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A nonlinear dynamic articial neural network model of memory

Sylvain Chartiera,c,, Patrice Renaudb,c, Mounir Boukadoumd
a

School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Montpetit 407B, 125 University Street, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1N 6N5 b bec en Outaouais, Canada Universite du Que c al, Institut Philippe Pinel de Montre Canada d bec a Montre Canada ` al, Universite du Que

Abstract Nonlinearity and dynamics in psychology are found in various domains such as neuroscience, cognitive science, human development, etc. However, the models that have been proposed are mostly of a computational nature and ignore dynamics. In those models that do include dynamic properties, only xed points are used to store and retrieve information, leaving many principles of nonlinear dynamic systems (NDS) aside; for instance, chaos is often perceived as a nuisance. This paper considers a nonlinear dynamic articial neural network (NDANN) that implements NDS principles while also complying with general neuroscience constraints. After a theoretical presentation, simulation results will show that the model can exhibit multi-valued, xed-point, region-constrained attractors and aperiodic (including chaotic) behaviors. Because the capabilities of NDANN include the modeling of spatiotemporal chaotic activities, it may be an efcient tool to help bridge the gap between biological memory neural models and behavioral memory models. Crown Copyright r 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
PsycINFO classication: 4160 neural networks Keywords: Chaos theory; Cognitive science; Connectionism; Mathematical modeling; Neural networks

Corresponding author. School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Montpetit 407B, 125 University Street, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1N 6N5. E-mail address: sylvain.chartier@uottawa.ca (S. Chartier).

0732-118X/$ - see front matter Crown Copyright r 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2007.07.005 Please cite this article as: Chartier, S., et al. A nonlinear dynamic articial neural network model of memory. New Ideas in Psychology (2007), doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2007.07.005

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1. Introduction In the past, cognition has been viewed as being of computational nature. Computational approaches most often ignore dynamic properties. However, a multi-domain build up of evidence exists to challenge this static view and replace it by the dynamic system perspective (Clark, 1997; van Gelder, 1998). The application and development of the nonlinear dynamic system (NDS) has recently been receiving a lot of attention (Guastello, 2000). For instance, NDS can be found in a wide range of domains that include neuroscience (Dalis, Liley, & Cadusch, 2001; Freeman, 1987; Korn & Faure, 2003), psychology of perception and motor coordination (DeMaris, 2000; Renaud, Bouchard, & Proulx, 2002; Renaud, Decarie, Gourd, Paquin, & Bouchard, 2003; Renaud, Singer, & Proulx, 2001; Zanone & Kelso, 1997), cognitive sciences (Erlhagen & Schoner, 2002), human development (Haken, Kelso, & Bunz, 1985; Thelen & Smith, 1994), creativeness (Guastello, 1998) and social psychology (Nowak & Vallacher, 1998). NDS is a theoretical approach that helps bring several spatiotemporal scales within a unied framework. The purpose of NDS is twofold. First, it serves as a tool to analyze data (e.g., EEG rhythms, bimanual coordination, eye movements, etc.). Second, it is used to model the different domains under investigation (from neuroscience to creativeness). Time and change are the two variables behind the strength of the NDS approach. As a result, NDS is deeply challenging the way mental and behavioral phenomena have been studied since the inception of scientic psychology, and NDS is quickly becoming a common tool to probe and understand cognitive phenomena (e.g., memory, learning and thinking), thanks to its ability to account for their chronological dimension (Bertenthal, 2007). The way that a system changes over time is linked to the interaction between its immediate and external surroundings. The interaction between the system and its environment is essential to self-organization and complex behavior (Beer, 1995), like the decision-making process that the system goes through when dealing with ambiguous information (Grossberg, 1988). If this interaction occurs under nonlinear dynamic assumptions, then a larger variety of behaviors can be exhibited (Kaplan & Glass, 1995). NDS principles are thus found in both the microworld (e.g., neural activities) and the macroworld (e.g., cognitive phenomena). In this work, a nonlinear dynamic articial neural network (NDANN) is proposed that exhibits NDS properties. The model is thus positioned between neural activities and lowlevel cognition (Fig. 1). Although it cannot all by itself connect with neuroscience and psychology, it is a step in the direction that both worlds could be connected through the NDS perspective. Articial neural networks (ANN) have been around since the seminal papers of McCulloch and Pitts (1943) and Rosenblatt (1958). Although many kinds of ANN exist, cognitive psychologists usually think about the computational model that was conceived by McClelland and Rumelhart (1986). But while ANN and NDS have properties in common, not all ANN models fall under the NDS perspectives (van Gelder, 1998). For example, a three-layer feedforward network (e.g. Aussem, 1999; Elman et al., 1996; Mareshal & Thomas, 2006; Munakata & McClelland, 2003) has dynamic properties, but is not included in the dynamic perspective of cognition; it is associated with a computational view of cognition instead (van Gelder, 1998). ANN considered under the umbrella of NDS can be used to achieve two goals: t human experimental data or implement general properties. The model presented in this paper falls under the second goal: it implements NDS properties while being loosely
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Nonlinear Dynamic System Macroscopic behaviors (humans)

