Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL
SCIENCE
By
SUPERVISOR
DR YINDA G. SENDZE
June 2008
i
CERTIFICATION
I hereby certify that this project entitled “Assessment of water quality of the Ndongo
Stream in the Buea Municipality” was carried out by Ndam Edmond Nkehacha (UB
026380) as a project for the requirement for a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc) Degree in
Environmental Science.
i
DEDICATION
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Co
ntent Page
Certification ...........................................................................................................i
Dedication ...............................................................................................................ii
Table of contents .....................................................................................................iii
List of tables ............................................................................................................v
List of figures ..........................................................................................................v
List of plates.............................................................................................................vi
Acknowledgement ..................................................................................................vii
Abstract ...................................................................................................................viii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................1
1.1 – Background information .............................................................................1
1.2 – Problem Statement .........................................................................................2
1.3 – Rationale ........................................................................................................3
1.4 – Beneficiaries ..................................................................................................4
1.5 – Objectives ......................................................................................................4
1.6 – Hypothesis .....................................................................................................5
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................6
2.1 – Definitions .....................................................................................................6
2.2 – Water and Sanitation ......................................................................................7
2.3 – Importance of water .......................................................................................9
2.4 – Water Quality .................................................................................................11
2.5 – Water Quality Management ...........................................................................18
2.6 – Pollution of stream water ...............................................................................22
CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHOD ..............................................................................30
3.1 –Location of study .......................................................................................30
3.2 – Significance of stream ...................................................................................31
3.3 – Field Survey and Sampling ............................................................................33
3.4 – Water Analyses ...............................................................................................35
3.5 – Data Analysis .................................................................................................41
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CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .............................................................................42
4.1 – Maps locating Study Area ..............................................................................42
4.2 –Anthropogenic and Natural Factors affecting the water quality of the stream 43
4.3 – Water Pollution Sources .................................................................................54
4.4 – Health Status around the Stream ....................................................................56
4.5 – Results of Physico-chemical Analysis ...........................................................60
4.6 – Results of Biological Analysis .......................................................................64
4.7 – Existing and Proposed water Quality Remediation techniques .....................67
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................68
5.1 – Conclusions ....................................................................................................68
5.2 – Recommendations ..........................................................................................70
REFERENCES........................................................................................................73
APPENDIX..............................................................................................................75
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LIST OF TABLES
Tables Page
Table 1 – Primary and Secondary Drinking Water Standards ............................................14
Table 2 – Water quality and Dissolved Oxygen (DO) content in ppm at 20°C ....................24
Table 3 – Major Categories of water pollutants ..................................................................26
Table 4 – Common Diseases transmitted to Humans through contaminated Drinking water
.............................................................................................................................................27
Table 5 – Physical and Chemical parameters of the stream for Early March (Dry season) 60
Table 6 – Physical and Chemical parameters of the Stream for Early April (Rainy season)
.............................................................................................................................................62
Table 7 - Results of the determination of water purity by measuring the Most Probable
Number (MPN) of Fecal Coliform in the Ndongo Stream .................................................65
Table 8 - Estimated Per Capita Contribution of Indicator Microorganisms from Humans
and Some Animals...............................................................................................................66
Table 9 - Various proposals, by people living nearby the Ndongo stream, to improve water
quality in the stream ...........................................................................................................67
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
Fig. 1 – World water consumption in percentage divided into three categories showing
differences between the various continents ........................................................................11
Fig. 2 – Map of Buea ..........................................................................................................32
Fig. 3 – Map of the Ndongo Stream showing Sampling Points .........................................42
Fig. 4 – Percentage of Respondents within the various age groups ...................................43
Fig. 5 – Literacy levl of the Respondents ...........................................................................44
Fig.6 – Household size and daily water consumption around the Ndongo stream .............45
Fig 7 -Types of wastes generated by households in the localities bordering the stream.....46
Fig 8-Waste disposal methods employed by the residents along the Ndongo Stream .......48
Fig 9 - Uses of water carried from the Ndongo stream......................................................50
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Fig 10 - Anthropogenic and natural activities on the stream...............................................52
Fig 11 - Stream pollution sources of the Ndongo stream...................................................55
Fig 12, 13 and 14 - Monthly Report on Water-related diseases in Solidarity Clinic Molyko
(For February, March and April) ........................................................................................58
Fig 15 - % Prevalence of water related disease around the Ndongo stream.......................59
Fig 16 - Pie Chart showing the abundance of organisms found in the stream...................64
Fig 17 – Basic steps in Domestic Waste management in minimal programmes as an
initiative to minimise street and stream dumping................................................................72
LIST OF PLATES
Plates Page
Plate 1 –Poorly sited dumps at residences along the Ndongo stream .....................49
Plate 2 –Waste disposal into a portion of the stream flowing behind a sampled household
.................................................................................................................................49
Plate 3 –Collection of Drinking water.....................................................................51
Plate 4 –Laundry exercise at the Ndongo Stream....................................................53
Plate 5 –Bathing in the Ndongo stream ..................................................................53
Plate 6 –Washing of cars in the Ndongo Stream .....................................................54
Plate 7 –Pesticide droplets from a nearby tomato farm...........................................56
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Sincere gratitude to God whose singular generosity made this dream a reality. In addition
may this piece of creative art serve as a sign for the glorification of the name above all
names on earth, JESUS, and in total appreciation for his infinite mercy.
I wish to express any thing above deep gratitude and appreciation to my Supervisor and
Idol Dr Yinda G. Sendze for his infinite patience and selfless sacrifices in making this
assistance cannot be expressed in words, but only God will reward this kind gesture. Much
I would also like to express my heart-felt appreciation to my mum, Mrs Ndam Genevieve
Momjang and Mr Stephen Tanyi; not leaving out my aunts; Rev Sr Mary Gladys Diyen,
Mrs Diyen Gladys, Ms Marceline Sangle, Mrs Patricia Moki, Mrs Prudencia Fondong, Mrs
Susan Nonjang, Mrs Perps Nche for their financial, material and emotional support.
Immense thanks to my Grand mothers Mrs Diyen Cecilia and Mrs Ludwina Nkemasong
for their encouragement and endless prayers. Moreover sincere thanks to all my brothers
Special thanks to my bosom friends Fongwen Eric, Tankoh Daniel, Ebong Ernest, Ekane
Mary, Kilo Sylvia, the Ashu sisters, Stanley Tangyie, Laura Bakari, Tebo Abid, Oben
Doris, Njume Leslie, Yvonne Ijang, all Environmental Science students, all SHESANS and
vii
ABSTRACT
This study centred on analysing the Biological, Physical and chemical parameters of the
The specific objectives are; (1) To assess the impact of anthropogenic activities (of the
neighbouring human settlement) and natural processes (e.g. rainfall) on the Ndongo stream
and the attitude of the people towards the stream. (2) To determine the physico-chemical
and biological parameters of the Ndongo stream in relation to its sustainability for
agricultural and domestic utilisation. (3) To evaluate methods used and recommend the
best methods to manage water quality to ensure the sustainability of the resource.
The study area was stratified into four zones; Bokoko, Molyko, Mile 17 and Bulu
the impact of anthropogenic activities and natural processes on the stream. Rapid sampling
techniques such as interviews and short discussions also helped in data collection on the
health status of those living by the stream and existing water quality measures. In addition,
water samples were collected from three sampling points (i.e. source, mid course and lower
course of the stream) and analysed for the physico-chemical parameters (pH, temperature,
Dissolved Oxygen Level, turbidity and Flow rate) and Biological parameters (faecal
The Mid and lower courses of the Ndongo stream were found to experience enormous
adverse effects on their Physico-chemical and Biological parameters particularly during the
rainy season. This could be due to acidic precipitation, increased anthropogenic activities,
viii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Water is very important to the existence of man. A safe and potable water supply is critical
to the survival of human life. Society in general requires water for the maintenance of
public Health, fire protection, cooling water for electricity generation, use in industrial
process, irrigation of agriculture lands, and navigation (Malina, 1996). The horrors that
accompany drought, a myriad of diseases that accompany the use of polluted water and
other inconveniences that accompany lack of water, help to buttress the importance of
Surface-water pollution is often both highly visible and often one of the most common
have been spent a control-programs though with little but promising progress.
