A. K. A.

S Korala 2010/BA/16819 Faculty of Arts University of Colombo

Middle East Middle East - The Definition of the Term The definition of the term Middle East is not set in granite, as the region is not an exactly defined area of the world. It is sometimes referred to as the Near East or Southwest Asia; in India the region is known as Western Asia. What the area is called sometimes depends on ones position on the globe. Even then, not everyone agrees on which countries should be included within a geographic domain. The different terms applied to the region emphasize that the area being described owes its regional character to other than indigenous factors. As diverse as the countries of Europe, these lands are included in a single term only because they are near to or in the middle of other regions. Whatever unity does exist within the region today is largely functional: it is a unity in relation to the outside world rather than an inherent unity arising from similar geographical and social conditions or from a recent common history. The issue is confused not only due to the regions location but also due to culture and ethnicity. If the Middle East is defined solely as the Arab states and Israel, Iran would be excluded. If it is thought to include Israel and the predominantly Muslim states in the area, then the North African states of Algeria, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia, plus Afghanistan, Pakistan, Azerbaijan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, the Sudan, and Turkey, would also have to be included. In the academic community, the term Middle East refers to the Arab countries of North Africa; the Arab countries of Asia; Israel; and the non-Arab countries of Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, and Turkey. According to some broader definitions, it may also include the five countries of Central Asia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. Some might also include Azerbaijan. That said, a commonly used definition focuses on those countries that Americans most often associate with the Middle East and that have had a continuing and central role in two issues of importance to US foreign policy: the Arab-Israeli conflict and the security of the Persian Gulf and its oil resources. These nations are Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, the United Arab Emirates, and Y emen. Given the importance of the war on terrorism to current US foreign policy, it might be appropriate to include Afghanistan and other neighboring Central Asian states in the definition. The average American sees Afghanistan as a country in the Middle East. The Creation of Israel The ancient Jewish kingdoms of Israel and Judea had been successively conquered and subjugated by several foreign empires, when in 135 CE the Roman Empire defeated the third revolt against its rule and consequently expelled the surviving Jews from Jerusalem and its surroundings, selling many of them into slavery. The Roman province was then renamed "Palestine". After the Arab conquest of Palestine in the 7th century the remaining inhabitants were mostly assimilated into Arab culture and Muslim religion, though Palestine retained Christian and Jewish minorities. It was ruled by several Arab empires until 1516, when it

A. K. A. S Korala 2010/BA/16819 Faculty of Arts University of Colombo

became part of the Ottoman Empire. In the late 19th century Zionism arose as a nationalist and political movement aimed at restoring the land of Israel as a national home for the Jewish people. Tens of thousands of Jews from Eastern Europe and Yemen migrated to Palestine. Zionism saw national independence as the only answer to anti-Semitism and to the centuries of persecution and oppression of Jews in the Diaspora. Zionism basically was a secular movement, but it referred to the religious and cultural ties with Jerusalem and ancient Israel, which most Jews had maintained throughout the ages. Most orthodox Jews initially opposed Zionism, as did most Marxist and assimilated Jews, but ongoing pogroms and the Holocaust made many of them change their minds. During World War I Great Britain captured part of the Middle East, including Palestine, from the Ottoman Empire. In 1917 the British had promised the Zionists a 'Jewish national home' in the Balfour Declaration, and on this basis they later were assigned a mandate over Palestine from the League of Nations. The mandate of Palestine initially included the area of Trans-jordan, which was split off in 1922. Jewish immigration and land purchases met with increasing resistance from the Arab inhabitants of Palestine, who started several violent insurrections against the Jews and against British rule in the 1920s and 1930s, mainly led by the radical Mufti of Jerusalem and Nazi collaborator Haj Amin al-Husseini. The Zionists in Palestine established self-defense organizations like the Haganah. Under Arab pressure the British severely limited Jewish immigration to Palestine, after proposals to divide the area had been rejected by the Palestinian Arabs in 1937. Jewish refugees from countries controlled by Nazi Germany now had no place to flee to, since nearly all other countries refused to let them in. In response Jewish organizations organized illegal immigration and the radical Irgun committed assaults on British institutions in Palestine. Even after World War II Great Britain refused to let in Jewish immigrants, now mostly Holocaust survivors. Increasing pressure and violence by both the Arabs and the Zionists made the situation untenable, and the British returned their mandate to the United Nations, who hoped to solve the conflict with a partition plan for Palestine, which would divide the land in two about equal parts. The proposal was adopted by the UN in November 1947. The Jews accepted the plan, but the Palestinians and the Arab countries rejected it, and Palestinian Arabs started attacking Jewish convoys and communities throughout Palestine and blocked Jerusalem, whereupon the Zionists attacked and destroyed several Palestinian villages. The Arab League had openly declared that it aimed to prevent the establishment of a Jewish state by force. The 1948 Wars Violence in the Holy Land broke out almost immediately after the UN announced partition on November 29, 1947. Jamal Husseini, the Arab Higher Committee's spokesman, had told the UN prior to the partition vote the Arabs would drench "the soil of our beloved country with the last drop of our blood . . . ." Husseini's prediction began to come true after the UN announcement. The Arabs declared a protest strike and instigated riots that claimed the lives of 62 Jews and 32 Arabs. By the end of the second week, 93 Arabs, 84 Jews and 7 Englishmen had been killed and scores