NDANN Model

Microscopic behaviors (neurons)

Fig. 1. Level of modeling. The proposed model is situated between neuroscience and cognitive science modeling.

constrained by neuroscience. The model is therefore part of the neurodynamic class (Haykin, 1999) where, contrary to biological neural models, units represent a small population of neurons (Skarda & Freeman, 1987). In fact, that branch of ANN is the most popular when considering the microscopic and macroscopic behaviors found within the NDS perspective (Haykin, 1999). One notable model is the adaptive resonance theory (ART) networks, which were proposed to solve the stabilityplasticity dilemma (Carpenter & Grossberg, 1987; Grossberg, 1988). In fact, nonlinear learning principles can be traced back to the 1960s (Grossberg, 1967). Other models, based on the distribution of the memory trace over the network, instead on a specic unit, has been around since the seventies when recurrent associative memories (RAMs) were created and then generalized into bidirectional associative memories (BAMs). According to Spencer and Schoner (2003), associative memories were developed around the stabilities of attractors with no understanding of the existing instabilities. This observation is true for earlier models (e.g. Anderson, Silverstein, Ritz, & Jones, 1977; Begin & Proulx, 1996; Hopeld, 1982; Storkey & Valabregue, 1999), but it is no longer so for newer ones (e.g. Adachi & Aihara, 1997; Aihara, Takabe, & Toyoda, 1990; Lee, 2006; Tsuda, 2001). Such models have shown that they can take into account classication and categorization; contrary to Prinz and Barsalou (2000). However, they are not devoid of problems. On the one hand, they are too simple (Anderson et al., 1977; Begin & Proulx, 1996; Hopeld, 1982; Kosko, 1988); on the other, they are too complex (Adachi & Aihara, 1997; Du, Chen, Yuan, & Zhang, 2005; Imai, Osana, & Hagiwara, 2005; Lee, 2006; Lee & Farhat, 2001). A model that aims to express NDS properties present in both domains (depicted in Fig. 1) must be built upon dynamic biological neural models (Gerstner & Kistler, 2002) while remaining as simple as possible. The model should exhibit several properties of human cognition while still abiding by underlying neuroscience; it should reect in particular the rapidly changing and widely distributed neural activation patterns that involve numerous cortical and subcortical regions activated in different combinations and contexts (Buchel & Friston, 2000; Sporns, Chialvo, Kaiser, & Hilgetag, 2004). Therefore, information representation within the network needs to be distributed and the network coding must handle both bipolar
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(binary) and multi-valued stimuli (Chartier & Boukadoum, 2006a; Costantini, Casali, & Perfetti, 2003; Wang, Hwang, & Lee, 1996; Zhang & Chen, 2003; Zurada, Cloete, & van der Peol, 1996). Multi-valued coding can then be interpreted as rate coding based on population averages, which is consistent with fast temporal information processing (Gerstner & Kistler, 2002) of neural activities. Consequently, coding reects not the unit in itselfas seen in localist neural networksbut rather the whole network (Adachi & Aihara, 1997; Werner, 2001). Furthermore, the static view of information representation by stable attractors (e.g., Hopeld-type networks) is now challenged by the dynamics of neural activities (Babloyantz & Lourenc o, 1994; Dalis et al., 2001; Korn & Faure, 2003) and behaviors, where spatial patterns could be stored in dynamic orbits (Tsuda, 2001). Those phenomena suggest that, in real neural systems, information is stored and retrieved via both stable and dynamic orbit (possibly chaotic) attractors. The network proposed in this paper exhibits both dynamic orbit properties and xed points. Finally, memory association and recall is not an all-or-nothing process, but rather a progressive one (Lee, 2006). As a result, hard discontinuitiessuch as the signum (sign) output function used in most Hopeld-type networksas well as one-shot learning algorithms must be discarded (e.g., Grossberg, 1988; Hopeld, 1982; Personnaz, Guyon, & Dreyfus, 1986; Zhao, Caceres, Damiance, & Szu, 2006). The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 presents the model and its properties obtained from analytic and numerical results. Section 3 shows the simulation results obtained with bipolar and multi-valued stimuli. The section also displays the simulation results obtained under chaotic network behavior. It is followed by a discussion and conclusion. 2. Model description 2.1. Architecture The model architecture is illustrated in Fig. 2, where x[0] and y[0] represent the initial input-states (stimuli); t is the number of iterations over the network; and W and V are weight matrices. The network is composed of two interconnected layers that, together, allow a recurrent ow of information that is processed bidirectionally. The W layer returns information to the V layer and vice versa: a function that can be viewed as a kind of topdown/bottom-up process. Like any BAM, this network can be both an associative and heteroassociative memory (Kosko, 1988). As a result, it encompasses both unsupervised and supervised learning and is thus suitable for a general architecture under the NDS perspective. In this particular model, the two layers can be of different dimensions and, contrary to usual BAM designs, the weight matrix from one side is not necessarily the transpose of the other side. In addition, each unit in the network corresponds to a neural population, not an individual neuron, as in a biological neural network (Skarda & Freeman, 1987), or a psychological concept. 2.2. Transmission The output function used in our model is based on the classic Verhulst equation (Koronovskii, Trubetskov, & Khramov, 2000). This logistic growth is described by the
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Fig. 2. Network architecture.