In Molyko, households bordering the Ndongo stream often discard their residential wastes
in this stream. In addition, some residents found close to the stream drain sewage form
their toilets or baths into it. This problem is aggravated during periods of water crisis in
this neighbourhood as some people living nearby the stream, use it as their toilets because
they could not use the water closets at home. This stream serves as a very good route for
various human diseases and their vectors, since it may have been contaminated by faeces
or urine from an infected person. As such, the incidence of malaria, filariasis and other
mosquito-borne diseases would increase mostly affecting those who use it. Lots of laundry
1
is also done in this stream especially during the dry season when water crisis becomes a
“Canker Worm” in the society This exposes the people to skin diseases such as bilharzias
and other skin irritations. Children are the most susceptible to these health defects and they
contract them through swimming and bathing in it. Water from the stream is also used to
process palm nuts for palm oil by stream and it may also be a source for gastrointestinal
problems. The Ndongo stream harbours some fish and crab species which constitute a vital
complement of the people’s diet and this fish must have been contaminated given the level
of pollution of the stream. Therefore, people who eat of this contaminated fish (now
infectious) as Beverley et al (2001) explains are likely to contract diseases such as liver
disease(Paragonimiasis).
The environmental problem of great priority in human societies is how to make available
enough water to satisfy the domestic, industrial and agricultural needs (UN, 1971). More
important than the supply of water is the quality of water supplied (Shraddhakar, 1974). It
stream’s neighbouring human community due to high birth rate and immigration; and
above all the gross encroachment of this community of this community towards the stream
stream’s water quality (physical, chemical and biological parameters). In addition natural
(usually seasonal) water quality deterioration. The poor water quality of the Ndongo
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I. Most critical and eminent is the prevalence of the following water-related diseases
aquatic worms and urinary and rectal infections); diseases with water-related insect
vectors (yellow fever, malaria, sleeping sickness and other viral fevers); diseases
II. There has been periodic drop in water supply fit for the various uses such as
III. The fish population in the stream has also met persistent fluctuations; hence low fish
1.3 RATIONALE
The study would assess the water quality parameters in the Ndongo Stream and the
This will facilitate the resolution of the water quality crisis of the stream through the
standards for its proposed uses by its immediate beneficiaries (the nearby community).
Moreover the study will also help raise the awareness of the neighbouring community of
the stream of the relationship between their activities that could be of potential risk to the
changing water quality of the stream and consequent health implications; and hence help
them develop skills in using the stream without depletive effects on its quality.
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1.4 BENEFICIARIES
This project will be directly beneficial to the nearby human settlements of Lower
The Ndongo Stream is a resourceful freshwater body that vitalizes 1/3 of the population of
Buea (about 33,333 inhabitants) in terms of their water needs. It is the primary source of
water for domestic and agricultural uses to half of the population of the Buea Urban Health
district i.e. inhabitants of Bonduma, Molyko, Mile 17 and Muea. The inhabitants of the
above localities constitute the direct (immediate) beneficiaries who maximize the resource
in domestic activities (the second largest water-consuming sector) and agriculture (the
largest water-consuming sector), particularly the cultivation of arable crops which are
either consumed by the communities or sold to other communities in and around the Buea
Municipality and constitute the indirect beneficiaries. In addition, there is some swimming
and some minor fishing by the neighbouring population along its course.
1.5 OBJECTIVES
The general objective of this study is to make known the existing problems and those that
could arise from improper water quality management of the Ndongo stream and propose
measures to be put in place that would curb the incidence of disease outbreak and make the
4
1.6 HYPOTHESIS
The Ndongo stream is both physico-chemically and bacteriologially not potable due to
5
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 DEFINITIONS
a) Fresh water: Water having a salt concentration below 0.01% (100ppm). As a result of
purification by evaporation, all forms of precipitation are fresh water, as are lakes,
rivers, groundwater, and other bodies of water that have a throughflow of water from
b) Polluted water: Water that contains one or more impurities making the water unsuitable
c) Purified water: Water that has had pollutants removed or rendered harmless (Taylor
et.al, 2002).
d) Water quantity: The amount of water available to meet desired demands (Taylor et.al,
2002).
e) Water quality: The degree to which water is pure enough to fulfil the requirements of
various uses (Taylor et.al, 2002). The quality of a body of water refers to its
temperature and the amount and character of its content of mineral particles, solutes
and organic matter (Olumese, 1991). Water quality assessment is the overall evaluation
of the physical, chemical and biological nature of water in relation to natural quality,
human effects and intended uses, particularly uses which may affect human health and
the health of health of the aquatic system itself (Brown and Barnwell, 1987). Streams
are small but important water systems that finely divide the landscape into drainage
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2.2 WATER AND SANITATION
Clean drinking water and basic sanitation are necessary to prevent communicable diseases
and maintain a healthy life. Approximately 1.1 billion people lack access to safe drinking
water and 2.4 billion don’t have adequate sanitation (UNEP, 2002). By 2025 two thirds of
the world’s people will be living in water-stressed countries (defined by the U.N as a
consumption of more than 10% of renewable fresh water resources). Investments in rural
developments have brought significant improvements over the past decades (Miller and
Hackett, 2008).
The development of every nation depends on the well being of people of that country and
therefore the eminent need for their health conditions to be maintained through efficient
water supply of good quality (Olumese, 1991). To maintain health conditions certain
measures are applied which can broadly be categorized into two; the preventive measures
(concerned with rules of hygiene) and the curative measures (concern with treatment of
cases of ill health) (Smart, 1998). The health field concept, a broad approach that refers to
all matters that relate to health, includes four principal elements namely : Human biology;
The environment here, on which man depends solely for his survival, has to be taken care
possible. This gives reason why domestic waste must be managed properly to contain any
situation that could either create health problems or degrade the environment (e.g. Ndongo
stream).
rural areas. Many areas, particularly in developing countries, still have inadequate waste
7
management; poorly controlled open dumps illegal dumping along roadsides and in nearby
streams remain a problem (Botkin and Keller, 2000). Such dumping spoil scenic resource
pollutes soil and water resources and is a potential health hazard to plants, animals and
people.
The hydrologic cycle plays an important role in the quality of water. Runoff resulting from
precipitation may carry inorganic chemicals that dissolve into the water runoff flow over
different geological formation and soils; e.g. limestone dissolves in runoff, resulting in
hard water. Evaporation of water from streams, rivers and other impoundments tends to
Environmental and/or water pollution control agencies in each state usually establish
beneficial uses of surface water such as; Municipal water supply, Industrial water supply,
and wildlife. The Beneficial use of a water body is based on the quality of the water body
resources, historical use patterns and existing treatment systems for pollution abatement
(Wikipedia, 2008).
biological characteristics of water and the interactions among the physical, chemical and
associated with various beneficial uses of water also must be understood in detail (Miller
8
Just about anything we do uses water. Reading a newspaper, driving a car, eating a
aluminium can involve processes or products that require large amounts of water. For
instance, it takes 7000litres of water to produce 1kg of grain-fed beef, and 5000litres of
water to grow 1kg of rice. In addition water keeps us alive, moderates climate, sculpts the
land, removes and dilutes wastes and pollutants, and filters out wavelengths of the sun’s
ultraviolet (UV) radiation that would harm some aquatic organisms (Miller and Hackett,
2008).
Only about 0.01% of the earth’s water supply is available to us as freshwater, but this is
recycled. This magnificent water recycling and purification system works only as long as
we do not overload water systems with slowly degradable and non degradable wastes or
withdraw water from underground supplies faster than it is replenished. Adequate water
supply of standard quality is essential to meet the individual, domestic and agricultural
Individual needs
A human being needs daily approximately two litres of water to compensate for its loss
from the body through urine (1,000ml), breath and sweat (900ml) faeces (100ml)
Domestic needs
Globally, 10% of the total freshwater available is used to satisfy domestic demands (Miller
and Hackett, 2008). To live a standard life a household of five persons needs daily a
minimum 500litres of water for drinking, cooking, bathing, laundry, cleaning and watering
9
potted plants (UNESCO, 1975). In addition, man has to find water to meet the needs of
domestic animals, to water loans or gardens and to wash vehicles for personal use.
Agricultural needs
Worldwide, irrigation is the biggest user of freshwater (70%) withdrawn each year from
surface waters and aquifers. This used to irrigate 1/5 of the world’s cropland to produce
40% of the world’s food, including 2/3 of rice and wheat (Miller and Hackett, 2008). Some
Industrial needs
Of the entire total freshwater on the earth, 20% is used in industrial processes (Miller and
Hackett, 2008). The industrial and commercial needs of water are tremendous. The
production of one ton of cotton fabric needs 250m3 water; man-made fabric (2,500 -
5,000m3); water woollen fabric (580m3); paper (150m3); paper board (57m3); cane sugar
(4m3); oil refining (18m3); steel (250m3); soda (320m3); sulphate (240m3); ammonia
There are great differences in water priorities between developed and developing nations.
According to the United Nations, for example the daily minimum amount of water needed
to support ¾ of the world’s people is equal to the amount of water used each day to irrigate
the world’s golf courses (Miller and Hackett, 2008). The world water consumption
100
80----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10
60----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
40----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
20 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Fig 1: World water consumption in percentage divided into three categories showing
differences between the various continents. (WRI, 1992/1993, p. 161).