A. K. A. S Korala 2010/BA/16819 Faculty of Arts University of Colombo

injured. From November 30-February 1, 427 Arabs, 381 Jews and 46 British were killed and 1,035 Arabs, 725 Jews and 135 British were wounded. In March alone, 271 Jews and 257 Arabs died in Arab attacks and Jewish counterattacks. The chairman of the Arab Higher Committee said the Arabs would "fight for every inch of their country."3 Two days later, the holy men of Al-Azhar University in Cairo called on the Muslim world to proclaim a jihad (holy war) against the Jews. The first large-scale assaults began on January 9, 1948, when approximately 1,000 Arabs attacked Jewish communities in northern Palestine. By February, the British said so many Arabs had infiltrated they lacked the forces to run them back.5 In fact, the Britsh i turned over bases and arms to Arab irregulars and the Arab Legion. In the first phase of the war, lasting from November 29, 1947 until April 1, 1948, the Palestinian Arabs took the offensive, with help from volunteers from neighboring countries. The Jews suffered severe casualties and passage along most of their major roadways was disrupted. On April 26, 1948, T ransjordan's King Abdullah said: All our efforts to find a peaceful solution to the Palestine problem have failed. The only way left for us is war I will have the pleasure and honor to save Palestine. . On May 4, 1948, the Arab Legion attacked Kfar Etzion. The defenders drove them back, but the Legion returned a week later. After two days, the ill-equipped and outnumbered settlers were overwhelmed. Many defenders were massacred after they had surrendered.6 This was prior to the invasion by the regular Arab armies that followed Israel's declaration of independence. The Suez Canal Crisis In Egypt, a new regime under Gamal Abdel Nasser had come to power in 1952. He announced a far reaching development programme with the Aswan (high) Dam on the Nile river. Nasser hoped to secure the assistance from the west and the world bank in order to build this massive project. Nasser moved to improve the Egyptian relations with the Soviet Union, China, and neutral Third World nations. He also concluded an arms deal with Czechoslovakia. In the light of these developments, Western support for the Aswan Dam withdrawn. Nasser retaliated by seizing the Suez canal and nationalizing the Suez Canal, where canal tolls would be used to help build the Aswan dam. It had previously been administered by the Suez Canal Company, whose stockholders were predominantly European. Furious, the British and the French decided to take back the canal by force and to topple Nasser from power. Another reason the French government was anxious to overthrow Nasser was, because they wanted to put an end to his support for the Algerians, who were fighting for independence against the French. For political and military reason, the Israelis were also willing to join in military actions with the French and British. The Israelis were being harassed by commando raids along their borders and feared Nasser's success in mobilizing Arabs throughout the region. For all those reasons Britain, France and Israel joined forces against Egypt. An agreement was reached whereby Israel would launch an attack across the Sinai peninsula but would stop short by the Suez Canal. The British and French were then to intervene between the Israeli and Egyptian forces and occupy the canal.