dynamic equation dz R1 zz f z, (1) dt where R is a general parameter. Eq. (1) has two xed points: z 0 and 1. However, only the z 1 value is a stable xed point. For that reason, Eq. (1) has only one attractor and it must be modied if two attractors are desired. One way to accomplish that is to change the right-hand term to a cubic form. We then obtain dz R1 z2 z f z. (2) dt This last equation has three xed points: z 1, 0 and 1, of which the two non zero ones are stable xed points. This continuous-time differential equation can be approximated by a nite difference equation following Kaplan & Glass (1995). Let z(t) be a discrete variable for t 0, D, 2D, ? We have dz zt 1 zt lim . dt D!0 D If we assume D to be small but nite, the following approximation can be made: zt 1 zt f zt ) zt 1 Df zt zt. D With f zt R1 zt2 zt, we obtain zt 1 DR1 zt2 zt zt, (6) (5) (4) (3)

where D is a small constant term. The last equation can be applied to each element of a vector z. If we make the following variable changes: d DR, y(t+1) z(t+1), a(t) z(t)
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Fig. 3. Output function when d 0.2.

(or b(t) z(t)), and rearrange the terms of the previous equation, the following output functions are obtained: yt 1 d 1at dat3 , xt 1 d 1bt dbt3 . (7) (8)

In the previous equations, y(t+1) and x(t+1) represent the network outputs at time t+1; a(t) and b(t) are the corresponding usual activation functions at time t (a(t) Wx(t); b(t) Vy(t)); and d is a general output parameter. As an example, Fig. 3 illustrates the shape of the output function when d 0.2 in Eq. (7). The value of d is crucial for determining the type of attractor in the network as the network may converge to steady, cyclic or chaotic attractors. Fig. 4 illustrates ve different attractors that the output function exhibits based on the d value. All of the attractors have an initial input x(0) 0.05 and W 1; in this one-dimensional network, both x and W are scalar. Like any NDS, to guarantee that a given output converges to a xed point, x*(t), the slope of the derivative of the output function must be positive and less than one (Kaplan & Glass, 1995) dyt 1 0od 1 3dWxt2 o1. dWxt (9)

This condition is satised when 0odo0.5 for bipolar stimuli. In that case, Wx*(t) 71. If Eq. (7) is expanded the relation between the input (x(t)) and output (y(t+1)) is detailed. yt 1 d 1at dat3 , ) yt 1 d 1Wxt dWxt3 . 10

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Fig. 4. Attractor type in relation to the d value (a) monotonic approach to a xed point, (b) alternate approach to a xed point, (c) 2-s period of oscillation, (d) positive quadrant constraint chaotic attractor, (e) chaotic attractor.

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Fig. 5. Phase portrait of the function dy/dt (1+d)Wxd(Wx)3x for a one-dimension network and the corresponding vector eld for a two-dimensions network.