Human usage of water is divided among three major categories, as shown. The percentage
used in each category varies with climate and relative development of country. A dry-
climate, less-developed region uses most of its water for irrigation (e.g., Africa), whereas
This refers to the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water in relationship
to a set of standards (Wikipedia, 2008). Natural water bodies will vary in response to
Environmental water quality includes water bodies such as lakes, rivers, and oceans. In the
case of environmental water quality, the standards vary significantly due to different
environmental conditions, ecosystems, and intended human uses (Wikipedia, 2008). Toxic
substances and high populations of certain microorganisms can present a health hazard for
non-drinking purposes such as irrigation, swimming, fishing, and rafting, boating, and
11
industrial uses. These conditions may also impact wildlife which uses the water for
2008).
Water quality standards are created for different types of water bodies and water body
locations per desired uses (Wikipedia, 2008). The Surface Water Quality Standards
(SWQS) establish the designated uses to be achieved and specify the water quality
(criteria) necessary to protect the State's waters (NJDEP, 2007). These are reflected in use
classifications assigned to specific waters. The primary uses considered for such
characterization are parameters which relate to drinking water, safety of human contact,
and for health of ecosystems. The methods of hydrometry are used to quantify water
characteristics. The parameters for water quality are determined by the intended use. Work
in the area of water quality tends to be focused on water that is treated for human
fish and wildlife, recreation, agricultural and industrial supplies, and navigation
(Wikipedia, 2008).
In the setting of standards, political decisions are made about how the water will be used
and in the case of natural water bodies, some reasonable estimate of pristine conditions.
The SWQS Team in Water Monitoring and Standards within the Department of
SWQS Program. In the United States, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
prescribes regulations that limit the amount of certain contaminants in the water provided
by public water systems for tap water. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
12
regulations establish limits for contaminants in bottled water that must provide the same
protection for public health. Different uses have different concerns and therefore different
standards (NJDEP, 2007). Natural water bodies will vary in response to environmental
conditions. Water quality depends on the local geology and ecosystem, as well as human
uses such as sewage dispersion, industrial pollution, use of water bodies as a heat sink, and
The criteria applicable to different use classifications are numerical estimates of constituent
concentrations, including toxic pollutants, and protective uses. Narrative criteria describe
are not limited to, rivers, lakes, streams, wetlands, estuaries and near shore coastal waters.
The SWQS also contain technical and general policies to ensure that the designated uses
Water quality criteria for various beneficial uses, including drinking water have been
addressed in numerous documents. In 1952, the California State Water Pollution Control
Board published Water Quality Criteria, in which scientific and technical information
dealing with water quality for various beneficial uses was discussed . The criteria were
revised in 1963 by McKee and Wolf, and in 1971 the California State Water Resources
Control Board published a revision of these criteria (McKee and Wolf, 1963; 1971). These
documents were used extensively throughout the United States and in many counties
13
The complexity of water quality as a subject is reflected in the many types of
measurements listed below can be made on-site (temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen,
conductivity), in direct contact with the water source in question. More complex
measurements that must be made in a lab setting require a water sample to be collected,
preserved, and analyzed at another location. Making these complex measurements can be
water quality by using bacterial counts, chemical analysis, physical analysis, and indicator
organisms. One involves measuring the number of colonies of fecal coliform bacteria (such
However, there are local volunteer programs and resources available for some general
assessments. Tools available to the general public are on-site test kits commonly used for
The water quality standards for drinking water are clearly stated in table 1.
The following is a list of water quality assessment methods and their indicators often
To be considered safe for drinking, water should contain no colonies of coliform bacteria
in a sample of 100ml (about 1/2cup). To be considered safe for swimming, it should have
no more than 100 (200 in the United States) colonies per 100ml. By contrast, raw sewage
may contain several million coliform bacteria colonies in 100ml of water (Miller and
Hackett, 2008).
15
The following is a list of drinking water assessment indicators: Alkalinity, Colour of water,
pH, Taste and odour (geosmin, 2-methylisoborneol (MIB), etc), Dissolved metals and salts
Dissolved metals and metalloids (lead, Mercury (element), arsenic, etc.), Dissolved
organics: Coloured Dissolved Organic Matter (CDOM), Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC),
a) Chemical Assessment:
Scientists use chemical analysis to determine the presence and concentrations of inorganic
and organic chemicals that pollute water. They measure sediment content by evaporating
the water in a sample and weighing the resulting sediment. Suspended sediment clouds
water. Scientists use an instrument called a colorimeter, or turbidity meter, to measure the
A typical chemical analysis of water to determine its quality includes, hardness, specific
electrical conductance, hydrogen ion activity (pH), free carbon dioxide and Total Dissolved
Solids (TDS) (Olumese, 1991.) Below is a list of chemical indicators: pH, Conductivity
(also see salinity), Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Nitrate-N, Orthophosphates, Chemical oxygen
b) Physical Assessment:
Water supply should not be offensive to the senses of touch, sight, smell and taste.
16
i. Temperature (By Touch): Freshwater temperature varies normally from 0 to 35◦C
depending on the source, depth and season. Temperature variation affects important
ii. Colour, Turbidity and Suspended Solids (by Sight): Colour is primarily a concern
for water quality for aesthetic reasons. Brown-coloured water indicates the presence
iii. Turbidity is a measure of the light transmitting properties of water and is comprised
iv. Taste and Odour (By Smell and Taste): These are human perceptions of water
quality. Human perception of taste include sour (Hydrochloric Acid), salt (sodium
c) Biological Assessment:
This involves measuring the number of colonies of faecal coliform bacteria (such as
Escherichia coli) present in a water sample. Various strains of these bacteria and other
animals and thus are present in their faecal waste. Although most strains of coliform
bacteria do not cause disease, their presence indicates that water has been exposed to
human or animal wastes that are likely to contain disease-causing agents. When dangerous
levels of faecal coliform bacteria are detected, scientists try to determine whether the
source is from humans, various types of livestock, or wild animals such as birds or
raccoons. A new field of science called Bacterial Source Tackling (BST.) uses molecular
17
biology techniques to determine subtle differences in strains of E. coli based on their
Biological monitoring metrics have been developed in many places, and one widely used
measure is the presence and abundance of members of the insect orders Ephemeroptera,
Plecoptera and Trichoptera (EPT). EPT indexes will naturally vary from region to region,
but generally, within a region, the greater the number of taxa from these orders, the better
the water quality. A number of websites originating in the United States offer guidance on
developing a monitoring program and identifying members of these and other aquatic
Individuals interested in monitoring water quality who cannot afford or manage lab scale
analysis can also use biological indicators to get a general reading of water quality. One
called because they are broken down by oxygen-requiring bacteria, and plant nutrients in a
sample of water. Scientists also measure the Biological Oxygen Demanding (BOD), the
2008).
biological characteristics of water and interactions among the physical, chemical and
requirements associated with various beneficial uses of water also must be understood in
18
details, for instance in Cameroon Law 98 -005 provides that water is a natural resource
All States, according to their capacity and available resources, and through bilateral or
multilateral cooperation, including the United Nations and other relevant organizations as
(a) Formulation of costed and targeted national action plans and investment programmes;
(b) Integration of measures for the protection and conservation of potential sources of
planning, forest resource utilization, protection of mountain slopes and riverbanks and
and methods for water management and planning, including environmental impact
assessment methods;
constraints;
(f) Flood and drought management, including risk analysis and environmental and social
impact assessment;
(g) Promotion of schemes for rational water use through public awareness-raising,
educational programmes and levying of water tariffs and other economic instruments;
19
(j) Development of new and alternative sources of water-supply such as sea-water
(k) Integration of water (including surface and underground water resources) quantity and
quality management;
(l) Promotion of water conservation through improved water-use efficiency and wastage
devices;
and communities;
ii) At the national level, integrated water resources planning and management in the
20
facilitating discussions and sharing of experiences in areas related to water
resources management;
education for water users, including the consideration by the United Nations of a World
Water Day.
Protection of water resources (particularly the water quality) is a primordial element that
proposed water legislation needs to address, for instance in Cameroon, Law 98-005 of 14 th
April 1998 (which regulates all water resources except mineral waters and spring waters)
lays down detailed provisions for protection of water quality, forbidding any act, such as
boundaries.
ii. Cause danger to public health, animal life, or aquatic or sub-marine flora.
The water legislation would need to specify the party or parties at each level of the
government (national, regional, and local) that are responsible for ensuring protection of
water quality, for instance in Cameroon, the ministry of Energy and Water is responsible
for examining the installations established for these purposes and for analysing the
quality of the water (Law 79-10, art. 10). The protection of water resources includes:
a) Prevention and abatement of both point source pollution and diffuse pollution.
