of the cards.

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A- UNINTERRUPTED POWER SUPPLY

INTRODUCTION: UPS are widely used in industry to maintain uninterrupted power supply to critical loads which if stop working can cause loss of industry. PROBLEMS SUPPLY: IN GRID POWER

The Power supplied by Electricity Company consists of following problems: SAG: This appears on the line when excess loading occurs due to starting of heavy motors and Transformers and typically lasts for a few seconds. SWELL: Similarly when major load is disconnected voltage swell occurs. Sustained Under Voltage. Sustained Over Voltage. Momentary interruption. Black outs. Impulse and oscillatory transients. EFFECTS OF SAGS AND SURGE:

When and sag and surge voltage go beyond limits, the equipment stops functioning particularly under voltage will cut off the equipment. Surge beyond the breakdown of the insulation will damage the power supply circuits. With continuous over voltage, equipment may function properly but would reduce life because over stressing of insulation. Continuous under voltage may stress on power supply since most of the equipment require a constant power and at lower voltages it will draw excessive current from power supply which in turn will cause fatigue and reduce life. Every equipments has tolerance envelope of supply condition, any sustained interruption beyond this envelope would cut off the equipment permanently, commonly 9|Page

described as tripping or lockout condition. Continuous process industry as a whole cannot sustain the above conditions and a UPS is used for no break power supply condition. In a select few cases the process plants are very hazardous to environment and persons due to loss of power to safety system. NEED OF UPS: As the control system becomes more and more complicated, the need for stable power supply free from above problem is increased. Uninterruptible Power Supply normally called as UPS is regarded as the ultimate solution to the above-mentioned Power problems. UPS provides stable uninterrupted power supply to the consumer like process automation system, computers etc. This is achieved by storing the energy in a battery bank. When the mains supply is healthy rectifier / charger will supply power to inverter. Inverter in turn supplies power to load through static switch. When mains supply fails, battery will supply power to the inverter. TYPES OF UPS: There are three different types of UPS: On-line UPS. Off-line UPS. Line interactive UPS.

(A) ON-LINE UPS:

SYSTEM DISCRIPTION: On line UPS also called as double conversion UPS. The above single line diagram illustrates the operation of the System. AC supply from the Utility is fed to Rectifier / Charger. The converted DC will supply DC power to the Inverter at the same time this will maintain the charge on the Battery. The Inverter will then invert the DC source to AC and supplies critical loads. The Basic Building Blocks of UPS are: Rectifier / Charger Battery Bank Inverter Static Switch Rectifier / Charger: FUNCTION: Supply DC power to Inverter. Charging the battery. The basic function of the rectifier is to convert AC Power to DC for the

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inverter in the UPS and to charge and maintain the charge in the battery. They are normally 3 phase controlled rectifier using SCRs. The 3-phase rectifier can be 12-pulse or 6-pulse system. The difference between the two is level of control on rectification and harmonics induced.6 Pulse rectifiers generate higher harmonic distortion in comparison to 12 Pulse systems. 3 - Phase full-controlled Charger is shown. Varying firing angle, by advancing the firing angle the DC voltage will increase, can vary the output voltage of the rectifier bridge and vice versa. The choke L1 at the DC output will smooth the output voltage so that inverter can work without Battery. BATTERY BANK: This is used to store the energy to provide power during power failure. The duration of backup power, normally referred to as Autonomy Time, depends on the system requirement and the capacity of the battery. It can range from 5 minutes to 60 minutes typically. There are different types of batteries available for UPS. Commonly used batteries in UPS application are Lead Acid Nickel Cadmium INVERTER: Inverting DC to AC power supply, the inverter is always in direct contact with the critical load, to supply clean and Uninterruptible power. There are two main technologies behind the design of the inverter. They are the SCR type, which uses the thyristors to switch and generates and sinusoidal output voltage. The other type is the transistorized type, which uses BJT, FET, or IGBT transistors with pulse width modulation (PWM) to generate the sine wave output. SCR inverter technology has been used since the very early days of static UPS. But PWM inverter with IGBT's is replacing them rapidly. PWM inverter is getting more popular. It has superior voltage regulation capability at a faster response time to load changes. It also operates quieter. A schematic diagram of Single Phase PWM inverter is shown above. 11 | P a g e

STATIC SWITCH: The purpose of static switch is to switch the output between inverter and bypass without interruption. Static switch is 2 sets thyristors connected in antiparallel. 1 set for inverter output and another for alternate mains. In some UPS the static switch is bypassed by contactors or breakers to save the voltage drop across the thyristor and to avoid heat dissipation, the mechanical bypass will introduce power loss momentarily, 50 to 100 m sec, due to the slower mechanical movement. The Static bypass is electronically controlled and can be switched on off easily and to bridge the power loss while mechanical bypass is being switched in. Normally inverter supplies the load, Load will transfer to bypass only under fault condition. In static switch control unit monitors the inverter voltage and transfer to mains will take place if mean value of inverter voltage is outside the set limit or if the instant value of the output voltage is outside the set limit for more than the predetermined tome (approximately 5 ms).

TOTAL BYPASS: Total pass some time called as maintenance bypass is used for supplying the load for directly from mains when there is total shutdown on UPS for maintenance purpose. Advantages: Good power conditioning/protection all the times because of double power conversion and regeneration of power from inverter. Critical load is never subjected to direct utility power, which can be full of spikes, surge, and voltage fluctuation & frequency problems. No power loss or transitional switching of power during power failure & power restoration. The on- line UPS design has no limit to its capacity. 12 | P a g e

Disadvantages: As the on-line UPS must have a full-size rectifier to supply power to run the inverter and at the same time float charge the battery. The physical size of the UPS is normally larger and heavy. With this UPS topology, they tend to be more costly to design and manufacture, making it more expensive compared to other UPS design (B). OFF-LINE UPS: SYSTEM DESCRIPTION: The off-line UPS had been designed to provide a smaller and lighter UPS, which is also more affordable. The off-line UPS has the utility power line as the priority power source where the inverter is only an off-line standby power. This means that the critical load will receive power from utility directly all the times except when power failure occurs the inverter will then supply the load. The main difference between an on-line UPS and off-line UPS is that the inverter in an off-line UPS does not supply the load most of the times and the existence of the change-over-switch in the off-line UPS. The off-line UPS will allow the utility power to feed directly to the critical load, through the change-over-switch. At the same time, the utility power will also float charge the battery through the rectifier, while the inverter is idling. During a power failure, the monitoring circuit will switch the changeover-switch to allow the inverter to supply power to the critical load. When the switching occurs the critical load will normally experience a momentary power loss, typically for 4 to 10m sec. most computers or critical load are now on switch mode power supply, which can tolerate such momentary power break. When power resumes, the changeover switch will again switch to utility power to allow the utility to supply energy to the critical load, while the rectifier will recharge the battery with the inverter idling. Advantages: Smaller size and lighter weight. More affordable price. Higher in efficiency. Disadvantages: Provide minimal power conditioning and protection. As there is almost no power protection during normal operation and critical loads are power directly by utility. Has momentary power breaks during power failures and power restoration, sometime called transition time. This break may not be acceptable to highly critical and sensitive load, like file servers. Off-line UPS has a limit to its capacity. Normally up to 2KVA single phase. 13 | P a g e

 May not be able to be configured for longer battery back-up time, due to smaller size rectifier, which may not maintained adequate charge for the battery. Can be with square wave inverter output.