To proceed further, Eq. (10) needs to be reformulated in a continuous time form as shown by dy d 1Wx dWx3 x. dt (11)

For example, Fig. 5a illustrates the networks xed points for a one-dimensional setting. As expected, the stable xed points are 71, while zero is unstable. Fig. 5b illustrates the vector eld for a two-dimensional setting. In this case, the xed points [71, 71]T are stable nodes, the xed points [71, 0]T and [0, 71]T are saddle manifold points that dene the basin of attraction boundary and the xed point [0, 0]T is an unstable node. There exists also another way to visualize the dynamics of the network using the idea of potential energy. Energy E(y) is dened as dE dy . dy dt (12)

The negative sign indicates that the state vector moves downhill in the energy landscape. This is given, using the chain rule, by the following time derivative: dE dE dy . dt dy dt Thus replacing Eq. (12) into Eq. (13) yields    2 dE dE dE dE p0 dt dy dy dy (13)

(14)

Therefore E(t) decreases along trajectories or, in other words, the state vector globally converges towards lower energy. Equilibrium occurs at the xed point of the vector eld where local minima correspond to stable xed points and local maxima correspond to unstable xed points. Hence, we need to nd E(y) such that dE=dy d 1Wx dWx3 x. (15)

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Fig. 6. Energy landscape of a one-dimensional and one-dimensional bipolar stimuli with its corresponding contour plot.

The general solution is   1 T 1 y x yT Wx dyT Wx dyT Wx3 C , Ey 2 2

(16)

where C is an arbitrary constant (C 0 for convenience). Similar reasoning to the one applied to obtain the energy function E(x) from Eq. (8) gives   1 T 1 x y xT Vy dxT Vy dxT Vy3 C . (17) Ex 2 2 Fig. 6 illustrates the energy function for a one-dimensional (x*(t) 71) and a twodimensional network (x* [1, 1]T, [1, 1]T, [1, 1]T, [1, 1]T). In both cases, the number of dimensions in both layers is equal. It is easy to see that for a one-dimensional setting, the network has a double-well potential, and for a two-dimensions setting it has a quadruple potential where the local minima correspond to the stable equilibria. By performing a Lyapunov analysis (Kaplan & Glass, 1995), the d values that will show the various behaviors (xed point, cyclic and chaotic) depicted in Fig. 4 can be found. The Lyapunov exponent for the case of a one-dimensional network is approximated by   T dyt 1 1X  , (18) l% log  T t1 dxt  where T is the number of network iterations, set to 10,000 to establish the approximation. In that case, the derivative term is obtained from Eq. (10), so that l is given by l%
T   1X log 1 d 3dxt2 . T t1

(19)

The bifurcation diagram can also be computed. When the two diagrams are compared, it is easy to see the link between d and the type of attractor. Fig. 7 shows that the network
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Fig. 7. Bifurcation and Lyaponov exponent diagrams as a function of d.

exhibits a monotonic approach to steady states if the value of d is between 0 and 0.5. The bifurcation diagram shows xed points at 1 and 1. This result is not surprising, since the weight (W) was set to 1. Finally, the proposed output function is composed of a mechanism that balances the positive (d+1)ai and negative da3i parts. Thus, a units output remains unchanged if it reaches a value of (d+1)aiR da3i, where R is a limit with real value (e.g. 0.7). This mechanism enables the network to exhibit multi-valued attractor behavior (for a detailed example, see Chartier & Boukadoum, 2006a). Such properties contrast with the standard nonlinear output function, which can only exhibit bipolar attractor behavior (e.g., Anderson et al., 1977; Hopeld, 1982). It should be noted that the multi-valued attractor in this model is not simply a special coding strategy (Costantini et al., 2003; Muezzinoglu, Guzelis, & Zurada, 2003; Zhao et al., 2006) or a subdivision of the bipolar function into a staircase function (Wang et al., 1996; Zhang & Chen, 2003; Zurada et al., 1996). In those strategies, the experimenter must know in advance how many different real values form each stimulus to modify the architecture or the output function accordingly. In NDANN there is no need for the experimenter to be involved as the network autonomously self-adapts its attractors for any given real values.
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2.3. Learning The simplest form of weight modication is accomplished with a simple Hebbian rule, according to the equation W YXT . (20)

In this expression, X and Y are matrices that represent the sets of bipolar pairs to be associated, and W is the weight matrix. Eq. (20) forces the use of a one-shot learning process since Hebbian association is strictly additive. A more natural learning process would make Eq. (20) incremental. But, then, the weight matrix would grow unbounded with the repetition of the input stimuli during learning. This property may be acceptable for orthogonal patterns, but it leads to disastrous results when the patterns are correlated. In that case, the weight matrix will be dominated by its rst eigenvalue, and this will result in recalling the same pattern whatever the input. A compromise is to use a one-shot learning rule to limit the domination of the rst eigenvalue, and to use a recurrent nonlinear output function to allow the network to lter out the different patterns during recall. Kosko (1988) BAM effectively used a signum output function to recall noisy patterns, despite the fact that the weight matrix developed by using Eq. (20) is not optimal. The nonlinear output function usually used by the BAM network is expressed by the following equations: yt 1 sgn Wxt and xt 1 sgnWT yt, where sgn is the signum function dened by 8 > 1 if z40; < 0 if z 0; sgn z > : 1 if zo0: (22) (21)