21
d) Adoption of detailed procedures for enforcement of water quality standards,
Some water statutes, like that of Armenia, have expanded the concept of protection to
require protection of water ecosystem, which is a wider concept. Such an ecosystem would
go beyond water to cover fauna and flora as well as the land contiguous to the water
resource, which should be used in a manner that does not harm the water resource. It
should be noted that the concept of protection of the entire ecosystem can be traced to the
Mar del Plata Conference of 1977, where it suggested that the legislation should aim at the
Directive and other European legislation, such as the Protocol on water and health, have
a) Potable water supply in adequate amount for both rural and urban populations.
soil and plant nutrients and maximising crop yields, providing proper
22
Water pollution is any chemical, biological, or physical change in water quality that has a
harmful effect on living organisms or that makes water unsuitable for desired uses. Water
pollution is a large set of adverse effects upon water bodies such as lakes, rivers, oceans,
and groundwater caused by human activities. Flowing Streams can recover rapidly from
combination of dilution and biodegradation of such wastes by bacteria. But this natural
recovery process does not work when streams are overloaded with pollutants or when
drought, damming, or water diversion for agriculture and industry reduce their flows. Also,
these natural dilution and biodegradation processes do not eliminate slowly degradable and
oxygen and creates an oxygen sag curve. This reduces or eliminates populations of
organisms with high oxygen requirements until the stream is cleansed of wastes. The depth
and width of the oxygen sag curve and thus the time and distance needed for a stream to
recover depend on several factors. They include the volume of incoming degradable wastes
and the stream’s volume, flow rate, temperature, and pH level. Similar oxygen sag curves
can be plotted when heated water from industrial and power plants is discharged into
Although natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes
also cause major changes in water quality and the ecological status of water, water is only
called polluted when it is not able to be used for what one wants it to be used for. Water
23
pollution has many causes and characteristics. Increases in nutrient loading may lead to
eutrophication. Organic wastes such as sewage impose high oxygen demands on the
receiving water leading to oxygen depletion with potentially severe impacts on the whole
wastewater including heavy metals, resin pellets, organic toxins, oils, nutrients, and solids.
Discharges can also have thermal effects, especially those from power stations, and these
too reduce the available oxygen. Silt-bearing runoff from many activities including
construction sites, deforestation and agriculture can inhibit the penetration of sunlight
through the water column, restricting photosynthesis and causing blanketing of the lake or
river bed, in turn damaging ecological systems (Miller and Hackett, 2008).
Table 2: Water quality and Dissolved Oxygen (DO) content in ppm at 20°C
sewer lines into bodies of surface water. Examples include factories, sewage treatment
plants (which remove some but not all pollutants), underground mines, and oil tankers.
Because point sources are at specific places, they are easy to identify, monitor, and
24
regulate. Most developed countries control point-source discharges of many harmful
chemicals into aquatic systems. But there is little control of such discharges in most
Non point Sources are scattered and diffuse and cannot be traced to any single site of
discharge. Examples include acid of deposition and runoff of chemicals into surface water
from croplands, livestock feedlots, logged forests, urban streets, lawns, golf courses, and
parking lots. There has been little progress in controlling water pollution from non point
sources because of the difficulty and expense of identifying and controlling discharges
chemistry or sensory changes (Brown and Barnwell, 1987). Table 3, lists the major classes
of water pollutants along with their major human sources and harmful effects. Note that
25
Table 3: Major Categories of water pollutants
Typical diseases associated with water are listed in table 4 the common name of the disease
causative agent, and symptoms also are included.
Sources : Tchobanoglous (1985), as adapted from Hawkes (1971) and Salvato (1982).
These common diseases in Table 4 can be transmitted to humans through drinking water
contaminated with infectious agents. Each year, diarrhoea alone kills about 1.9million
people; 90% of them children under 5 in the developing countries. The number of children
27
killed by largely preventable diarrhoea in the past 10years is greater than the number of
people killed in all armed conflicts since World War II (Miller and Hackett, 2008).
Global warming projections include changes in precipitation; some areas will get much
more precipitation and other areas will get less. A moisture-laden atmosphere generates
more intense downpours, which can flush more harmful chemicals, plant nutrients, and
by contaminating water treatment facilities and wells. It can also cause lagoons that store
animal wastes, as well as sewer lines that carry both sewage and storm runoff, to overflow
and release raw sewage into rivers and streams (Miller and Hackett, 2008).
Prolonged drought can reduce river flows that dilute wastes. It can also spread infectious
diseases more rapidly among people who lack enough water to stay clean. Warmer water
temperatures can threaten aquatic life by reducing dissolved oxygen levels, and can
increase the growth rates of populations of harmful bacteria (Miller and Hackett, 2008).
In the UK there are common law rights (civil rights) to protect the passage of water across
land unfettered in either quality of quantity. Criminal laws dating back to the 16th century
exercised some control over water pollution but it was not until the River (Prevention of
pollution) Acts 1951 - 1961 were enacted that any systematic control over water pollution
was established. These laws were strengthened and extended in the Control of Pollution
Act 1984 which has since been updated and modified by a series of further acts. It is a
criminal offence to either pollute a lake, river, groundwater or the sea or to discharge any
liquid into such water bodies without proper authority. In England and Wales such
28
permission can only be issued by the Environment Agency and in Scotland by SEPA (UN,
2004).
In the USA, concern over water pollution resulted in the enactment of state anti-pollution
laws in the latter half of the 19th century, and federal legislation enacted in 1899. The
Refuse Act of the Federal Rivers and Harbours Act of 1899 prohibits the disposal of any
refuse matter from into either the nation's navigable rivers, lakes, streams, and other
navigable bodies of water, or any tributary to such waters, unless one has first obtained a
permit. The Water Pollution Act, passed in 1948, gave authority to the Surgeon General to
Growing public awareness and concern for controlling water pollution led to enactment of
the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972. As amended in 1977, this
law became commonly known as the Clean Water Act. The Act established the basic
mechanisms for regulating contaminant discharge. It established the authority for the
industry. The Clean Water Act also continued requirements to set water quality standards
29
CHAPTER THREE
The Buea municipality is divided into two health districts - the Buea Urban and the Buea
Rural Health Districts. A great majority of the over 100,000 inhabitants of Buea reside in
the Buea Urban Health District. This can be attributed to the availability of schools,
hospitals, good roads, water supply, recreational facilities and other social amenities. The
Buea Rural Health District constitutes the following localities; Bokova, Bova, Bokwai,
Bonakanda, Ewonda, Bwitingi and others. While Buea Town, Federal Quarters,
Bokwango, Clerks Quarters, Great Soppo, Bonduma, Molyko, Muea and Mile 17 are
The Ndongo Stream is a minor inland freshwater body located in the heart of the Buea
municipality. Buea, a rural community (spreading at an altitude of between 900m from sea
level to 1100m on the slopes of mount Cameroon (Courade, 1970)) in the Fako Division, is
the political capital of the southwest province of Cameroon. Buea is a small town 69km
from Douala; 15km from Limbe; 28km from Muyuka; 75km from Kumba; and 315km
from Yaounde (Wala, 2002).It falls on latitude 4ْ۫ 09’N and 9ْ۫ 13’E with a population
density of 61 persons per sq. km (Matute, 2000).The Buea subdivision covers an area of
all of Bakweri origin and of the Bantu stock (Matute, 2000). It has a cool humid climate
with a mean annual temperature of 25ْ۫ C and a mean annual rainfall of 2,850mm. The
rainy season starts generally in March and ends in November while the dry season begins
30
from December to march (Courade, 1970). Buea is characterized by a rugged topography
The stretch of the Ndongo Stream in the Buea Municipality lies between latitudes
It flows at a bearing of 117° northeast from Lower Bonduma (Bokoko) down southeast
through Molyko, Mile 17, Bulu and finally into another stream at Mile 16 (Bolifamba). In
the north, the stream is flanked by the Bokoko locality and in the south by Bolifamba.
Although the entire Ndongo Stream flows from Lower Bonduma and empties its content at
the Tiko Creek, the portion of the Stream that flows through half of the Buea Urban Health
District was chosen as study area (reason being that its population size of the human
settlement bordering the stream is constantly rising as well as its waste) considering parts
of Bonduma, Molyko and Mile 17 as case studies. The Ndongo stream takes its rise from
the slope of a minor hill (as a spring) carrying the Fakoship Residence in Bokoko (or
Lower Bonduma) (approximately 200m west of the Mile 17 – Buea Town Road). The
stream flows north to south from Lower Bonduma (or Bokoko), through Molyko; it
branches off in Mile 17 to Bulu and finally continues as a larger stream in Mile 16
(Bolifamba). These localities, which form the agricultural and educational powerhouse of
the Buea municipality apparently, constitute the most densely populated areas of the
Municipality. The map showing some of the main localities of Buea and the study site is
presented in fig 2.