(C). LINE INTERACTIVE UPS: SYSTEM DESCRIPTION: The line interactive UPS is basically very much like Off-line UPS where the utility power supplies the critical load directly during the normal operation. In line interactive system, the utility power will go through 1 to 2 stages of filter aimed at trying to filter of some unwanted noise. The voltage booster is incorporated to regulate the output voltage during normal operation. This also results in a much wider input operating window voltage, typically at -30% and +10% of nominal voltage. Making the line interactive UPS more suitable for location where under voltage problem is persistent. Instead having a rectifier and inverter modules, this UPS has only one converter to allow the battery charging and discharging. Transfer time still exist in this UPS like in the Off-line UPS, but may be at faster speed, 2ms. As most UPS vendors have positioned the line interactive UPS to be a little more expensive, most line interactive UPS are incorporated with more sophisticated monitoring and interface features as compared to more basic off-line UPSs. Advantages: Faster switching/transfer time as compared to Off-line Units. Small, lightweight and compact. Affordable. Mostly sine wave inverter output. More intelligent features incorporated. Disadvantages: Lesser power protection as compared to On-line UPS. Transition time, though very short, may not be suitable to sensitive loads. Has limitation in their capacity UPS CONFIGURATION: As UPS are mainly meant for critical systems operation of the UPS are also very critical. If he UPS which is supporting the critical system fails, the critical system may cease to operate until the UPS faults are rectified. To increase the efficiency of the UPS systems UPS can be connected in Parallel or Hot redundant mode, so that if one fails the other will continue to supply the load. 14 | P a g e

PARALLEL REDUNDANT CONFIGURATION: In this configuration, 2 or more UPS modules are paralleled together to supply power to load via a common output bus bar. This will Increases output capacity; i.e.2 units of 100KVA paralleled together will provide a total capacity of 200KVA. Provides redundancy, or back-up i.e.2 units of 100KVA paralleled together And when one UPS fails, the other UPS will continue to support the full load without interruption. Here one UPS is called MASTER and other is SLAVE and configuration is MASTER-SLAVE configuration HOT STANDBY CONFIGURATION: This is method of connecting UPS together in series. In a HOT STAND BY mode only one UPS is supplying the load during normal operation. A second UPS output is then connected to the bypass input of the first UPS. When main UPS fails due to whatever reasons, it will transfer the load to the bypass. The second UPS, which was all the while in idle mode, will provide supply to the load via bypass of the first UPS. The Hot standby configuration bears the following characteristics and system requirements: Only two units can be linked together in this mode. The UPS inverter will experience 100% load during transfer. Inverter output of second UPS (back up) will fluctuate during transfer due to sudden load change. The UPS used in this configuration must have a very good output voltage regulation especially during 100% load change. Typically, a dynamic regulation of 5% maximum is needed.

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B- VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES

INTRODUCTION: A drive is a speed-regulating device. It is used to facilitate speed control of the motors and is generally used for industrial purposes NEED FOR DRIVES: Speed control is very important in large industries. Simple example of variable speed drive is electric fan. In an electric fan, we change the speed of the fan by varying the resistance called regulator. PRINCPLE OF OPERATION: The speed of a motor is given by Where N = speed of motors in rpm f = frequency of operation P = no. Of poles According to this formula, changing the frequency of operation or by changing the no of poles we can change the speed of the motor. But no of poles of the motor are constant. But most of the application needs continuous variable speed and here synchronous speed is directly proportional to the frequency. Thus frequency is varied to obtain variation in speed. Also to secure maximum torque from the motor, voltage must be made proportional to the frequency. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE: Motors are widely used in industries due to rugged construction, compact size and low maintenance. Although the speed control of ac motors is more difficult than the dc motors, various drives have been developed to control their speed. The first generation of ac variable speed drive was huge due to the use of high rating thyristors and as motor rating increased the size of the drives also increased. More compact transistors replaced Thyristors then. These days IGBTs are used, which are so compact that a drive which occupied half a room can now be fitted into a small panel. These drives are also more reliable and easier to operate. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE: Drive consists of following major parts: Converter Filters Inverter Control circuits 16 | P a g e

CONVERTER: The basic function of the rectifier is to convert AC Power to DC and feed it to inverter for further process. They are normally 3 phase full controlled rectifiers using SCRs. Here 6 SCRs are used with 12-pulse or 6-pulse system. FILTER: Filters are employed to obtain smooth dc, which is fed to inverter. Filter is usually capacitive type. INVERTER: Inverting DC to controlled AC power supply, of which frequency can be varied. There are two main technologies behind the design of the inverter. They are the SCR type, which uses the thyristors to switch and generates and sinusoidal output voltage. The other type is the transistorized type, which uses BJT, FET, or IGBT transistors with pulse width modulation (PWM) to generate the sine wave output. SCR inverter technology has been used since the very early days and is now replaced widely by transistors and IGBT's. SCR inverter tends to emit slightly higherlevel audible noise as compared to transistorized inverter and requires commutating circuits, which increase cost and size. PWM inverter with IGBT's is getting more popular. It has superior voltage regulation capability at a faster response time to load changes. It also operates quieter. Nowadays PWM transistorized (IGBT) based inverters are normally being used. A schematic diagram of Single Phase PWM inverter is shown below. CONTROL CIRCUITS: They usually comprise of gate triggering circuits of SCRs. They are also known as firing circuits, which are used to trigger SCRs at required time and thus control DC output. They also have gating circuits for switching IGBT's. Thus control circuits completely handle all the operations in the circuit

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C- BATTERY
BATTERY: There are two types of battery cells: Primary Battery Secondary battery PRIMARY BATTERY: Primary battery is basically zinc-anode base system. Recently significant advances in energy density have been achieved, together with improvement in other areas like as low temperature performance and storage capability, through the development of lithium -anode-based systems and Specialist couples using anodes materials such as cadmium, magnesium and indium-bismuth. SECONDARY BATTERY: In order to increase gravimetric density, the gravimetric and volumetric densities that open circuit and on load cell E.M.F values and the minimum and maximum operating temperature secondary batteries are used. Following are the various batteries used. Sealed lead acid. Unsealed lead acid. Sealed nickel cadmium. Vented nickel cadmium. Two types of secondary rechargeable batteries, which are lead -acid and nickelcadmium, are generally used in the industries and they are described below. LEAD ACID BATTERY: The valve regulated lead acid battery is one of many types of lead-acid batteries. In a VRLA battery the hydrogen and oxygen produced in the cells largely recombine back into water. In this way there is minimal leakage, though some electrolyte still escapes if the recombination cannot keep up with gas evolution. VRLA have been called Maintenance Free (MF) batteries. As electrolyte is lost, VRLA cells may experience "dry-out" and lose capacity. Recent maintenance procedures have been developed allowing "rehydration" of cells that have experienced dry-out, often restoring significant amounts of the lost capacity.

FEATURES: Longer float life Very good heat dissipation No water addition during service life 18 | P a g e

CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN LEAD ACID BATTERIES: A) The basic cell reaction in the traditional lead-acid battery: PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4 B) The reaction at the positive electrode: PbO2 + 3H+ + HSO4- + 2eC) At the negative electrode: Pb + HSO4PbSo4 + H+ + 2e2H2O + PbSo4 2PbSo4 + 2H2O

ADVANTAGES: Inexpensive and simple to manufacture in terms of cost per watt hours, the SLA is the least expensive. Mature, reliable and well-understood technology when used correctly, the SLA is durable and provides dependable service. Low self-discharge the self-discharge rate is among the lowest in rechargeable battery systems. Low maintenance requirements no memory; no electrolyte to fill. Capable of high discharge rates. DISADVANTAGES: Cannot be stored in a discharged condition. Low energy density poor weight-to-energy density limits use to stationary and wheeled applications. Allows only a limited number of full discharge cycles well suited for standby applications that require only occasional deep discharges. Environmentally unfriendly the electrolyte and the lead content can cause environmental damage. APPLICATIONS: WIRELESS: - Base transceiver station, base switches (MSO), CDMA/3G base stations, main switches. TRANSMISSION:-Fiber optic system, digital microwave, satellite earth stations. SWITCHING: - Local access switching, primary exchanges, point of inter connect switches, internet and gateway switches.