(23)

In short, by using the weight matrix dened by Eq. (20) and the output function dened by Eqs. (21) and (22), the network is able to recall Y from X, and by using the weight matrix transpose, the network is able to recall X form Y. These two processes taken together create a recurrent nonlinear dynamic network with the potential to accomplish binary association. However, the learning of the BAM network is performed ofine and the nonlinear output function of Eqs. (21) and (22) is not used during that stage. Moreover, the network is limited to bipolar/binary patterns and, as such, cannot learn multi-valued attractors. In addition, the network develops many spurious attractors and has limited storage capacity (Personnaz, Guyon, & Dreyfus, 1985). One approach to overcome these limitations uses a projection matrix based on least mean squared error minimization (Kohonen, 1972; Personnaz et al., 1985). W YXT X1 XT . (24)

This solution increases the storage capacity and recall performance of the network, but its learning rule, based on an inverse matrix principle, is not a local process. Several sophisticated approaches have also been proposed that modify the learning rule or coding procedure, with the result of both increasing storage capacity and performance
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(e.g., Arik, 2005; Shen & Cruz Jr., 2005). More complex learning rules such as the backpropagation algorithm (McClelland & Rumelhart, 1986) or support vector machine (Cortes & Vapnik, 1995) could have been used. However, since the proposed model had to be close to neuroscience, variations on Hebbian learning were favored (Gerstner & Kistler, 2002). Therefore, the learning in NDANN is based on time difference Hebbian association (Chartier & Boukadoum, 2006a; Chartier & Proulx, 2005; Kosko, 1990; Sutton, 1988). It is formally expressed by the following equations: Wk 1 Wk Zy0 ytx0 xtT , Vk 1 Vk Zx0 xty0 ytT , (25) (26)

where Z represents the learning parameter. In Eqs. (25) and (26), the weight updates follow this general procedure: rst, initial inputs x(0) and y(0) are fed to the network, then, those inputs are iterated t times through the network (Fig. 2). This results in the outputs x(t) and y(t) that are used for the weight updates. Therefore, the weights will self-stabilize when the feedback is the same as the initial inputs (y(t) y(0) y*(t) and x(t) x(0) x*(t)); in other words, when the network has developed xed points. The way learning works in NDANN contrasts with ART models (Grossberg, 1988) where one-shot learning occurs only when the state of the system is at a xed point (resonance). In NDANN, the learning causes the network to progressively develop a resonance state between the input and the output. Finally, since the learning explicitly incorporates the output (x(t) and y(t)), it occurs online; thus, the learning rule is dynamically linked to the networks output. This contrasts with most BAMs, where the learning is performed solely on the activation (ofine). Learning convergence is a function of the value of the learning parameter Z. If weight convergence is desired, Z must be set according the following condition (Chartier & Boukadoum, 2006b; Chartier & Proulx, 2005): Zo 1 ; 21 2dMaxN; M da1=2. (27)

3. Simulations Several simulations were performed to illustrate the various behaviors and properties of the model. They were divided into two sets. The rst one was devised to show that NDANN can (1) produce the same behavior as that observed with a xed-point associative memory, and (2) classify multi-valued stimuli which, in turn, links it to biological ratebased models. The second set of simulations dealt with dynamic orbits, where the network state space is different from one iteration to another. These simulations show that the proposed network can represent behavior variability without resorting to stochastic processes. In addition, the chaotic attractors can be bound or not depending on the desired context. 3.1. Learning and recall: the xed-point approach The rst simulation addresses the issue of iterative and convergence learning from multivalued stimuli of different dimensions. It will show that the model can learn any kind of stimulus, in any situation, and without need for data preprocessing (stimuli normalization
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Fig. 8. Stimuli association used for the simulation.