A. K. A. S Korala 2010/BA/16819 Faculty of Arts University of Colombo

The Second Arab Israel War (1956) In late October 1956 the Israeli successfully launched their attack. They occupied Sinai peninsula and took over the Gaza strip. The British and French bombed Egyptian airfields and parachuted troops into positions along the Suez canal. the tripartite conspiracy, which the British, French, and Israelis publicly denied for many years, was a military success but a political fiasco. Contrary to western expectation, Nasser did not fall. In fact, the war strengthened his arguments that the western powers and Israel had imperial designs in the middle east. The United States had opposed the use of military force and asked the United Nations to order both cease-fire in Egypt and the withdrawal of British, French and Israeli troops. The UN troops were sent into the area to help keep the peace and the canal was re-opened in March 1957. The Eisenhower Doctrine In January 1957, President Dwight D. Eisenhower said that the United States would defend the Middle East against a Soviet attack. This warning became known as the Eisenhower Doctrine. The Six Day War (1967) The immediate cause to the 1967 Arab-Israeli war is seen as the free access Israel gained through the straights of Tiran to it sport of Eilat, an Israel act which the Egyptians and the Arab world in general would never recognize. the 1967 June war lasted six days but was really won by Israel by first six hours. The Israelis displaying total air supremacy, soon defeated the Arab forces and occupied the Gaza Strip, the entire Sinai peninsula, the West bank(including the rest of Jerusalem) and the Golan height, from which Syria had been bombarding Israeli settlements. The 1967 war was a dramatic victory for the Israelis and a complete humiliation for the Arab world. Palestine guerrilla groups emerged from the disasters of the 1967 war and formed loose alliance under the umbrella of the Palestine Liberation Organization led by Yasser Arafat. The PLO began a series of raids ans attacks into Israeli territory. When these tactics failed to secure the objective of a Palestinian State, they expanded the struggle to targets outside the Middle East, and to those powers or individuals who supported Israel. Yom Kippur War (1973) On October 6, 1973 Yom Kippur, the holiest day in the Jewish calendar Egypt and Syria opened a coordinated surprise attack against Israel. The equivalent of the total forces of NATO in Europe were mobilized on Israel's borders. On the Golan Heights, approximately 180 Israeli tanks faced an onslaught of 1,400 Syrian tanks. Along the Suez Canal, 436 Israeli defenders were attacked by 80,000 Egyptians. For several weeks tanks and air battles in the Sinai continued and culminated with the Israelis making a counter crossing onto the west bank of the canal. Israel also clashed with Syrian troops along the Golden Heights. The war also caused a major confrontation between the Soviet Union (USSR) who backed Syria, and the United States (USA) which was the main supplier of arms to Israel. Following he tense negotiations between the USSR and US Secretary, Henry Kissinger, a cease-fire was implemented. Militarily, both sides claimed a victory .