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NICKEL CADMIUM POCKET PLATE TYPE BATTERY: The nickel cadmium battery (commonly abbreviated nicd is a type of rechargeable battery using nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes. The abbreviation NiCd is derived from the chemical symbols of nickel (Ni) and cadmium (Cd), there are two types of NiCd batteries: sealed and vented. Nickel-cadmium cells have a nominal cell potential of 1.2

CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN Ni-Cd BATTERIES: A) The basic cell reaction in the traditional lead-acid battery: 2 Ni (OH) 2 + Cd (OH) 2 B) At the negative electrode: 2 Ni (OH) 2 + Cd (OH) 2 C) The reaction at the positive electrode: Cd (OH) 2 + 2e Cd +10H2 NiOOH + Cd + 2e2 NiOOH + Cd + 2H2O

A standard theoretical potential difference between the two electrodes in the nickel cadmium pocket plate cell is expressed as the difference between the potential given in the above paragraphs (i.e. 1.299V) FEATURES: Long service life - Depending on usage conditions, GP NiCd batteries can deliver 300 - 1000 charge / discharge cycles. Superior high rate discharge characteristics - Up to 2C high rate discharge is possible. Quick charging capability - Rapid charge in about one hour. Excellent overcharge performance - GP NiCd batteries can be continuously overcharged at O.1C rate for 28 days without leakage or deformation

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ADVANTAGE: Fast and simple charge even after prolonged storage. High number of charge/discharge cycles if properly maintained the NiCd provides over 1000 charge/discharge cycles. Good load performance the NiCd allows recharging at low temperatures. Long shelf life in any state-of-charge. Simple storage and transportation most airfreight companies accept the NiCd without special conditions. DISADVANTAGE: Relatively low energy density compared with newer systems. Memory effect the NiCd must periodically be exercised to prevent memory. Environmentally unfriendly the NiCd contains toxic metals. Some countries are limiting the use of the NiCd battery. APPLICATIONS: Communications - Cellular phones, cordless phones, pager and transceivers. Information devices - Notebook computers, personal digital assistants (PDAs), portable facsimile machines. Audio and video devices - Digital video cameras, LCD TVs, portable DVD, VCD, MD and CD players. Emergency lighting COMPARISON OF LEAD ACID AND NICKEL CADMIUM BATTERY:
LEAD ACID BATTERY ACIDIC High rate charge and discharge is not possible Shorter life Comparatively cheap More maintenance is required Difficult to maintain due to acid as it involves operational hazardous Unreliable Performance affected due to over charging Cell voltage 2 V NICKEL CADMIUM POCKET PLATE BATTERY BASE Suitable for high rate charge and discharge Longer life Costly Less maintenance required Easy to maintain, No such operational hazardous. Fairly Reliable No problem with overcharging. Cell voltage 1.2 V

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D- BATTERY CHARGER
INTRODUCTION: Station battery charger is used to supply the control power to the electrical switch gear like breakers, etc. which need the DC supply for its operation and in case of failure of electrical power the control power continue to fed by the battery. Generally when the electrical power is available, the charger develops DC power through rectifier and feeds the load and at the same time it also keeps battery in charging, thus the maintaining the battery healthy. CHARGING EQUIPMENT: Battery charging equipment consists of Float Charger Boost charger Battery charging equipment comprises of float charger and float cum boost charger. Float charger has only constant voltage mode. It is capable to supply trickle-charging current to battery and the station load. Float cum boost charger has two modes of operation, constant voltage mode and constant current mode. In constant voltage mode it works as float charger and in constant current mode it works as boost charger.

After getting battery discharged during input power failure, when AC power is restored, the battery needs to be charged. Boost charging is being done off line. For charging the battery or when giving equalizing charge to the battery float cum boost charger is used in its constant current mode. During boost charging the battery tap which is connected the load through a blocking diode maintains DC continuity on load, in case of failure of input power while batteries are on boost charging, float charger is also kept `ON. Float charger supplies the station load. Basically there are two types of rectifiers used in the battery charger. Full-wave half controlled rectifier. Full-wave fully controlled rectifier. 22 | P a g e

TYPES OF RECTIFIERS: (A).FULL-WAVE HALF CONTROLLED RECTIFIER: In half controlled rectifier 3 SCRs and 3 Diodes are used for 3 phase Rectifier Bridge. In half controlled rectifier bridge one half cycles cannot be controlled and thus control is limited to some extent. The controller consists of following various circuits: Power supply circuit. Reference and soft starter circuit. Amplifier for current signals. Voltage regulating amplifier. Current regulating amplifier. Trigger pulse-generating circuits. Auto/manual facility. Operation details: When the charger is connected to the appropriate AC voltage source, the voltage is connected to the primary of the main transformer through a 3-pole contactor and fuses or 3-pole circuit breaker. The transformer steps the voltage up or down as required for the specific DC output voltage and provides galvanic isolation between battery and input supply. The transformers secondary is connected to the full wave bridge rectifier assembly. The bridge is the heart of the power circuit. This assembly is a standard three phase full-wave half controlled silicon bridge. The voltage control is accomplished by the application of a positive pulse to the gate terminals of the SCR at the desired time. Before the pulse is applied, the SCR is open, and no current flows in the circuit. However, as soon as the SCR is fired, it operates as a standard silicon diode until the forward current is reduced to almost zero. Charger output control can therefore be accomplished by changing the firing angle.

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Firing pulse generation circuit: The pulse train carrying the information regarding the required delay angle is given as input to three independent pulse generation circuits. Each of these circuits is synchronized to an input phase voltage and produces a firing pulse with the predetermined delay during the positive period of the respective input voltage phase. Two transistors in the electronic card amplify each of these pulses. (B). FULLY CONTROLLED RECTIFIER: In full controlled rectifier 3 Diodes in half bridge rectifier are replaced by SCRs and used for 3-phase Rectifier Bridge. In full controlled rectifier bridge both the cycles can be controlled and hence better regulation is possible. So normally full controlled rectifiers are used for the applications where the accuracy is main criteria. Also better ripple reduction is possible in fully controlled rectifier than the half controlled rectifier.

CHARGER TYPES: (1). FLOAT CHARGER: The charger is fed from three phase, AC supply and gives a DC stabilized output at rated full load current. The rectification obtained by using a full wave bridge connected silicon rectifier stack comprising of 6 silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs) with surge suppression R-C network connected across each SCR. Principle of Charger: The circuit works on AC phase control principle. The characteristics of SCRs is that it blocks the forward voltage when gate is not supplied with any current, while it goes into conduction when the gate current reaches a specified level. Therefore the instant at which the SCR goes into conduction, or triggers can be controlled by changing the instant at which the gate current or pulse is supplied. Once the SCR is triggered it remains in conduction till anode current is reduced to zero or reverse voltage is applied to it. Thus changing the instant of firing/triggering the SCR can control the output voltage of Rectifier Bridge. Potentiometers are used for adjusting the output voltage. Shunt senses the load current. The signal proportional to this load current is fed to the controller. In event of load current exceeding the rated full load current, the output voltage starts dropping thus limiting the load current. This inherent protection is provided in float charger apart from the back protection by HRC fuse. The auxiliary control transformer supplies synchronizing voltage to the controller. A bleeder resistor is providing latching current for the SCR when load is not connected. A filter circuit comprising of choke and capacitor is connected in the output to limit the ripple content to a nominal value. 24 | P a g e

(2). BOOST CHARGER: The charger is fed from three phase AC supply and gives a DC stabilized output Current at rated full load current. The output current of the charger shall remain stabilized within 2% for 0 to 100% of load variation for AC input voltage variation 10% from 415 V and frequency variation of 5% from 50 Hz. The rectification is obtained by using a full wave bridge connected silicon rectifier stack comprising of 6 silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs) with R-C surge suppression network across each SCR. Solid state SCR controller adjusts the triggering angle of the SCRs and maintains the current constant. Boost charger has two modes. Constant voltage (Float mode). Constant current (Boost mode). Constant voltage mode operation is same as float charger. During outage of float charger, boost charger works in constant voltage mode and supplies trickle charging current to battery and station load. Constant current mode is used to boost charge the battery. During boost charging the DC contactor on the +ve bus bar opens out, thus extra voltage of the boost charger doesnt appear on the load terminal. In case of power failure during boost charging the DC contactor will close and battery will supply the load. Since contactor takes approximately 150 ms. to close, the DC supply is maintained through a blocking diode connected to 80% cell of the battery during this period. MAINTENANCE & TROUBLE SHOOTING Battery charger units ordinarily require very little routine maintenance. Occasionally the customer may give the unit a visual inspection every six months or so to locate components which may be over heating. Components located for use in charges are of very high quality and are conservatively applied, so they should last a very long time. There is no need for periodic replace of any component, since the problem associates with infant mortality failures are likely to be greater than the failure of components due to aging. The system operating conditions are brought out on the front panel for continuous monitoring. Whenever fault conditions occur the corrective steps should be followed immediately to bring the system back to normal operation. However, the general checks may be carried out once in three months for smooth running of the system.