or orthogonalization). This feature is important since, sometimes, the entire task is done through preprocessing, thus making ANN use accessory. In this simulation, the distance between the network output and the desired stimulus is obtained by a measure of error (Euclidian distance), with the number of stimuli to be learned being varied from 2 to 6. Thus, a task of learning 6 associations should be more difcult than a task of learning 2, given the same amount of learning time (k 25 learning trials). The stimuli are displayed in Fig. 8. The rst stimulus set represents letters on a 7 7 grid, where a white pixel is assigned a value of 1 and a black pixel a value of +1. Each letter forms a 49-dimensional bipolar vector. The second stimulus set consists of 16 16 gray-level images, with each image forming a 256-dimensional real value vector of eight levels of gray. Therefore, the W weight matrix has 49 256 connections and the V weight matrix 256 49 connections. The network task was to associate each image with its corresponding letter (the printer image with the letter P, the mailbox image with the letter M, etc.). The learning parameter Z was set to 0.0025 and the output parameter d to 0.01. Both values met the requirement for weight convergence and xed-point development. Since the models learning is online and iterative, the stimuli were not presented all at once. In order to save time, the number of iterations before each weight update was set to t 1. The learning followed the general procedure: 0. 1. 2. 3. 4. Initialization of weights to zero. Random selection of a pair following a uniform distribution. Stimuli iteration through the network according to Eqs. (7) and (8) (one cycle). Weight update according to Eqs. (25) and (26). Repetition of 13 until the desired number of learning trials is reached (k 25).

Fig. 9 illustrates the obtained results as a function of task difculty. Easy tasks (fewer associations) were better learned in comparison to more complex ones. In addition, as learning increased in complexity, more and more learning interference was observed, producing greater variability in the results. To evaluate the variability for each of the
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Fig. 9. Learning curves of 2, 4 and 6 associations during 25 learning trials (a) example of a single simulation (b) averaging over 400 simulations for the printer association.

association tasks, the learning procedure was repeated 400 times. The variability was evaluated using standard deviation. For example, in the two-association task, the variability was given by the following average: sd Aver
25 2 XX k j1

sd jk ,

(28)

where k represents the learning trial, j the association pairs, and sdik is given by
400 P

xijk xjk 399

2 (29)

sd jk

i1

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with i representing the simulation trial and x the performance (1.0-error). The average standard deviation for the two-associations task was 0.11, while those for the four- and sixassociations tasks were 0.15 and 0.20, respectively. If the number of trials is not restrained and if there are fewer stimulus prototypes than network dimensions, then the network will be able to learn the desired association perfectly (Chartier & Boukadoum, 2006a); after fewer than 200 learning trials, the network could learn all of the six desired associations perfectly (Fig. 10). Following learning convergence, recall tests were performed to see if the network could show pattern completion over missing parts and noise removal, properties that are generally attributed to the Gestalt theory of visual perception (Gordon, 1997). In other words, can the network develop xed points? And is the recall process a progressive one (Lee, 2006)? Fig. 11 shows the recall output as a function of time. Using an incomplete input (printer image), the network was able to iteratively recall the associated letter (P), while also being able to reconstruct the missing parts. Contrary to signum output functions (e.g., Hopeld, 1982), it takes several iterations for a given stimuli before converging to a xed point. The same behavior is observed if the initial stimulus is corrupted with noise (Fig. 12). For instance, the network effectively

Fig. 10. Weight convergence as a function of the number of learning trials.

Fig. 11. Recall output after 63% of the printer image has been removed. Please cite this article as: Chartier, S., et al. A nonlinear dynamic articial neural network model of memory. New Ideas in Psychology (2007), doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2007.07.005

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completes the pattern (Fig. 13) and removes the noise (Fig. 14) if the initial condition is a noisy letter instead of the prototypes. For a comparison on the number of spurious attractors as well as other types of BAMs on recall performance, see Chartier & Boukadoum (2006a)

Fig. 12. Recall output after 30% of the mailbox pixels have been ipped.

Fig. 13. Recall output after 43% of the letter D pixels has been removed.

Fig. 14. Recall output after 20% of the letter L pixels have been ipped. Please cite this article as: Chartier, S., et al. A nonlinear dynamic articial neural network model of memory. New Ideas in Psychology (2007), doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2007.07.005

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3.2. Learning and recall: the dynamic orbit approach This simulation was performed to see if the network could depart from the xed-point perspective to the dynamic orbit perspective. In order to ensure that the stimuli were well stored, the d value was set to 0.1 during training and to a chaos leading value (1.45 or 1.65) during recall. From Fig. 7, it is easy to see that d 1.45 corresponds to a region of restrained chaotic behavior (Fig. 4c) and d 1.65 to an unrestrained chaotic behavior (Fig. 4d). The rst simulation consisted of learning two two-dimensional bipolar stimuli: [1, 1]T and [1, 1]T. The learning parameter (Z) was set to 0.01 and the number of learning trials corresponded to 100. Fig. 15 shows scatter plots of the output state vectors, given the rst stimulus (a) and the second (b) when d 1.45. As expected, the plot did not exhibit random behavior, but rather that of a quadratic map function. Moreover, the gure clearly shows that the chaotic output is constrained to its corresponding quadrant (++ for the rst stimulus and + for the second). Fig. 16 displays the output variations within the basin of attraction for different random inputs. Contrary to regular BAMs, the attractors are not the corners of a hypercube, but regions clearly delimited within quadrants. Thus, by evaluating the sign of the N quadrants it is possible to know which attractor the network is on. Given the value of d, the amount of variability in the output is observed as a function of the region volume (see the bifurcation diagram on Fig. 7); the greater the variability, the higher the d value. Thus, even if the network behavior is chaotic, no