A glaring evidence of the stream’s importance is in the Ndongo quarter in Molyko which
got its name from the stream. Besides the streams provides for the water needs of 1/3 of the
31
population of Buea (i.e. about 33,333inhabitants.) Moreover majority of the localities
bordering the stream depend largely on the stream for various needs such as agricultural,
Fig 2: Map showing some of the main localities of Buea and the study site
32
Interestingly too, given the rapid urbanization in these localities, large volumes of water
collected from the stream is being channelled to construction activities; such the
Hostels). There also exist enclosed sections along the stream profile which serve as car-
wash points.
The stream profile in most of the localities is also gradually being transformed into a
community waste dump. “To add insult to injury”, during water shortages in some
localities particularly in Molyko, Mile 17 and Bolifamba there stream is being used as
open toilets. All of these activities have grave impacts on the water quality of the stream.
3.3.1. Questionnaires
(Dibanda). The respondents were people of all age groups and of all works of life.
Information to be provided in the questionnaires was about the anthropogenic and natural
activities taking place at the stream and their various impacts on its water quality. It also
unveiled the people’s attitude towards the stream vis-à-vis local water quality management
measures.
In the course of administering the questionnaires, the areas were also surveyed to see
firsthand the various activities carried out by those living by the stream. Some
33
3.3.2. Interviews and Discussions
The interviews were carried out with persons in charge of Waste Management and
Pollution Control at the Rural Council to find out the council’s role in improving the water
quality of the stream. Discussions were held with Health Practitioners at Solidarity Clinic
and Divine Providence Clinic in Molyko to have an insight of the incidence and prevalence
The course of the stream was sampled at the SOURCE, MID COURSE, AND LOWER
COURSE with these points marked using a GPS for exact location on a map. The water
Latitude 04°09.378’N
Longitude 009°16.284’E
Latitude 04°09.071’N
Longitude 009°17.292’E
• LOWER COURSE (in Mile 16) Elevation of 472m above sea level
Latitude 04°08.061’N
Longitude 009°18.356’E
The water samples from the stream were collected in containers using the following
procedure;
Wearing protective gloves, the cap of the sampling container was removed. The sampling
container was then rinsed 2-3 times with the stream water and then it was plunged
34
(opening downward) below the water surface. The submerged container was turned into
the current and water was allowed to flow into it for 30seconds. The full container was
capped while submerged and was immediately removed from the stream.
The physico-chemical assessments were carried out immediately in the field while samples
were then taken to the laboratory for analysis of the biological parameters.
These were carried out in the field using the World Water Monitoring Day Kit
collection, Secchi disk icon sticker, Dissolved Oxygen (DO) bottle (0125), pH Test tube
(0106), DO Test Tabs (3976A), pH Test Tabs (6459A), DO Chart, pH Chart, Turbidity
Chart.
a) Temperature
The thermometer used had an adhesive back which was stuck to the sampling container
and submerged 10cm below the water surface for one minute. The container and
thermometer were removed from the water and the temperature read and recorded.
First the temperature of the water sample was measured and recorded. The DO bottle
(0125) was submerged into the water sample. The bottle was carefully removed from the
water sample, keeping it full. Two DO Tes Tabs (3976A) were dropped into the bottle.
Water overflowed when the tablets were added. The cap was then screwed on and more
water overflowed as the cap was tightened. Care was taken so to prevent bubbles from
35
entering into the sample. It was then mixed by inverting the tube over and over until the
tablets had dissolved. The sample was allowed for five more minutes for the colour to
develop and then this colour was compared to the DO colour Chart. The results were
recorded in ppm.
To confirm the results obtained from the above method, the Winkler’s Titration method
was also used in the field. Here the oxygen bottle was rinsed several times with the sample
• The bottle was closed with the stopper and mixed by shaking.
• After two minutes twelve drops of Oxygen 3 were added. The bottle was closed and
• The test tube was rinsed with solution from point ‘5’ and was then filled u to the ring
mark.
• One drop of oxygen 4 was added. The solution became blue-grey to light blue.
• The dropping tip was placed on the titration syringe. The Plunger was pressed down,
the tip was then dipped into the Titration solution TLSA 10 and the Plunger was drawn
back slowly until the lower edge of the black Plunger seal was level with value zero on
the scale. The small air cushion under the Plunger did not affect the determination.
The syringe was held in the left hand and the test tube in the right; then the titration
solution was added slowly drop by drop, and at the same time the test tube was swirled
lightly until the test solution was completely colourless. Just before the end of the titration,
the solution changed colour to light blue. The final change to colourless was well followed
36
against a white background. The oxygen content in mg/L was read-off from the syringe
barrel (lower rim of the black plunger O-ring.) The titration was not carried out too slowly.
After the end of the titration, another colour change back to blue was ignored.
C) pH
• The test tube (0106) was filled to the 10ml line with the water sample.
• The test tube was caped and mixed by inverting until the tablet has disintegrated. Bits
• The colour of the sample was compared to the pH colour Chart. The result was
recorded as pH.
D) Turbidity
• The backing from the Secchi disk icon sticker was removed.
• The sticker was adhered on the inside bottom of the large white jar (kit container). The
• The jar was filled to the turbidity line located on the outside kit label.
• The turbidity Chart was held on the top edge of the jar. Looking down into the jar, the
appearance of the secchi disk icon in the jar was compared to the chart. The result was
• A Transparency tube with one end open and the other end closed with a patch.
37
• A quantity of the water sample was poured into the transparency tube and carefully
observed from the open to end of the tube, with the unaided eye.
• The point where the white patch at the bottom of the tube just disappears was noted and
• Alternatively, the tube then filled to the brim with water sample. The water was then
removed gradually until the point where the white patch just reappeared. This was also
• The average of both readings was calculated and this value gave the level of
• Nevertheless, in cases where the white patch at the bottom of the tube was still seen
when the tube was filled to the brim, then the clarity was greater than 117cm, so the
• One of the colour viewing tubes was filled to the mark with the sample to be tested.
The tube was stoppered and shaken vigorously. The tube was emptied and the
procedure repeated.
• The colour viewing tube was filled to the mark with the sample.
• The clippers were used to open to one NitraVer 6 Reagent powder pillow. The contents
of the pillow were added to the sample to be tested. The tube was stoppered and shaken
for three minutes. The sample was allowed to stand undisturbed for an additional
30seconds. Unoxidized articles of cadmium metal remained in the sample and settled
• The prepared sample was poured into a second colour viewing tube carefully so that
38
• The Clippers were used to open one NitriVer3 Nitrite reagent powder pillow. The
contents of the pillow were added to the sample. The tube was stoppered and shaken
for 30 seconds. A record colour developed if nitrate was resent. It was allowed for at
least 10minutes, but not more than 20minutes, before completing steps 6 through 8.
• The tube of the prepared sample was inserted into the right to opening of the colour
comparator.
• The unoxidized cadmium metal was rinsed from the colour viewing tube used in Step
2. The tube was filled to the mark with the original water sample and placed in the left
• The Comparator to a light source such as the sky, a window or lamp and viewed
through the openings in front. The disc was rotated to obtain a colour match. The
results as mg/L nitrate were obtained by multiplying the reading on the scale by 4.4.
The method involved using a measuring tape, buoyant material (floating leaf), vertical
• The width across this profile was measured with measuring tape from bank to bank.
• Vertical sticks were placed at various distances from both stream banks in a straight
• The depth of water at the points where the sticks were pinned was measured and the
• A leaf was then released at one end of the profile and using a sto pwatch the time it
takes to get to the other end of the profile (covering a distance of 10m) was measured
in seconds.
39
• The velocity of the leaf was calculated.
• With the velocity and the cross sectional area of the profile, the Discharge rate was then
calculated.
To ensure a high degree of accuracy for the results, each of the measurements and tests
were performed thrice, all the realized values recorded and then averaged, to get a
Determination of the presence of faecal Coliform bacteria in water samples from the
• 1.56g of Lactose was weighed and dissolved in 60ml of distilled water in a conical
• Another 1.56g of Lactose was weighed and dissolved in 30ml of distilled water in
• The conical flasks were covered with cotton wool. They were sterilized in a pressure
pot using the heat source (Bunsen flame) at 121°C for 15minutes.