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CHAPTER - II
TELECOMMUNICATION PA SYSTEM EPABX WIRELESS TALKIE VCS

Application:
Programming of pager, programming of walkytalky & base station, maintenance of exchange, microwave link, video conferencing, plant

address system. Maintenance of speaker, amplifier & telephone

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(A) PLANT ADDRESSING (PA) SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION: The need for an efficient and optimally engineered communication network cannot be overemphasized in the modern day medium and large industrial plant which is now expanding with increasingly more automated processes and complexities in day to day operation. A system must provide rugged, robust and reliable means of communication from control room of Plant to the operators in the field. It should facilitate giving specific instructions to be carried out on equipments or systems and in case of emergency; siren can be given to all loud speakers in the plant. The prerequisites for an effective plant communication system assume stringency due to normal and special hazards in a modern plant environment. Such a system is also referred system is also referred to as Public Address System. INDUSTRIAL ENVIROMENT FACTORS: The system has to function under arduous conditions. Outdoor Usage. Dust and water ingress. Corrosive atmosphere Extreme and varying temperature .Presence of Hazardous & Explosive gases Loud ambient noise due to industrial processes Mishandling/Rough Usage/Misuse. Pilferage.

PLANT COMMUNICATION SYSTEM COMPONENTS: The plant communication system consists of the following: Fully Digital And Non blocking EPABX (electronic exchange) Central page Rack with interfaces. Indoor/Outdoor/Hazardous areas field communication stations. Flameproof/Outdoor/Indoor Loudspeakers. Audio Amplifiers Zone selector Control panel Pre Amplifier

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LIST OF DESIGN FEATURES OF THE SYSTEM: Minimum electronics in field station. Centralized Control Source fed power supply for field station. Integration with main EPABX system Zonal announcement

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE PLANT ADDRESSING SYSTEM: SYSTEM DESCRIPTION: The System is specifically engineered for voice communication in industrial areas where the ultimate reliability and robustness is required. The following section describes various sections of this system.

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THE DIGITAL SWITCHING SYSTEM (EXCHANGE): The Digital Switching System is having fully non-blocking feature. It employs digital TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)/PCM (Pulse Code Modulation) Technology. The digital processing of analog voice signals minimizes noise and interference. The IOX (Integrated Office Exchange)/PSX (Private Small Exchange) series EPABX of M/s Tata Telecom make are equipped with a small, compact JKL diagnostic panel. CARDS USED IN IOX SYSTEM: Digital Switching System has following Control Cards and power supply unit CPU (Central Processing Unit) MEM (Memory) TSW (Time Division Switch Card) SLC (Subscriber Line Card) COTE (Central Office Trunk Card) PAGAD (Paging Access Card) DLC (Digital Line Circuit Card) LDTEF (Long Distance Tie Line Card) LLC (Long Distance Line Card)

CPU CARD (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT): This package is built around Motorola 68000 microprocessor for functioning as the Central Control block of the system. It has the following functions in addition. External alarm contacts: MJ (Major), MN (Minor) & FEX MN lamp comes on for a minor fault. FEX: Indicates temporary faults of lines and terminals. FEX lamp comes on for a fault detected by the software. Tone generator gives out audible signal tones, such as ringing tone, PB signal tone, and internal hold tone. MEM CARD (MEMORY CARD): This package is installed with two 4 MB ROMs and 4x1 MB RAMs as the memory for memorizing the system program and office data. It also allows IC (Interface Connector) card installation and high-speed access like the IC memory. A RAM card for the office data backup is provided as an IC card. It has the maintenance console interface to allow PBX and MRG (Call Charging command) command input through the same port. TSWEF CARD (ONLY FOR IOX 140): This package manages and controls the system voice circuits and has the functions given below: 29 | P a g e

 Time switch with a switching capacity for 16 High Way, 512 channels. Digital PAD (Packet Assembly-Disassembly) Control Signal driver/receiver between CPU package and line type packages. SLCSE Card (LINE CIRCUIT CARD): This card supports 8 subscriber circuits for field stations & has the following functions: Analogue to digital conversion by the per channel CODEC. Send/Receive 8 bit voice data. Loop Detection. Ring trip. Dial pulse counting Hook Flash Detection. Ringing Signal Sending. Supply of speech signal to telephone.

COTE CARD (BOTH WAY TRUNK CARD): The COTE PCB is a 4 Line Central Office Trunk having the following functions: Analog to digital conversation by CODEC. Send/ Receive of the 8-bit voice data. Emergency Transfer. Line busy indication for each line. Call termination detection. Automatic dropout detection. Call origination/ answer and dial pulse sending. Answer signal detection. Call origination-blocking detection.

Circuits for long distance extension lines and the required supply voltage is 48V. The maximum allowable line resistance is 3000 ohm (at 10 pps). All circuits are with the reverse function. This card has an additional amplifier to drive the audio signal on to a cable distance acceding say, 2km. This is used for field stations, which are located far away from control room. 0.6mm 2 or 10 pair PVC armored cables are used when the distance exceeds 2 kms. PAGING CONTROL AND AMPLIFIER RACK: The Amplifier Rack is in free floor standing panel having 19 sub rack construction and consists of: Required Amplifiers in modules of 150 Watt Electronic Chime module. Siren tone Circuitry 30 | P a g e

 Output monitor speaker with selection of amplifier output and volume control. Multiple zone selection circuitries. All zone selection circuitry. LOUDSPEAKERS: The Loudspeaker used in the system is of three types: Outdoor explosion proof loudspeaker consisting of Horn, Driver unit enclosure (Constructed out of LM6) Driver unit and line matching transformer. Outdoor safe area weatherproof loudspeaker 30 Watt (Peak), 15 W rms with mounting arrangement. Indoor Box type loudspeaker with volume control. The effective frequency range is 500 Hz to 4.5 KHz. The quantity and location of paging speaker are carefully chosen, particularly in areas of high ambient noise. The speaker orientation is very important to ensure proper distribution of sound in the desired operating areas. The speakers may be installed at a height of 2.5 - 3.5 meters. The brackets are designed with mounting arrangements for speakers in which the entire assembly can be permanently fixed and desired orientation can be maintained FIELD STATION: These are Rugged, Weatherproof wall mountable field stations featuring: Push Button dial keypad. Incoming call LED indicator. Minimum Electronics in the field station. Industrial Grade Handset with noise canceling microphone capsule .Metal tube protection for handset cord. No moving part

LOUDSPEAKER JB: The junction box is made of cast aluminum alloy (LM-6) and has terminal strip type connectors for termination of loudspeaker cables. At any point of time, loudspeakers can be added by carrying the looping from the nearest Junction Box, since loud speakers in any zone are connected in parallel. MASTER STATION: The beta console i.e. operator console with DSS or DMKT (Digital Multi Key Telephone), is used as Master Station. 31 | P a g e