Fig. 15. Scatter plot of x(t+1) in function of x(t) for d 1.45. Please cite this article as: Chartier, S., et al. A nonlinear dynamic articial neural network model of memory. New Ideas in Psychology (2007), doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2007.07.005

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Fig. 16. Output variations for the quadrant restrained condition.

boundary crossing will occur while recalling an input. It is then still possible to exhibit pattern completion and reconstruction (as would be expected from a memory model). Sometimes, nonperiodic associative dynamics can be the desired behavior (Adachi & Aihara, 1997). This behavior is characterized by the networks ability to retrieve stored patterns and escape from them in the transient phase. To achieve this behavior, the output parameter is simply increased to a value equal or greater than 1.6 (Fig. 7). For instance, if the value of d is set to 1.65, then the output covers the entire quadrant (Figs. 17 and 18). For the sake of comparison, the next simulation used the same patterns used by Adachi and Aihara (1997) and Lee (2006). As shown in Fig. 19, the four stored stimuli are 10 10 patterns that give 100-dimensional bipolar vectors. Therefore, the W weight matrix is composed of 100 100 connections and the V weight matrix of 100 100 connections. The learning parameter was set to 0.0025, and the output parameter was set to 1.45 (for the rst simulation), and to 1.65 (for the second one). Since the dimension of the network is 100 and the weights are initialized at zero, the maximum squared error is thus 100. It took NDANN less than 100 learning trials before weight convergence (Fig. 20). For the rst simulation, the network chaotic output must remain bounded within a region of the stimulus space. More precisely, each element of the output vector can vary only within its respective quadrant. For example, after convergence, if an element is negative, then all its successive states will be negative as well. Fig. 21 shows the network behavior given a noisy stimulus (30% of the pixels were ipped), when the transmission parameter is set to d 1.45. The network progressively recalled the input into its correct quadrant. Then, the output elements always varied within their converged quadrant, like the two-dimensional network behavior illustrated in Fig. 16, without crossing any axis. By assigning +1 to each positive vector element and 1 to each negative element, it is easy to establish to which particular stimulus the network converges. Thus, this behavior differs from the xed-point approaches by exhibiting output variability, while sharing their convergence to a stable attractor from the quadrant constrained point-of-view. If the value of d is increased enough, then the network shows nonperiodic associative dynamics. For instance, Fig. 22 displays the network output given a noise free stimulus. After a couple of iterations, the state vector leaves the attracted region and wanders from one stored stimulus region to another. This model is therefore able to reproduce the
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Fig. 17. Scatter plot of x(t+1) in function of x(t) for d 1.65.

Fig. 18. Output variations for the nonperiodic associative memory condition.

dynamics found in Adachi and Aihara (1997). Evaluation of the stimulus distribution was performed by generating random patterns where each element followed a uniform distribution xiA[1, 1]. Each random pattern was iterated through the network for 1000 cycles. The two steps were repeated with 50 different initial patterns. The proportion of each stimulus was then 22%, 23%, 26% and 27% (SE 0.21%). Because of this, the
Please cite this article as: Chartier, S., et al. A nonlinear dynamic articial neural network model of memory. New Ideas in Psychology (2007), doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2007.07.005

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Fig. 19. The four stimuli used for learning.

Fig. 20. Weight convergence as a function of the number of learning trials. Since the network dimension is 100, the maximum squared error is 100.

Fig. 21. Example of recall output from a noisy stimuli (30% pixel ipped).

observed distribution is statistically different from the theoretical uniform distribution. In addition, those memories are present in less than 15% of all the observed patterns. Thus, more than 85% of the time, the pattern is a transient memory circulating within the
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Fig. 22. Nonperiodic associative dynamics behavior (d 1.65).

stimulus-subspace. Finally, nonperiodic associative dynamics can be used as a search procedure for a given item. For example, if the triangle pattern symbol is the target, then Fig. 23 shows that this pattern can effectively be retrieved if the transmission parameter is set to a lower value once the networks state is close to a match. More precisely, the gure shows that initially the transmission parameter d was set to 1.6 to allow the network to be in a nonperiodic associative state. At time t 52, the Euclidian distance from the network state and the stimuli was close enough (oO60) to allow lowering the transmission parameter to d 1.45, corresponding to a quadrant constrained aperiodic state. After 10 iterations (t 61), the transmission parameter d was set 0.4, corresponding to a xed-point behavior. The output then rapidly converges to the desired triangle pattern.
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Fig. 23. Specic pattern retrieval in function of time. The target pattern was the triangle symbol. The minimum distance criterion was set to O60. The transmission parameter d was lower (1.45 and 0.4) at t 52 and at t 61, respectively.