• The 10ml Double Strength Lactose Broth (DSLB) was poured into each of the 6 test
• The 10ml Single Strength Lactose Broth (SSLB) was poured into each of the 12 test
• Durham tubes were inverted in all the test tubes to trap gas in case of growth of
40
• The test tubes were then placed in a beaker and were sterilized in the pressure pot at
121°C for 15minutes, after which they were removed from the pressure pot and
allowed to cool.
• A bold marker was used to label the test tubes according to the amount of water sample
that was to be dispensed to it: 10ml in each of the test tubes of series 3, 1.0ml in each
test tube of series 2 and 0.1ml in each of the tubes of series 3 respectively.
• Each of the bottles containing the water samples to be tested was mixed by shaking 25
times.
• A 10ml pipette was used to transfer 10ml of water sample to each of the DSLB tubes.
• A 1.0ml pipette was used to transfer 1.0ml of water sample to each of the series 2 test
• The tubes were then examined and the number of tubes in each series with 10% gas or
• The MPN was determined by referring to the MPN Global standard for examination of
Simple descriptive methods such as frequency tables were used to analyze responses to
questionnaires. Microsoft Excel was used in setting up Frequency tables and graphs, pie
41
CHAPTER FOUR
The study area is shown though not with details of the sampling points in the Map of Buea
(Fig 2). With the aid of a GPS device a map of the study area was designed with visible
Fig 3: Map of the study area showing visible details of water sample collection points on
42
4.2 ANTHROPOGENIC AND NATURAL FACTORS AFFECTING THE WATER
quarters (or segments) of the study area. The methodology applied was for efficient
respondents about their ages, Literacy levels, number of individuals per household and
their daily water consumption, waste generation and disposal techniques, Domestic uses of
the stream, activities at the stream and possible sources of water pollution are represented
4.2.1 The people’s attitude towards the stream as a function of age and literacy level
The various age groups sampled (see fig 4) may reflect the actual age structure of the
43
Of all the 90 Respondent households, majority of them belonged to the age group 25-
34years (i.e. 35.6%), followed by the age group 15-24years (i.e. 30%), then those of ages
35 and above (i.e. 22.22%), while individuals of ages less than 15 formed the minority
group (i.e. 20%) (Fig 4). This variation can be explained by the following parameters;
period of sampling, target age group for valid information and literacy level (see fig 5).
Firstly the questionnaire sampling was carried out as from 3:30p.m when most of the
workers returned home. The majority group being the active group and the most literate, it
is most likely that individuals of this group be present at the time of sampling. In addition
it is obvious since they constitute the most literate group they will definitely form the
target group for reliable information. Those of the minority group only got the opportunity
to be interviewed in the absence of all elderly individuals of the household, hence the
The literacy level of the people living by the stream is presented in fig 5.
44
The Literacy level of respondents was measured at 40.0%, educated above high school
level, 42.2% were between Form one and High school and 5.6% represented the illiterates
(see fig 5). From this it can be expected that a reasonable majority are aware of
environmental issues and the effect of their activities on the environment (in this case the
. Water consumption/day varies with the number of individuals in each household as can be
seen in fig 6.
Fig 6: Household size and daily water consumption around the Ndongo stream
45
Basically about 95.5% of those living in the locality bordering the stream, depend on tap
water treated and distributed by SNEC (National Water Corporation) for drinking and
culinary activities. Everybody (100%) admitted using water from the stream for one
From fig 6, households harbouring 4-7 individuals had the highest proportion (39%), while
those with 11-14 individuals had the lowest (11%). These varying water consumption
patterns coincide with the standards set aside by UNESCO (1975), as normal for daily
human consumption. Most households admitted consuming larger water quantities from
the stream (particularly during periods of water shortages) for domestic purposes than tap
The characterisation of the wastes generated around the stream is presented in fig 7.
Plastics
11.0%
17.4%
Papers
Glass
Metals
24.8%
Sweepings(yard
19.3%
waste)
Ash
Food waste
2.3%
5.5%
3.7% Waste water
16.1%
Fig 7: Types of wastes generated by households in the localities bordering the stream
46
The data gathered from the households sampled, showed that above 77.7% harboured
more than 3 persons (fig 7). The number of persons per household may reflect the amount
significant factor behind the poor environmental sanitation around the stream and in Buea
at large. One reason for this may be because of urban drift given that Buea municipality is
rapidly urbanizing for greener pastures and better facilities. This in agreement with Jimoh
and Ifabiyi (2000) who came to the conclusion that urban drift geared towards the
activities. It was observed that littering was a problem too, as people were spotted dropping
dirt just anywhere (including the stream as noticed in Molyko). This explains why the
municipal streets and the streams are increasingly becoming poor in aesthetics.
As shown in fig 7, 24.8% of the respondents believed that food waste constituted the
greatest proportion of residential wastes generated. This could be attributed to that fact
that culinary activities and feeding are inevitable, on a daily basis, in every household. The
plastics are rapidly becoming a significant part of the waste stream, as shopping activities
are on the rise. These plastics are discarded after use and it reduces the waste ability to be
used as good compost and may finally end up in the stream. Waste water from laundry
activities, washing kitchen utensils and above all bathrooms also constitute part of the
waste stream. In addition sweepings produced after household chores end up in the stream
in diverse ways. Waste waters from baths and poorly drained laundries can be a breeding
ground for disease vectors especially mosquitoes that cause malaria. This water when
47
Before disposal, over 60.0% of households sampled practiced safer ways of keeping their
waste before disposal. This they did using porous bags or buckets with lids. Those who
used buckets without lids exposed the waste to flies and other disease vectors that could
enter their homes, contaminate food or water and spreading diseases such as typhoid,
Fig 8: Waste disposal methods employed by the residents along the Ndongo Stream
The period of time the waste spends at the home before disposal matters, as those with
high organic content, will begin to decay, releasing an unpleasant stench, attracting more
flies, rats and other organisms that feed on it. Some 89% of the 90 homes sampled had
particular spots behind their homes where they disposed their waste, some in dug holes
(see fig 8). This is not a bad option for those who control these dumps, but as observed,
48
some were poorly sited, overfilled dug hole and measures to control or cover it were not
This was the case in and around some students’ residential areas in Molyko. In addition, a
significant portion of those who disposed their waste behind their houses did so directly
Plate 2: Waste disposal into a portion of the stream flowing behind a sampled household.
Those who did some level of composting where at the right track of waste reduction – the
49
beneficial to them as it enriches their farms since many of them disposed the degradable
directly to their farms. Burying was not really in practice as disposal method.
The community dump sites were most commonly used as the last stage of disposal by 55%
of the community. These community dumps do not follow laid down principles for siting
them but are decided by the nature or topography of Buea, or just at a ‘convenient’ place in
the locality.
Roadside dumps are observably and increasingly becoming a problem in the localities
bordering the Ndongo Stream as 50% of the people admitted to this practice. People find
Water can be collected from the stream for various uses as seen in fig 9.
50
With respect to domestic activities above 75% of the population living near the stream
testified to the utilization of water from the stream. Considering this sector of water use,
the various sub-activities such as; laundry, drinking, culinary activities and bathing were
considered to be utilized by 77%, 50%, 57% and 79% respectively those living by the
stream (see fig 9). Water collection from the stream, for drinking and other domestic uses
Other uses such as watering of gardens, domestic pets, construction works and irrigation
During the process of water collection for the above uses, those involved could have
Activities carried out directly on the stream can be seen in fig 10.
51
Fig 10: Anthropogenic and natural activities on the stream
Activities such as fishing by 5%, irrigation by 27%, stream laundry by 65%, stream
bathing by 28%, toilet use by 5%, Car wash by 3%, Waste Dumping by 45% and the
activities alter the physico-chemical parameter of the stream, hence affecting its water
quality. Stream laundry, bathing and car washing can be seen in plates 4, 5 and 6
respectively.
52
Plate 4: Laundry exercise at the Ndongo Stream
53
Plate 6: Washing of cars in the Ndongo Stream
From fig 10, 70%, 5%, 15% and 12% of the population admitted to the effects of rainfall,
chemical and biological composition of the stream. These natural activities could possibly
The various sources of water pollution are categorised into point and Non-point Sources as
in fig 11 below.
54
Point Sources Non Point Sources
(including sewage from kitchen drainage pipes) is practised by 34% of the population as
opposed 6% who testified to the deposition of faecal pellets and sewage from toilets into
the stream (see fig 11). These wastes could be the possible reason for the rampant water-
Six percent of the people admitted soil creep (especially the stream’s banks) is also a
source of pollution.
55
The influx into the stream of ground particles from these creeps could possibly account for
the turbidity of the stream and its flooding of neighbouring farmlands especially affect
heavy rains.