This offers the following features: Easy activation of various features Status indication and one touch access of various field stations Display the Numbers of the field station calling the master station. SYSTEM APPLICATION

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TERMINOLOGY: For the purpose of this system, the following explanation of the term shall apply: Matching One part of a circuit is said to be matched to another part when the, are so designed as to give satisfactory operation when connected together. It doesnt necessarily imply maximum power transfer between units. Manually operated controls These are devices which vary some characteristics, such as volume tone or negative feedback of the equipment. Such controls are preset, while setting up the equipment and testing the installation. They are normally inaccessible and are not requires to be used during operation. Shielded wiring Wiring in which the conductor or conductors and their insulation are enclosed in an earthed and continuously low resistance conducting sheath for example, metal sheathed cable or metal braided cable. Standby equipment Equipment, which is wired and kept ready for immediate substitution in case the main equipment, fails in operation. Special switching circuits are used for such substitution. Monitoring equipment Equipment, such as output level indicator loudspeaker or any such device connected to the output line of any stage of the Public Address System and used by the operator to assess the level and quality of the outgoing signal. Applying System That part of the installation comprising of preamplifiers, mixers, power amplifiers etc. Preamplifiers The part of the amplifying system essentially a voltage amplifier suitable for operation with input source such as - from microphone, central switching system, tape/CD player etc. The output from such an amplifier is connected to a mixer or another amplifier operating at a higher input level. Mixer A mixer is a device used to mix two or more input signals. The mixer also has in built pre-amplifier so that mixer can be connected to another amplifier operating at higher input level. Power Amplifier The parts of the amplifying system intend the signal derived from pre-amplifier, mixer to a level capable to drive load that is loudspeaker. 33 | P a g e

Patch Chord A short piece of capable for connecting input and output circuits of the various items of equipment in the system, terminated at either end in suitable plug corresponding to the type of jacks used in system.

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Horn Speaker

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(B)

ELECRONIC PRIVATE AUTOMATIC BRANCH EXCHANGE (EPABX)

COMMUNICATION SERVER Reliance Industries has its own private exchange which connects all the plants in the complex. This communication server is a digital switch that processes and routes voice communication and data communication from one end to another. The system converts the entire incoming analog signal to internal digital signals. Incoming digital signals are not converted. Inside the system, voice is always coded digitally. Outgoing digital signals from the system are converted to analog signals for the analog lines and analog trunks. System components: The basic system component is the port network (P/N) consisting of port circuit connected to internal buses to allow the circuits to communicate with each other. The required processor port network (PPN) contains the switch-processing element (SPE). The SPE is a computer that operates the system, processes cause and controls the PN containing the port. An Expansion Port Network (EPN) contains additional ports that increase the number of connections to trunk and lines. A Centre Stage Switch (CSS) in G3Rv4 and release 5r is the central interface between the PPN and the EPNs. The CSS consists of 1, 2 or 3 switch nodes. One SN can expand the system from 1 to 15 EPNs; Two SNs can expand the system up to 4 EPNs. EPABX The principle purpose of the EPABX is to provide switching of telephone calls within an organization and to permit calls to and from the outside world. Telecommunication managers now look to the EPABX to handle local switching services for data users who previously might have employed separate data EPABX or even LANs. One of the properties of EPABX is its stability to act as tandem node, i.e., allowing calls from other EPABX to be routed through it as an intermediately switching point. It can also interface directly with analog lines converting the information into standard PCM format. EPABX manufacturers are now expected to deliver systems which can interconnect and Interoperated with the PSTN an all its variations. Interface flexibility however, has its price in financial terms because EPABXs tend to be expensive on a per line basis. The flexibility offered by the modern EPABXs makes it a hot product and hence venders are continuously upgrading their product lines and software feature. One would hope that new capabilities could be added without replacement of major portions of the physical hardware. Such changes could be the change of CPU, addition of memory, loading of new software released. 36 | P a g e

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EPABXs Architecture: The terminology and exact configuration differ from manufacturer to manufacturer and even between product lines of the same manufacturer. A typical EPABX consists of: Time division switch matrix. Communication Server (CM-4). Interface modules for lines and trunks. Operator terminal Data communication facilities for inter office signaling and remote access. Supporting multiplexing and encoding equipment as required.

The heart of the system is the IP (time division switch matrix) that does the actual inter connection of lines with lines (within an organization), lines with trunks (calling to external location both on and off network via PSTN and trunk e.g. tandem switching). Modem EPABXs possess the following advantages over their electromechanical counter parts: 1. Routing, translation, speed path managed by MAP and other data. 2. Changes are mostly in the software of the system. 3. Automatic testing with logic analysis. 4. Fast switching in microseconds. 5. Lesser space occupied. 6. Easy maintenance. The digital EPABX works on the principle of pulse code modulation (PCM) and time division multiplexing (TDM).

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SAMPLING: The process of converting filtered voice information into a digitized pulse train format begins with sampling the voice signal at uniform intervals. Nyquist sampling theorem states that any signal may be constructed from its representative samples if it is sampled at greater/equal to twice the sampling rate is kept 8 KHz or 8000/sec. When the voice waveform is sampled, a train of short pulses is produced each representing the amplitude of the waveform at the specific instant of sampling. This is referred to as PAM. The 30 analog channels are PAM sampled in an A-law telephone system. Samples from the number of channels can be interleaved or multiplexed onto a common bus. QUANTIZATION: The PAM samples represent the voice signal in analog form. For digital transmission, further processing is required. PCM (Pulse Code Modulation) is used to convert PAM samples into binary code for digital transmission. PCM is a two state process done by PCM CODEC. The 1st step is Quantization where each sample is assigned a specific quantizing level. There are 256 possible quantizing levels with 8-bit PCM word. The PCM CODEC performs a non-linear quantization, in that the samples are closes for lower amplitudes signals thus allowing them to be seen above system noise. A number of PCM words may be transmitted consecutively from different channels creating a TDM-PCM signal. Each channel in the A-law system has a data rate of 8000 samples per second x8-bits per samples = 64Kbits/sec. LINE CODING: PCM code generated by CODEC allocates signal amplitude to each 8-bt PCM word which corresponds to mid-point of particular quantizing interval. PCM pulses are decoded in the order in which they were received and then converted to PAM pulses. The PAM pulses are summed and then low pass filtered, that smoothen the PAM envelops and reproduces the original voice signal. TELEPHONE A telephone is a terminal instrument in the speech transmitting and receiving system. Its functions include: 1. It should be capable of accessing any other telephone in the network, i.e., dialing function. 2. It should be able to alert the user when any other telephone is trying to access it. 3. After establishing contact between the two telephones, it should be possible to carry out two way conversation between the two users. The interconnection between the two entities is always via exchange. The exchange provides the necessary support to interface the two instruments. These 38 | P a g e

telephones operate on a loop basis. The subscribers loop consists of a pair of wire between the subscribers location and the telephone switching centre, a telephone terminal set and a circuit at the switching location to supply the battery current, signaling current and means of connection to the switching machine. The subscribers terminal consists of a hand set with a carbon transmitter and earphone receiver. The inductor is used to provide impedance matching between the line and the handset. Current to operate the transmitter is provided by the central office battery over the loop wire pair. This current passes through the dial pulsing that interrupts the current to transmit the coded information to select the proper address in the automatic switching machine. The loop circuit at the CO (Central Office) contains a transmission bridge to separate the voice signal form the dc signaling current and ass the signals into the switching network for cross connections to another loop. On making a call the subscriber picks up the hand set which closes the hook switch position to connect the handset to the line and disconnects the bell. This closes the dc path and direct current flows from the CO. the relay sends the signal to the switching machine that the line is busy and disengage the ringing relay. Two methods are used to perform dialing in electronic push button telephones. They are, decadic or pulse dialing and DTMF or tone dialing. In case of rotary dialers, only decadic dialing is possible. DECADIC CODING: It uses line current interruptions to signal the digit dialed to the exchange. The number of line current interrupts equal the digit dialed. In case of rotary dialers, the line current breaks are produced by means of a switch while the dialer rewinds. In electronic push button telephones this is performed by a transistor switch which break the line current corresponding to the number pressed on the keypad. The interruption rate is generally 10Hz. DTMF DIALLING: In this system, the digits are transmitted as two tones simultaneously, these tones lie within the audible range so that they can be transmitted over the two wire pair but are selected so that they do not interfere with speech signals. The following shows the allocation: Tone Recognition equipment at the switching centre decodes the dial information and sets up the switches.