A. K. A. S Korala 2010/BA/16819 Faculty of Arts University of Colombo

Shuttle Diplomacy In the 1970s, for example, the shuttle diplomacy of U.S Secretary of state Henry Kissinger in the Middle East served to reduce the incentive of leaders in the region to do important business with regular U.S diplomatic representatives. Normally, the professionals resume their roles when the summit ends. Indeed, a visit by the foreign minister can be an asset to an ambassador by serving to raise his standing.(Britanica.com) E.g- During 1974 -1975 Henry Kissinger carried on shuttle diplomacy in Middle East. he flew to Egypt and Israel, trying to get the two nations to resolve their differences. Camp David Accords In November 1977, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat made a dramatic personal visit to Israel ;a bold move to establish good relations with his old enemy During his . speech to the Knesset, the Israeli parliament, he urged direct peace settlements. Sadat's visit, the first public visit by an Arab leader to Israel, also saw a possible opportunity to reach a peace settlement with a major and the most populous Arab nation. Following this, US President Jimmy Carter invited them to the President retreat at Camp David in Maryland, USA. After 13 days, the three men reached two agreements which became known as the Camp David Accords. It was a framework for peace in the Middle East. In March 1979, a detailed peace treaty was signed between Egypt and Israel. The solution provided for total peace between Israel and Egypt and a gradual return of the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt, but, it neither addressed the issue of Palestinian selfdetermination nor the continued Israeli occupation of the occupied territories(the west Bank and the Gaza Strip). Furthermore, the treaty contained no agreement on the status of Jerusalem, a city with sacred meaning for Jews, Christians and Muslims. The rest of the Arab world, particularly the Palestinians, opposed the peace treaty. During the 1970s, the PLO had used southern Lebanon as a base from which to launch attacks on Israel. Israel retaliated by raiding Lebanon in an attempt to eradicate Palestine organizations. Islamic revolution in Iran (1979) In 1953, the United States had helped to restore Mohammed Pahlavi, the Iranian Shah to the throne. Thereafter, the United States openly provided the Shah with military supplies and technical assistance, since American believed that political weakness in Iran might pave the way for Soviet expansion. For his part, the Shah used the oil wealth of his nation to push his people towards a Western way of life. He encouraged Western modes of attire. He sent Iranian youth to schools in United States. He instituted some land reforms and gave women the right to vote. However, in his haste to modernize Iran, the Shah offended those of his people who held strict religious beliefs. In addition, there was widespread corruption among government officials and the Shah's secret police brutally tortured thousands of political opponents and executed additional thousand without trial. As opposition to the Shah increased, the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the Shiite Muslim religious leader who was living in exile in France, began flooding Iran with cassette tapes calling on the people to revolt. The Islamic revolution occurred in 1979,

A. K. A. S Korala 2010/BA/16819 Faculty of Arts University of Colombo

leading to the overthrow of the Shah of Iran. The new revolutionary government of Iran vowed to eradicate the abuses of the old regime, too champion traditional Islamic values and to improve living conditions of Iranian leaders. It championed the creation of Islamic governments not only in Iran but through out the vast Islamic world. The religious forces also pushed for the implementation of strict, traditional values in all aspects of society, including traditional dress and codes of behavior for women. The victory of the Islamic forces in Iran gave moral support to other Islamic movements, particularly in Arab world. Thee new regime also demanded that the Shah be returned to stand trial for his alleged crimes. when the United State refused, the U.S embassy in Iran was occupied in November 1979 and the staff taken hostage. For over a year there ensued threats, negotiations, and denunciations. Finally, in January 1981, a complex agreement was reached and the hostages were released. Civil War in Lebanon The Lebanese civil war was partially caused by communal differences between Muslims and Christians. Political splits between the left and right and the presence of many armed and politically active Palestinians contributed to upsetting the fragile government balance. In addition, outside interference by Israel, Syria and other surrounding Arabs nations and interventions by western powers made an acceptable compromise to reunite the nation almost impossible. Indeed, Lebanon becomes a surrogate battleground for wider conflicts. The war resulted in the Syrian occupation of parts of Lebanon, while the United Nations stationed troops along the border with Israel. Armed confrontation continued in southern Lebanon as Palestinian and leftist Lebanese forces fought with the Israels and the Israeli-supported enclave in southern Lebanon. Clashes among the various forces also continued in Beirut. Mediation efforts by the United States, Saudi Arabia and other nations from 1975 to 1981, failed to break the cycle of violence that turned Beirut once one of the most beautiful cities in the Middle East, into a city of Bombings, random assassinations and extensive destruction. By the 1980s, Israel made it clear that it would not tolerate the continued presence of PLO in Lebanon, where the disintegration of a unified Lebanese government had allowed the Palestinians to establish something of a state within a state. When Israel launched a massive invasion of Lebanon in 1982, the conflict exploded into the Fifth Arab-Israeli war. In June 1982 Israel launched a full-scale invasion of Lebanon with the primary intention of destroying the PLO's military and political presence there. In thee ensuring war, Israel bombarded Lebanese cities by land, sea and air. Thousands of people, mostly civilians, were killed,injured and made homeless. After bloody combat with the Palestinians and their Lebanese allies, the Israelis and their Lebanese Christian allies besieged West Beirut. Israel won another military victory in 1982. Following weeks of protracted Israeli bombings of the city, the PLO fighters and leaders were evacuated under he auspices of international peacekeeping forces. The 1982 war was a severe blow to the Palestine liberation movement. After intermittent confrontations, the conflict broke out as a full scale uprising (intifada) in December 1987. Palestinians, particularly the young people, demonstrated, went out on