4. Discussion and conclusion In NDANN, the simple NDS principles (nonlinear change and time) were applied to the output and the learning function. Those principles were implemented in a recurrent neural network and were kept as simple as possible. For the output function, a onedimensional logistic map was employed, while for learning, it was a time difference Hebbian association. Both algorithms were linked together and subject to an online exchange of information that enabled the model to exhibit behaviors under the NDS perspective (e.g., learning curves, pattern completion, noise tolerance, output deterministic variability). The model can easily be modied to account for more behavior. For example, if the architecture changes, then the model could be used for multi-step pattern learning and one-to-many associations (Chartier & Boukadoum, 2006b). This temporal associative memory could be employed to model knowledge processing (Osana & Hagiwara, 2000) as well as periodic behavior (Yang, Lu, Harrison, & Franc a, 2001). Also recently, it has been shown that by only modifying the architecturewhile keeping both learning and transmission constantthe model can
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` convert high-dimensional data into low-dimensional codes (Chartier, Giguere, Renaud, Proulx, & Lina, 2007). In this way, it could be potentially used for feature extraction and learning (Hinton & Salakhutdinov, 2006). The results with iterative online learning allow the model to nd an analogy in developmental psychology, where there is progressive learning through adoption and re-adoption as a function of the interaction between stimulus relationships (Lee, 2006). However, for simulation purposes, learning was made from the prototypes themselves. In a natural setting, the categories should be extracted using a set of exemplars instead of prototypes. In real world, each stimulus that is experienced is different from the previous one. To overcome the possibility of an innite number of stimuli, animals can regroup them in categories. Human cognition, in particular, allows adaptation to many environments. For instance, humans learn to discriminate almost all individual stimulations in some situations, whereas only a generic abstraction of the category is learned in others. In some contexts, exemplars are memorized, while in others, prototypes are abstracted and memorized. This noisy learning is possible with the incorporation of a vigilance procedure (Grossberg, 1988) into distributed associative memories (Chartier, Helie, Proulx, & Boukadoum, ` 2006; Chartier & Proulx, 1999) or by using a PCA/BAM-type architecture (Giguere, Chartier, Proulx, & Lina, 2007). Moreover, cognitive models must consider base rate learning, where the frequency of categories is employed to correctly identify an unknown item. In other contexts, however, the frequency of exemplars is used. The model could be easily modied to account for those different environmental biases, a property that winner-takes-all models, like ART, have difculty coping with (Helie, Chartier, & Proulx, 2006). If d is set high enough (ex. d 1.45), the network behavior will be constrained within a specic region. This allowed the network to exhibit variability, while still being able to show noise tolerance and pattern completion; it is an important property for a dynamic associative memory. Furthermore, if d is set to a still higher value (ex. d 1.65), then the network can display nonperiodic associative memory behavior. The state vector in that case is never trapped in any xed point or region; instead, it moves in non-periodic fashion from stored pattern to stored pattern. This memory searching process is clearly different from that of xed-point associative memory models (Adachi & Aihara, 1997) and helps in the understanding of instability. The network behavior variability results from its chaotic behavior and is thus deterministic. The network behavior was always constrained to the stimulus-subspace. Stochastic processes could also be implemented, which might then allow the network to explore high-dimensional space through chaotic itinerancy (Kaneko & Tsuda, 2003; Tsuda, 2001) as well as chaotic wandering from a high-dimensional to a low-dimensional attractor. This wandering could play a role in system evolvability and architecture development. In conclusion, the present paper has shown that complex behaviors can arise from simple interactions between a presented networks topology, learning and output functions. The fact that the model can process multi-valued stimuli allows it to be built in conformity with biological neural models dynamics (Gerstner & Kistler, 2002). Furthermore, the network displayed various behaviors expected within the NDS approach in psychology. As a result, the model may bring neural activities and human behaviors closer through the satisfaction of NDS properties.
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Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to David Fung and two anonymous reviewers for their useful help in reviewing this article. References
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