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Configuration of Basic Component EPABX CARD USED IN EPABX: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) This system consists of following cards: IPSI CLAN Maintenance Test A 4-port card used for monitoring the system condition (Automatic and routine operations are carried out.) Media Processor Call classified card An 8-port card used for providing signaling for DSI card DSI interface card Used for terminating E1 connectivity from any service provider. This card has 30 programming ports Central Office (CO) trunk card An 8-port card used for terminating direct exchange lines. BRI Line card used for programming of ISDN lines. Each BRI line is of 128Kbps. This card has 12 programmable ports. Auxiliary Trunk card A 4-port card used for programming all control room announcements. Analog Line card used for analog extensions. These cards can have16/24 orts. Nowadays, usually 24 port analog cards are only available. This is an extension card.

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(C) WALKY TALKY SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION:

The walky-talky system in Reliance is for communication in the field. It incorporates the latest technology in two-way radio communications. This complex uses Motorola Radius GP300 / GP328 type walky-talky system. Every plant has been assigned different frequencies. There are 16 channels provided and the user software can program them. A walky-talky is a wireless mobile system that can receive and transmit the information to the other walky-talky having the same frequency. The radius radio operates on FM radio communication frequencies and these frequencies are subject to the rules and regulations of the Local Communication Governing agencies. The user receives the license for a use of the radio equipment under a specific eligibility and on a particular frequency or a set of frequencies. The walky-talky can be programmed within the frequency range of 146 MHz to 174 MHz. Range: 1 Km. This range can be improved with the use of base stations that have 25W RF power. RF power of handset is 4W. The walky-talky system has mic. and speaker that work as a transmitter and receiver respectively. It also has an antenna, which is a helix (VHF models) or a Flexible Whip (UHF mode) with threaded base. It needs battery to charge. The battery used should be of Nickel-Cadmium type and is rechargeable. There are two types of Walky-talky: Safe area sets Hazardous area sets 41 | P a g e

In hazardous areas care should be taken that there should be no spark emitted from the battery; else it can cause danger. So for this purpose, different types of chargeable batteries are used along with compatible radio handsets. The sets used in hazardous areas are termed as intrinsically safe sets.

FACILITIES AVAILABLE:

On / Off Volume Control Rotary channel selector LED indicator Accessory connector Push to talk button Monitor button Control button Low battery alert

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(D) VIDEOCONFERENCING
A technology that allows Two or more people at different locations to see and hear each other at the same timeAlso to share computer applications such as Internet pages, library catalogs, documents, or software Normal videoconference frame rate varies from 5-30/sec while regular TV broadcast is about 30 frames/sec, film with 24 frames/sec. VC Capabilities A complete VC System provides twoway (send and receive) communications using the following media: a) Video: inputs from: TV camera, document camera, Cable TV, VCR, Streaming Video; outputs to: TV monitor, colour projector, PC monitor) b) Voice: inputs from: microphone, VCR; outputs to: speakers, headphone and interpretation c) Data: inputs from: keyboard, PC hard drives, network; outputs to: PC monitor, printer, local/network hard drives d) Telematics: inputs from: keyboard commands; Outputs to: remote camera control, etc. VC -Interconnection The Videoconferencing Systems can interconnect with each other in a number of modes such as: Point-to-point Multipoint Broadcast. Basic Videoconferencing Technology audio-visual equipment (monitor, camera, microphone, and speaker) a means of transmitting information between sites Cost of these two methods of transmissions: 43 | P a g e

A broadband satellite connection with studio-quality equipment produces an excellent full-motion video connection and Advances in ICT have sparked an interest in compressed video systems which transmit information via the Internet using Internet Protocols (IP) and digital telephone networks such as ISDN.

VC -THREE TYPES 1. Portable Units o All of the equipment is loaded onto a rolling cart and moved to whichever location needs it. Convenient. (WB COs) o To add more equipment becomes problematic o Require more setups and testing o Good for informal and formal meetings 2. Desktop o Because of advances in technology, fast Ethernets a cheap delivery media o IP-based desktop systems: a PC, an inexpensive camera, a microphone, a speaker, software o Sharing: See and edit file on the screen o Low cost and suitable for informal communications 3. IntegratedSystem o Classroom style: equipment are integrated and physically fixed into the classroom design. o Multiple monitors/large screens o Multiple microphones o Lecturer presents to participants (attending both locally and remotely) o Interpretation equipment o Good for formal communications Additional connection considerations Gateway sallow different conferencing protocols to connect to each other by receiving and translating data Agatekeeperis special software that runs on a computer or dedicated server and manages the activities of multiple conferences. AnMCU(multipoint control unit) enables multiple sites to participate in a videoconference

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MCU To interconnect three or more systems while using such a mixture of media, we need a special computerized device called the Multipoint Conference Unit (MCU).

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CHAPTER - III
FIRE ALARM AND DETECTION SYSTEM
Application:
Front panel & network maintenance, maintenance of smoke detector, addressing of smoke detectors

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FIRE DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEMS

A key aspect of fire protection is to identify a developing fire emergency in a timely manner, and to alert the building's occupants and fire emergency organizations. This is the role of fire detection and alarm systems. Depending on the anticipated fire scenario, building and use type, number and type of occupants and criticality of contents and mission, these systems can provide several main functions: First, they provide a means to identify a developing fire through either manual or automatic methods. Second, they alert building occupants to a fire condition and the need to evacuate. Another common function is the transmission of an alarm notification signal to the fire department or other emergency response organization. They may also shut down electrical, air handling equipment or special process operations, and they may be used to initiate automatic suppression systems.

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FIRE ALARM CIRCUIT PANEL: A fire alarm control panel (FACP), or fire alarm control unit (FACU), is an electric panel that is the controlling component of a fire alarm system. The panel receives information from environmental sensors designed to detect changes associated with fire, monitors their operational integrity and provides for automatic control of equipment, and transmission of information necessary to prepare the facility for fire based on a predetermined sequence. The panel may also supply electrical energy to operate any associated sensor, control, transmitter, or relay. There are four basic types of panels; Coded Panels, Conventional Panels, addressable panels, & multiplexed systems. Signaling line Circuit Loops: usually have a number of signaling line circuit loops, usually referred to as loops or SLC loops - ranging between 1 and 30.Depending on the protocol used, a loop can monitor and control several hundred devices. Large systems may have multiple SLCs, & SLCs are further divided into subgroups through the use of fault-isolation modules. Each device on SLC has its own address, and so panel knows the state of each individual device connected to it. Addressable output devices are known as relays and include: (Warning System/Bell) Relays Door Holder Relays Auxiliary (control Function) Relays Relays are used to control a variety of functions such as:-

FIRE DETECTION PRINCIPLES:

(A) Manual Fire Detection - Pull Stations

Manual fire detection is the oldest method of detection. In the simplest form, a person yelling can provide fire warning. In buildings, however, a person's voice may not always transmit throughout the structure. For this reason, manual alarm stations are installed. The general design philosophy is to place stations within reach along paths of escape. It is for this reason that they can usually be found near exit doors in corridors and large rooms.