A. K. A. S Korala 2010/BA/16819 Faculty of Arts University of Colombo

strike, boycotted Israeli goods and services, and threw stones. The Israeli army retailed with an Iron fist policy in an attempt to smash the uprising. In a sweeping move, the PLO in 1988 declared the independence of Palestine (the west bank and Gaza), recognized the existence of Israel, and called for a negotiated settlement. Dozens of nations recognized the new Palestine state and lauded the move towards peace. Iran Iraq War Saddam Hussein became dictator of Iraq in 1973. Although Iraq had large oil reserves, it coveted those of its neighbors. It also wanted to became the political power house in Middle East. Until 1978 the United States had supported Iran as a buffer against the soviet Union. This relationship changed, however, when the Ayatollah Khomeini's followers overthrew the Shah of Iran and seized American hostages. Accordingly, the United States decided to follow the policy of The enemy of my enemy is my friend.Late in 1980, Iraq's President, Saddam Hussein, sent the Iraqi army into Iran and toward that nation's oil fields. As a Muslim socialist, rather than a religious state, Iraq was afraid of the theocracy that had developed in Iran. Iraq strongly believed in modernization, which Iran's new leadership did not. In its surprise attack, Iraq captured a large stretch of Iranian territory. Accordingly, the Iranians, who believed they were fighting a holy war, developed a technique of human-wave offensives. Masses Iranians, mostly teen-aged volunteers, walked across Iraqi minefields and into Iraqi firepower, convinced that if they died, they would directly go to the heaven. Iraq responded by using poison gas against Iranians. Many western nations sold arms to both sides. Arab countries, however supported Iraq with billions of dollars, far more than they spent in the war against Israel. The USA supported Iraq in its war with Iran, selling it weapons and farm goods. The IranIraq war raged on until 1988. Khomeini died in 1989. The United States Military Offensive in the Persian Gulf The Iraq- Iran war ended in 1988 with a settlement Saddam Hussein found himself with enormous war debts to pay. Because he did not trust the organization of Petroleum Exporting countries .(OPEC) to keep oil prices high enough to meet his needs, he looked for another solution. Iraq decided to claim Kuwait, which was considered as an integral part of the historic borders of Iraq. On August 2, 1990, Iraqi troops invaded a helpless Kuwait. Within a few days, the Kuwait government and about two thirds of its citizens had fled the country. The Iraqis proceeded to loot Kuwait and to move their tanks to the border of Saudi Arabia. If Iraq had conquered Saudi Arabia as well as Kuwait, it would have controlled one half of the world's known oil reserves. US was determined to maintain its petroleum and political interests in the region as the sole super power during this time. President George H.W Bush responded to Iraq's actions in several ways. He rushed American troops into Saudi Arabia. He convinced the United Nations Security Council to approve a trade embargo against Iraq and authorize all necessary means to liberate Kuwait if Iraq did not withdraw by 15th January 1991. He also asked for and received authority from congress to wage the war against Iraq.