These are diffused sources and are highly episodic. Agricultural land runoffs, Roadside
Runoffs, Pesticide Droplets and Construction site runoffs were found to contribute 24%,
18%, 27% and 15% respectively to stream pollution. Plate 7 shows pesticide droplet as a
Below are bar charts for monthly water-related disease incidence obtained from Divine
Providence and Solidarity Clinics all in Molyko, as in fig 12, 13 and 14.
56
57
Fig 12, 13 and 14: Monthly Report on Water-related diseases in Solidarity Clinic Molyko
Although the stream’s water quality is poor and it may contain reasonable concentrations
of pollutants and breeding sites for the causative agents of water-related diseases such as
Filariasis, Malaria, Typhoid and Diarrhoea; its only redeeming grace is that, there no
Children under five years of age, were found in march to be the most vulnerable age group
to Typhoid, diarrhoea and other water-related diseases (fig 12), but had no registered case
in April of this diseases (fig 13) probably due to the implementation and enforcement of
medical measures to combat these diseases and fully prevent their incidence through
vaccination. There was a sudden rise of these diseases in this age group (fig 14) probably
58
The above data obtained for water-borne diseases for February, March, and April 2008,
show a remarkable fluctuation from one month to another, and from the hot dry season to
cool rainy season. The diseases under study include Diarrhoea, Typhoid fever,
From fig 12, 13 and 14 above, it is quite evident that water-borne diseases spread and
prevail more in the hot dry season (early march) when water is scarce and expensive,
causing the users to resort to dirty and often untreated stream water for cooking and
drinking.
Fig 15 below demonstrates annual % prevalence of water diseases around the stream.
Fig 15: % Prevalence of water related disease around the Ndongo stream
Fig 15 shows the percentage prevalence of common water–related diseases over the last
three years (i.e. 2005, 2006, and 2007). Diarrhoea was found to be the most prevalent with
70%, Typhoid (25%), Dysentery (15%), Cholera (10%) and finally Schistosomiasis (5%).
59
4.5 Results of Physico-Chemical Analysis
i) Table 5: Physical and Chemical parameters of the Ndongo stream for Early March
(Dry season)
The results in Table 5 above, the temperature increases from the source through the mid
course to the lower course of the stream. Given the high specific heat capacity of water,
this change is quite gradual (23, 25 and 26°C respectively).This temperature change
though quite infinitesimal, has mild effects on the ecological quality of the stream given its
Dissolved Oxygen level). This quite evident in the reports showing a systematic drop in
The change in transparency along the stream’s course is very significant as it shows a non
discrete drop from the source through the mid course to the lower course, i.e. from
>117cm, through 70.4cm to 57.5cm respectively. This gives an indication of the Total
Dissolved Solids (TDS) and the Total Suspended Solids (TSS) content at the source, mid
and lower courses of the stream. This is expected as the effects of the activities (natural and
anthropogenic) on the stream are on an increase down its course. However, the variations
60
are so exorbitant that the aspect of sedimentation of particulate settling in water bodies is
turbidity of the stream include; soil particles from the creeping slopes bordering the stream,
soil particles from the eroding banks and bed of the stream as it flows, and runoffs from
agricultural sites, construction sites automobile garage, direct waste dumping, and bathing,
The pH of the stream shows a change from slightly acidic through neutral conditions at the
source to slightly alkaline at the mid and lower courses; i.e. 6.7, 8.2, and 8.3 respectively.
The pH of the water at the source depicts the water is slightly affected by the geology of
the area for it flows from an underground aquifer. This pH falls within permissible WHO
Like the investigated parameters above, the Dissolved Oxygen Level of the stream is on a
decrease down the stream’s course, i.e. 6.9mg/L at the source, 6.5mg/L at the mid course
and 6.1mg/L at the lower course. This as mentioned earlier is due to increasing
temperatures down the stream. Moreover given the increased microbial activity
The gradual but steady increase in the nitrate concentration from the source through the
mid to the lower course (i.e. 0.19mg/L, 0.47mg/L and 0.56mg/L respectively) is a clear
indication of the addition of plant nutrients and washing agents into the water body.
Fertilizers applied in gardens and farms close to the stream in all the localities bordering
the stream in the Buea municipality are washed off or leached into the stream. The values
are infinitesimal. In some localities plants such as Cocoyams and Colocasia are planted
directly in the stream. These crops pick up some of the available nutrients (leached nitrates
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inclusive). This may be the reason for the almost negligible nitrate level despite the
increased utilization of the stream for nitrate-related activities such as irrigation, washing
and laundry.
During field survey, it was observed as the day goes by from the cool mornings through
the hot afternoons to the warm evenings; the change in the water parameters of the stream
is quite significant; i.e. there were increments in temperature, pH, and nitrate level through
To investigate the variation in the water quality through the seasons, a second set of data
was collected after rain must have fallen for a couple of times. The data was collected in
early April.
Table 6: Physical and Chemical parameters of the Ndongo Stream for Early April
(Rainy season)
Following results from Table 6, there is an appreciable change in the values obtained. With
the advent of the rains series of bio-physico-chemical changes due to the nature of the
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aerosols in the atmosphere, dissolved and brought down by the rain during particle fusion,
There is a slight increase in the average temperature of the stream’s source water from
23°C in the dry season to 24°C after the rains. One would have expected a decrease due to
the cooling nature of the incoming water. This is however not the case because the rain
cools the atmosphere as it falls, thus absorbing its heat content which it then pours down
into the stream, increasing its temperature. Same holds for the mid and lower course of the
There is no change in the transparency of the various samples. There may have been a
change, as one expects that the rain would wash down the aerosols in the atmosphere,
which in streams will perturb its transparency. The scale of the transparency tube however
There is a general slight decrease in pH, thus increase in acidity. This can be explained by
the presence of acid gases of nitrogenous and sulphurous nature, which may have
emanated from the small-scale agricultural activity in the municipality. This when
dissolved in the rainwater may cause acid rain especially at the beginning of the rainy
The dissolved Oxygen concentration and nitrite levels remain approximately constant with
very small difference. The small difference of about 0.1 and 0.03mg/L respectively, is not
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Time taken for experiment= 31.67s
= 0.32m/s x 0.2825sq.m
= 9.04 x 10-2m/s
For a year,
Q = 9.04x10-2 x 365.25 x 24 x 60 x 60
The discharge rate of a water body give a clear indication of the annual volume water
supply especially to those who depend on it for livelihood. The discharge rate is also a
powerful and reliable indicator of water quality, as it expresses the rate of reoxygenation
and self purification of the stream due to aeration. In addition this unveils the mystery
Fig 16: Pie Chart showing the abundance of organisms found in the stream.
From fig 16 above, Algae is the most abundant visible organism particularly along the
stream’s course close to student hostels in Molyko. Excessive algal blooms can result in
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supersaturated oxygen conditions in the daytime and anaerobic conditions at night. Algae
also affect water quality, since some algae cause tastes and odours in natural water. In
addition, some algae can obtain carbon from the bicarbonates and carbonates in natural
waters. The pH of the water generally increases as the bicarbonates are used. Some algae
also can fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and may grow in site of control of nitrogen
sources.
Pond skaters, tadpoles, crabs and grasses are the next in terms of abundance in the stream.
They are also permanent residents of the stream. They contribute to the water quality as
well through their individual or group (interspecific and intraspecific associations) actions.
They are very good indicators of water quality as their abundance and distribution depict
Finally at the rest of the organisms; lizards, birds, and insects are not permanent residents
of the stream, but their activities mostly hamper water quality. Their effect is most apparent
stream.
Water samples Number of tubes with 10% gas or more in the 3 series MPN Index per
Series 1 (10ml in Series 2 (1.0ml in Series 3 (0.1ml in
100ml
each tube) each tube) each tube)
Source 3 3 2 1,100
Mid Course 3 3 3 >1,100
From Table 7 above the faecal Coliform count Test performed for samples from the
stream’s source and mid course showed MPN of 1,100 faecal Coliform per 100ml of water
and >1,100 faecal Coliform per 100ml of water respectively. Comparing these with the
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WHO standards (1990) for Drinking water this implies the Ndongo Stream is heavily
polluted. Since the population around the stream depends on it for their water needs, the
mystery behind the unceasing and increasing prevalence and incidence of water-borne
Air produced by Coliform accumulated in the Durham tubes. The Broth became more
turbid (cloudy) at the end of the exercise indicating the proliferation of Coliforms. Below
Table 9, shows the various proposals for and existing measures implemented by those
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Table 9: Various proposals, by people living nearby the Ndongo stream, to improve water
quality in the stream
Only “grown-ups should fetch from the stream to ensure good hygiene 33
From Table 9, 92% of the population practise boiling and disinfection of stream water as a
sound domestic method of making it good for drinking, while the rest of the proposed
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CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 CONCLUSION
Water resources globally are facing tremendous and ever-increasing pressures. The
population of the world has more than tripled over the last century, presenting a major
challenge particularly in the water sector, to governments around the world (Cosgrove and
demands between uses and users at the local, district, provincial, national and international
The Ndongo Stream passes through 6 localities of the Buea municipality as indicated on
the map of the study site (fig 1) above: Bokoko, Molyko, Mile 17 and Bolifamba. As such,
much of the quality stream is affected by the socio-economic activities of the inhabitants.