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The advantage of manual alarm stations is that, upon discovering the fire, they provide occupants with a readily identifiable means to activate the building fire alarm system. The alarm system can then serve in lieu of the shouting person's voice. They are simple devices, and can be highly reliable when the building is occupied. The key disadvantage of manual stations is that they will not work when the building is unoccupied. They may also be used for malicious alarm activations. Nonetheless, they are an important component in any fire alarm system.

(B) Automatic Detectors Spot type

(i) Automatic Detectors PHOTOELECTRIC

In the normal case, the light from the light source on the left shoots straight across and misses the sensor. When smoke enters the chamber, however, the smoke particles scatter the light and some amount of light hits the sensor

. Light Scattering Smoke Detection. The principle of using a light source and a photosensitive sensor arranged so that the rays from the light source do not normally fall onto the photosensitive sensor. When smoke particles inter the light path, some of the light is scattered by reflection and refraction onto the sensor. The light signal is processed and used to convey an alarm condition when it meets preset criteria. (ii) Automatic Detectors IONIZATION Ionization smoke detectors use an ionization chamber and a source of ionizing radiation to detect smoke. This type of smoke detector is more common because it is inexpensive and better at detecting the smaller amounts of smoke produced by flaming fires. 49 | P a g e

Inside the ionization detector is a small amount (perhaps 1/5000th of a gram) of Americium-241. The radioactive element americium has a half-life of 432 years, and is a good source of alpha particles. An ionization chamber is very simple. It consists of two plates with a voltage across them, along with a radioactive source of ionizing radiation. Ionization Smoke Detection. The principle of using a small amount of radioactive material to ionize the air between two differentially charged electrodes to sense the presence of smoke particles. Smoke Particles entering the ionization volume decrease the conductance of the air by reducing ion mobility. The reduced conductance signal is processed and used to convey an alarm condition when it meets preset criteria. Ionization Smoke detectors. The alpha particles generated by the americium have the following property: They ionize the oxygen and nitrogen atoms of the air in the chamber. To "ionize" means to "knock an electron off of." When you knock an electron off of an atom, you end up with a free electron (with a negative charge) and an atom missing one electron (with a positive charge). The negative electron is attracted to the plate with a positive voltage, and the positive atom is attracted to the plate with a negative voltage (opposites attract, just like with magnets). The electronics in the smoke detector sense the small amount of electrical current that these electrons and ions moving toward the plates represent. When smoke enters the ionization chamber, it disrupts this current -- the smoke particles attach to the ions and neutralize them. The smoke detector senses the drop in current between the plates and sets off the horn. (iii) Automatic Detectors HEAT/THERMAL

Heat detectors are the oldest type of automatic fire detection device. They began development of automatic sprinklers in the 1860s and have continued to the present with proliferation of various types of devices. Heat detectors that only initiate an alarm and have no extinguishing function are still in use. Although they have the lowest false alarm rate of all automatic fire detector devices, they also are the slowest in fire detecting. A heat detector is best situated for fire detection in a small confined space where rapidly building high-output fires are expected, in areas where ambient conditions would not allow the use of other fire detection devices, or when speed of detection is not a prime consideration. 50 | P a g e

Heat detectors are generally located on or near the ceiling and respond to the converted thermal energy of a fire. They respond either when the detecting element reaches a predetermined fixed temperature or to a specified rate of temperature change. In general, heat detectors are designed to operate when heat causes a prescribed change in a physical or electrical property of a material or gas. Fixed-temperature heat detectors are designed to alarm when the temperature of the operating elements reaches a specific point. The air temperature at the time of alarm is usually considerably higher than the rated temperature because it takes time for the air to raise the temperature of the operating element to its set point. This condition is called thermal lag. Fixed-temperature heat detectors are available to cover a wide range of operating temperatures - from about 135'F (57'C) and higher. Higher temperatures detectors are also necessary so that detection can be provided in areas normally subject to high ambient temperatures, or in areas zoned so that only detectors in the immediate fire area operate. One effect that flaming fire has on the surrounding area is to rapidly increase air temperature in the space above the fire. Fixed-temperature heat detectors will not initiate an alarm until the air temperature near the ceiling exceeds the design operating point. The rateof-rise detector, however, will function when the rate of temperature increase exceeds a predetermined value, typically around 12 to 15'F (7 to 8'C) per minute. Rate-of-rise detectors are designed to compensate for the normal changes in ambient temperature that are expected under non-fire conditions. (iv) Automatic Detectors COMBINATION

Combination detectors contain more than one element which responds to fire. These detectors may be designed to respond from either element, or from the combined partial or complete response of both elements. An example of the former is a heat detector that operates on both the rate-of-raise and fixed-temperature principles. Its advantage is that the rate-of-rise element will respond quickly to rapidly developing fire, while the fixed-temperature element will respond to a slowly developing fire when the detecting element reaches its set point temperature. The most common combination detector uses a vented air chamber and a flexible diaphragm for the rate-of-rise function, while the fixed-temperature element is usually leaf-spring restrained by a eutectic metal. When the fixed temperature element reaches its designated operating temperature, the eutectic metal fuses and releases the spring, which closes the contact.

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(v)

Automatic Detectors FLAME

A flame detector responds either to radiant energy visible to the human eye (approx. 4000 to 7700 A) or outside the range of human vision. Similar to the human eye, flame detectors have a 'cone of vision', or viewing angle, that defines the effective detection capability of the detector. ( Ultraviolet, visible, or infrared, that is emitted as a product of combustion reaction and obeys the laws of optics) With this constraint, the sensitivity increases as the angle of incidence decreases. Such a detector is sensitive to glowing embers, coals, or flames which radiate energy of sufficient intensity and spectral quality to actuate the alarm. Each type of fuel, when burning, produces a flame with specific radiation characteristics. A flame detection system must be chosen for the type of fire that is probable. For example an ultraviolet (UV) detector will respond to a hydrogen fire, but an infrared (IR) detector operating in the 4.4 micron sensitivity range will not. It is imperative therefore; that a qualified fire protection engineer is involved in the design of these systems, along with assistance from the manufacturer's design staff. Due to their fast detection capabilities, flame detectors are generally used only in high-hazard areas, such as fuel-loading platforms, industrial process areas, hyperbaric chambers, high-ceiling areas, and atmospheres in which explosions or very rapid fires may occur. Because flame detectors must be able to 'see' the fire, they must not be blocked by objects placed in front of them. The infrared-type detector, however, has some capability for detecting radiation reflected from walls. (vi) Automatic Detectors BEAM DETECTOR:

Beam detector is uniquely suited for protecting open areas with high ceilings where conventional spot type smoke detectors are difficult to install and maintain. Used in garage or warehouse applications to provide early warning in environments where temperature extremes exceed the capability of spot type smoke detectors. It consists of a transmitter and receiver with separate alarm and trouble which distinguish between a percentage of signal blockages and a total beam block. Four alignment LEDs on the front of each unit indicate signal strength to easy alignment. Range: 30 feet to 330 feet length Voltage: 24 v dc 52 | P a g e

FIRE ALARM CIRCUIT CLASSES: (1) Initiating device circuits and signaling line circuits that transmit an alarm or supervisory signal, or notification appliance circuits that allow all connected devices to operate during a single open or a no simultaneous single ground fault on any circuit conductor, shall be designated as Class A.- Single open circuit condition causes a trouble on the panel. All devices on the loop remain operative.

(2) Initiating device circuits and signaling line circuits that do not transmit an alarm or supervisory signal, or notification appliance circuits that do not allow all connected devices to operate beyond the location of a single open on any circuit conductor, shall be designated as Class B. - Single open circuit condition causes a trouble on the panel and renders all devices beyond the fault inoperative.