A. K. A. S Korala 2010/BA/16819 Faculty of Arts University of Colombo

The 15th January deadline passed without Hussein backing down. On January 16, the United States and its allies launched Operation Desert Strom with a massive air assault against Iraq. February 23 saw the start of the ground offensive. On 28th February, President Bush announced a ceasefire. Desert Strom was over after 43 days. The war ended with a decisive military victory for the coalition forces. The Gulf War the first major war of the post-cod war era. Obstacles for Peace Israel boycott campaigns Especially since the failure of the peace process and the outbreak of the second intifada in 2000, there are increasing initiatives in the west for boycotting Israel. Several types of boycotts are propagated by different groups. The most important types of boycotts are, Institutional boycotts (divestment campaigns or freezing of cooperation and contacts). Institutional boycott campaigns are mainly carried by action groups inside churches, universities, unions and other institutes. Consumer boycotts of Israeli products. Consumer boycotts are especially propagated by Palestinian solidarity groups and radical political organizations, but also by some third world groups and development organizations. A province in Norway declared a boycott against all goods from Israel in 2006. Total or partly suspension of the EU association treaty with Israel. Since the 1990s the European Union has association treaties with several countries around the Mediterranean Sea that are not members of the EU, as well as with the Palestinian Authority. Stopping weapon supplies or assistance to Israel. Since 2000 several European countries have vastly limited their weapon supplies to Israel. Boycott of companies and institutions (foreign or Israeli) that play a role in the occupied territories. This is mostly a more limited form of the institutional and consumer boycotts. An example is the (failed) boycotting of Caterpillar, an American company that among other things provided bulldozers with which Palestinian houses in the occupied territories have been demolished. The Apartheid comparison Frequently Israel is being compared to the Apartheid regime of South Africa, which collapsed in the late eighties due to - among other things - an international boycott, and which was finally abolished in 1994. Israel would also be a type of Apartheid state, in which the Arabs are discriminated against in all kinds of manners, and the occupied territories are being compared to the South African Bantustans (homelands). The separation barrier around the West bank is thus gladly labeled an 'Apartheid wall'. Ethnic cleansing The charge that Israel would be guilty of ethnic cleansing, the murdering and/or expelling of large numbers of Palestinian citizens, serves the same goal as the Apartheid comparison, namely the delegitimatization of Israel as a Jewish state

A. K. A. S Korala 2010/BA/16819 Faculty of Arts University of Colombo

The culprit party Israel boycott activists put the blame of the conflict entirely on Israel. Palestinian and Arab violence is minimized and dismissed as actions of despair by some individuals. It is being ignored that Palestinian violence preceded the founding of Israel. The right to self-determination Both parties basically want the land and their own self-determination on it, and for this reason every 'solution' that contradicts self-determination for one side, is doomed to fail. The Israel boycott campaigns however mostly oppose a two state solution. Zionism, and Israel as a Jewish state, are frequently labeled 'racist'. They often advocate 'a secular state for all its citizens', where all (now more than four million) Palestinian refugees should be able to return to, which is incompatible with Jewish self-determination. The fact that Jews had no equal rights as minorities in most times and places is ignored. Considering the mutual animosity and Arab anti-Semitism, the chances that this would be different now are nil. It is unlikely that the Jews as a minority in a Palestinian state would be treated as well as or better than the Israeli Arabs are treated now in Israel. In general the position of minorities in the Arab countries is miserable. During the 1948 war all Jewish communities were driven out of the areas that came under Arab rule, and afterwards Jews were driven out of almost all Arab countries. The UN resolutions Israel boycott activists frequently point to the many UN resolutions and Israeli violations of international law, and to the fact that these resolutions are ignored by Israel. The resolutions which have been adopted by the Security Council that are frequently referred to, are interpreted rather one-sidedly For instance Resolution 194, adopted in . 1949, is quoted frequently to support the right to return. This resolution says that the refugees who wish to live in peace with their neighbors must be enabled to return to Israel. That is somewhat different than claiming almost 60 years later that all refugees and their offspring (only a small number of the current four millions refugees fled or were expelled originally) are entitled to an inalienable right to return. The imbalance of power Another argument in Israel boycott campaigns is, that all negotiations aimed at reaching a Palestinian state have failed so far, because Israel, being the strongest party, refuses to give the Palestinians what they are entitled to. Since talking does not help, harder pressure like sanctions become necessary to force Israel to make concessions. Moreover, an end is to the occupation is not a favor which requires a counter-favor, but a non-negotiable right. Anti-Semitic? Many Israelis perceive the calls for an Israel boycott, the divestment campaigns and the calls to suspend trade treaties as a form of anti-Semitism. They indicate that most of these campaigns contest Israel's legitimacy, and thus the Jewish right to selfdetermination. They further indicate that the proponents of boycotts disregard Arab

A. K. A. S Korala 2010/BA/16819 Faculty of Arts University of Colombo

incitement against Israel and Jews, and are selectively outraged about Israeli violence.