Drinking, cooking, washing, laundry, plant watering, are amongst the most inevitable
domestic uses of water from the stream. Washing and laundry (particularly at the stream)
pose more problems since they are exhibited directly in the stream and all the waste
released at the end of the exercise affects the water quality rendering the stream unable to
satisfy its designed uses. With the accumulation of such particles in the stream, what then
is fate of the health status of the masses that depend soly on this resource for water supply?
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It was discovered that the local peasant farmers in the course of processing their foodstuffs
and because of water scarcity, allow their cassava to ferment (in bags) in the stream for the
days. Moreover microorganisms and Cyanide released from the fermenting compressed
cassava paste are very detrimental to the health of the population. More so, ‘Water Fufu’
The effects of pollution are more intense as one moves down from the source to the lower
course of the stream and during the day when human activities are at their maximum, than
in the early hours of the day. Therefore it is worthwhile for residents that depend on the
stream for water needs to fetch in the early hours of the day or very late in the night when
The results of the water quality analysis executed on the Ndongo stream, indicated it is
both physico-chemically and bacteriologically (with respect to Fecal Coliform count) not
potable due to its widespread use as an open Toilet (especially during moments of acute
water crisis) and other complementary anthropogenic and natural activities. Consequently
the predominant dependence on the stream for water needs may be the most rational
explanation to the aggravating water related health hazards on the local population.
In general, the stream is not fit for drinking, cooking, and even bathing. Hence its
utilization in the above domestic sectors should be strictly forbidden unless after treatment
observing strict internationally accepted directives. Uses such as laundry, washing and
watering of plants have little harm associated to using the stream water; as such these uses
can be compromised.
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5.2 Recommendations
Natural impurities of the stream as well as alarming deterioration in the quality of water
through physical, chemical and bacteriological pollution resulting from human activities
pose problems meriting special attention. The search for solutions to water quality
problems has extended across various paths including; the managerial, technological,
provisions) for efficient water quality management of the stream and supply to the
neighbouring population:
indiscriminate stream dumping and stipulate sanctions in cases of non compliance. The
protection of water resources was recognized a long time ago. This recognition has
been underscored by more recent international conferences on water starting with the
Mar del Plata United Nations Water Conference (1977); paving the way in Cameroon
to the drawing-up of Law No 79/10 of June 1990 amended by Law No 90/16 of August
1990, which regulates spring water and mineral water; and Law No 98/005 of 14th April
1998, which regulates all water resources except spring and mineral waters.
• The local council should involve the quarter heads, and elites to assist in the
implementation of their laws, with the help of the local law enforcement officers
inclusive.
• The population should be duly sensitized and educated on the ills of illegitimate and
uncouth street and stream dumping, poor sanitation and poor health.
• The environmentally-active villagers should make the effort to make provisions for
better prevention and abatement of both point and diffuse pollution sources.
70
• Feasible regulations of discharge of wastewater and other wastes must be designed
according to context.
practices. Better farming techniques such as leaving crop residue on fields and ground
cover on the drainage ways, intercropping, use of mulches, reduction in the use of
agrochemicals and low-volume irrigation could reduce water losses dramatically vis-à-
• The adoption of detailed procedures for the enforcement of water quality standards
particularly for water for domestic uses must be at the pinnacle of water quality
which do not only destroy its aesthetics but also hampers its physico-chemical and
• For those who lack alternative sources of water, water collected from the stream must
be treated at the domestic level through thorough boil and filtration prior to
consumption.
• There is need to allow for Stream recycling through self purification so as to minimize
organic impurities.
prevent sediment pollution from eroding banks and runoffs flowing into the stream.
• There should be strict respect and adequate protection of the stream’s ecosystem,
especially in fish-catch; i.e. fishermen must practice sustainable fishing and avoid the
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Assign Classify and Identify reuse Properly
responsibilities assess waste options dispose of
generation waste water
Treatment
Of clinical waste entering the system separately
Disinfection of stools from cholera patients and of other
infectious bodily fluids.
Final disposal
Municipal landfill
Burring on premises
Discharge into sewer
Fig 17: Basic steps in domestic waste management in minimal programs as an
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REFERENCES
Beverley Booth, Kiran Martin, Ted Lankester., (2001). Urban Health and Development a
Practical Manual for use in Developing Countries. Macmillan Publishers Ltd.
Brown L.C. and Barnwell T.O., Jr. (1987). The enhanced stream water Quality Models
QUAL2E +QUAL2E-UNCAS.EPA/600/3-87/007. Environmental Protection Agency,
Athens, Ga.
Courade G. (1970) The Urban Development of Cameroon and essay in Social Geography.
Cameroon.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_quality (2008).
http://www.iowater.net/datashts/Level1BenthicKey05.pdf.
Malina J.F. (1996). Water Quality. IN Mays L.W. Ed. Water resources Handbook.
McGraw-Hill New York. pp. 8.3-8.49.
McKee J.E., and Wolf H.W. (1971). Water quality Criteria, 2d Ed., Publication No 3-A.
California State Water Quality Control Board. Sacramento. Cal.
Miller Tyler G. Jr. and Hackett Dave (2008). Living in the Environment, 1st Ed. Nelson-
Thomson Canada Ltd, Canada.
Olumese E.I. (1991). Water Quality, Nature and Distribution of water. Water Resources
Journal 8: 15-16.
Salvato J.A. (1982). Environmental Engineering and Sanitation, 3d Ed. Wiley Interscience,
New York.
73
Shaddhakar Supkar (1974). Water resources Law. Sambalpur University Journal,
Sambalpur, Vols VI and VII. Pp.13-16.
Taylor D.J., Green N.P.O. and Stout G.W. (2002). Biological Science, 3rd Ed. Press
Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, United Kingdom.
Tchobanoglous G., and Schroeder E.D., (1985). Water Quality. Addison-Wesley, Reading,
Mass.
UNESCO (1975) Teacher’s Study guide on the Biology of Human population (Asian).
Paris. UNESCO (pp. 290 and 293).
Wala (2002) Booklet on some touristic potentials in Cameroon. C.r.t Europe-2, rue Federic
Chopin, France.
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APPENDIX
QUESTIONNAIRE
For the Interviewer Only:
Name: ……………………………………………………………………………………
UB No: …………………… Institution ………………………………………………
Project-Title: ………………………………………………………………………………
Dear respondents this questionnaire is anonymous and will be used purely for academic
purposes. PLEASE, tick the correct answers and feel free to add any comments you have
on the reverse side of the questionnaire.
For Households:
Structural Questions
1. How far from the Stream is your house? …………………………………………
2. How many people stay in your house? ……………………………………………
3. Who has the highest qualification in the house? Father? Mother? Child?
4. What is the person’s qualification? University degree, High School, Secondary
school, Primary school
5. What type of things do you throw away in your house? Plastics, Metals and
tins, Food wastes, Old Batteries, Papers
6. Where do you throw these wastes? …………………………………………
7. How much water do you think the house uses everyday? …………………
8. Do you use water from Ndongo for anything in your house? Yes, No
9. If yes, then what do you use it for? (Tick or Cross-). –Agriculture Drinking,
washing, cooking, bathing,
10. Do you go to the stream for any reason? Yes, No,
11. If yes then what do you do in the stream? Toilet use, Fishing, Washing of
clothes and utensils, Do some traditional rites,
12. If No, what alternative sources of water do you use? ……………………………
13. Do you think that any of the above uses have an effect on the water quality? Yes, No,
14. Do you think that any of the uses above could contaminate the stream? Yes, No,
15. Which of them (you can name more than one if necessary) ………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………….
16. Do you think that the Ndongo stream is good enough for drinking? Yes?
No,
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17. Do you know of any diseases that can be contracted through bad water? Yes,
No,
18. Has any body in you house ever fallen sick with one of these diseases? Yes, No
19. How often does this happen? Monthly Twice a year yearly
20. Have you ever noticed any change in the colour of the stream? Yes No
21. When did you notice this change? Dry season. Beginning of the rainy season.
The heart of the rains.
22. When this happens do you still use water from Ndongo? Yes. No
23. Is there anything you can do to make the water from the stream drinkable? Yes,
No,
24. If yes, state them. …………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………
25. Do you think they are effective enough? Yes, No,
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