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CHAPTER - IV
CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEM

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CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEM

THE CORROSION PROBLEM Corrosion may be defined as the destruction or deterioration of a metal or alloy substrate by direct chemical or electrochemical attack. The corrosion reaction between the metal and its environment is driven by an electrochemical potential. The magnitude of this potential determines the tendency of the reaction to proceed. In most cases, corrosion problems are easily detectable by the appearance of red rust on the surface of steel structures. However, in the case of steel reinforced concrete, the indicators of corrosion are not so visible until damage to the structure has occurred. Steel reinforcement is generally protected from corrosion by the development of a stable oxide film on its surface. This film is formed by the chemical reaction between the highly alkaline concrete, the pore water and the surface of the steel. Corrosion is negligible until the protective layer becomes saturated with chloride ions or by carbonation, thus lowering the pH of the concrete. Once this occurs, the steel will begin to corrode rapidly. This problem is intensified by the presence of marine or de- icing salts. Chloride ions from seawater migrate into the porous concrete by diffusion and eventually reach the steel reinforcement. In regions of low resistance, chlorides attack the passive oxide film and develop anodic and cathodic sites on the steel. Adjacent to these sites are oxygen-rich regions that cathodically fuel the corrosion reaction. As active corrosion proceeds, the lower pH in and around the anodic sites reduces the passive film in greater proportions. The resulting corrosion products take up six to ten times the volume of the steel consumed in the reaction. This creates an expansive force which imparts considerable tensile tress on the concrete cover, leading to cracking and spalling. CP DESIGN CONSIDERATION Electrolyte resistivity System life requirements Coating efficiency Current required for protection Economic factors Physical configuration of structure Materials used in structure. Anode characteristics CP CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS Preparation of metal surface for coating Proper selection and application of coating Procurement of cp equipment meeting specifications 55 | P a g e

 Supervision of installation by qualified personnel Energizing, adjustment, and testing by qualified personnel Cathodic Protection (CP) as the only rehabilitation technique proven to stop corrosion in salt- contaminated structures, regardless of chloride content in the concrete. There are two forms of cathodic Protection: Impressed Current and Galvanic (sacrificial). When properly installed, both systems have been proven to control corrosion by providing an electrical current to an affected region. Galvanic(sacrificial) anodes: Possibilities of using galvanic anodes are limited by their electrochemical properties. The rest potential of the anode material must be sufficiently more negative than the protection potential of the protected so that an adequate driving voltage can be maintained. Galvanic anodes should exhibit as low polarizability as possible, their polarization extent is important in practice for their accurate o/p. The usable current content must be as be as large as possible not only per unit mass but also per unit of volume, so that the volume of the installed anodes become as small as possible. Anode materials Iron - ( copper claddings on wooden ships) Zinc - sea water Aluminum Alloys - 8 % Zn and 5 % Mg to maintain long term activity of anode. It hides or prevent he transformation of surface films. Magnesium alloys.

Impressed current anodes

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They can deliver a much higher current supply, when anodic-redox reaction runs in parallel. They have more positive potential than the protected object. Materials for impressed current anodes should not only be of as low solubility as possible, but should also not be damaged by impact abrasion or vibration. They should have high conductivity and be capable of heavy loads. Two types of impressed current anodes They consist of anodically stable noble metals (e.g. platinum) They are anodically passive materials that form conducting oxide films on their surfaces. The anodes develop[ed mainly for electrochemical processes, with electron conducting surfaces of platinum metal oxides on valve metals, have become important in cathodic protection. In contrast , anodes of valve metals with coatings of electronconducting ceramic material provides considerably better anode properties. Electrochemical Corrosion It is understood to include all corrosion processes that can be influenced electrically. This is the case for all the types of corrosion velocities (e.g. removal rate, penetration rate in pitting corrosion, or rate of pit formation, time to failure of stressed specimens in stress corrosion) are dependent on potential U. Where, U= - B. Potential can be altered by chemical action (influence of redox system) or by electrical factors (electrical currents), thereby reducing or enhancing the corrosion. Thus exact knowledge of the dependence of corrosion on potential is the basic hypo synthesis for the concept of electrochemical corrosion protection processes. Potential dependence is not the same in different types of corrosion. Thus critical potential ranges for different kinds of corrosion can overlap or run counter to one another a) Cathodic protection of Pipelines An air cooled cathodic protection rectifier connected to a pipeline. Pipelines are routinely protected by a coating supplemented with cathodic protection. An ICCP system for a pipeline would consist of a DC power source, which is often an AC powered rectifier and an anode, or array of anodes buried in the ground (the anode ground bed). The DC power source would typically have a DC output of between 10 and 50 amperes and 50 volts, but this depends on several factors, such as the size of the pipeline. The positive DC output terminal would be connected via cables to the anode array, while another cable would connect the negative terminal of the rectifier to the pipeline, preferably through junction boxes to allow measurements to be taken.

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Anodes can be installed in a vertical hole and backfilled with conductive coke (a material that improves the performance and life of the anodes) or lay in a prepared trench, surrounded by conductive coke and backfilled. The choice of grounded type and size depends on the application, location and soil resistivity. The output of the DC source would then be adjusted to the optimum level after conducting various tests including measurements of electrochemical potential. It is sometimes more economically viable to protect a pipeline using galvanic anodes. This is often the case on smaller diameter pipelines of limited length. b) Cathodic protection of ships It extends from external protection of the underwater area including all attachments and openings(e.g. propellers, rudder, propeller bracket, sea chest buoyancy tanks, scoops thruster), to the internal protection of various tanks, pipe work and bilges. Ships are exposed to water of very different compositions, unlike all the other objects to be protected. The salt content and conductivity are particularly important because they have a profound influence on the action of corrosion cells and current distribution. Problem of dissimilar metals must be considered. c) Cathodic protection of well casings. In oil and natural gas fields and reservoirs the bare holes are cased to stabilize the wells. Depending on the depth and operating conditions. The annular space between the outer pipe and the surrounding rock is filled with cement over the whole depth up to the ground is new wells. This is done to seal the deposits at the top and to keep the fresh water and salt water zones separate and also on a protection against pressure from the rock and as corrosion protection which, however is only effective so long as there is no current exit caused by extended corrosion of cells or due to foreign anode influences. d) Cathodic protection of reinforcing steel in concrete structures This is for long term if the construction work has been carried out according to the state of art, and if no changes likely to impair the passivity occur in use. Deficiencies in the construction process in the thickness and density of the concrete covering as well as the action of chloride-containing electrolytes can lead to depassivation, requiring additional corrosion protection measures. Cathodic protection of reinforcing steels with impressed current is a relatively new protection method. They are now used to protect reinforcing steel on road bridges, retaining walls, marine structures, multistory parking, salt tanks and waste plants. 58 | P a g e

e) Internal cathodic protection of water tanks and boilers. Vessels, pipelines and tanks which are used to store or transport liquids can also be protected from corrosion on their internal surfaces by the use of cathodic protection. ICCP and galvanic systems can be used. f) Cathodic protection of Marine Marine CP covers many areas, jetties, harbors, offshore structures. The variety of different types of structure leads to a variety of systems to provide protection. Typically, galvanic anodes are favored, but ICCP can also often be used. g) Cathodic protection of Galvanized steel Galvanizing generally refers to hot-dip galvanizing which is a way of coating steel with a layer of metallic zinc. Galvanized coatings are quite durable in most environments because they combine the barrier properties of a coating with some of the benefits of cathodic protection. If the zinc coating is scratched or otherwise locally damaged and steel is exposed, the surrounding areas of zinc coating form a galvanic cell with the exposed steel and protect it from corrosion. This is a form of localized cathodic protection - the zinc acts as a sacrificial anode. It should be noted that galvanizing, while using the principle of cathodic protection, is not actually cathodic protection. CP requires the anode to be separate from the metal surface to be protected, with an ionic connection through the electrolyte and an electron connection through a connecting cable, bolt or similar. This means that any area of the protected structure within the electrolyte can be protected, whereas in the case of galvanizing, only areas very close to the zinc are protected. Hence, a larger area of bare steel would only be protected around the edges.

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