CHEMISTRY

What is the world made of?

The material world that we live in is the macroscopic

counter part to a microscopic world of atoms & molecules.

We will become familiar with the various atoms & the

molecules they form.

Also, the states of matter & physical or chemical change &

the tools we use to describe matter & its changes -
measurement & mathematical relationships

We begin with a brief review of …

__________________________________________________
The Periodic Table
Mendeleev (1869)

When the elements are ordered according to atomic mass, the

chemical & physical properties vary in a periodic fashion

eg. Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs

3 11 19 37 55 ← atomic #

8 8 18 18 ← spacing

are all similar ⇒ they form a “group”, the alkali metals

- a column in the table

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The position (order) of an element in periodic table =
atomic number

= # of protons in nucleus of atom

KNOW FORM OF TABLE

KNOW THE FIRST 20 ELEMENTS

→ ATOMIC NUMBER, SYMBOL, NAME, &

POSITION IN TABLE.

Columns form groups

→ labeled by roman numerals

Rows form periods

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Group I: Alkali metals

Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr

soft metals

the most reactive metals

react with most nonmetals to form ionic salts

(not with noble gases though)

egs. 2 Li(s) + H2(g) → 2 LiH(s)

lithium hydride

2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2 NaCl(s)

sodium chloride - table salt
__________________________________________________
Group II: Alkaline earth metals

harder, higher melting points (than alkali metals)

react more slowly with nonmetals

egs. Ca(s) + H2(g) → CaH2(s)

2 Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2 MgO(s)

Salts of group I and II metals with nonmetals are generally

ionic (Be is an exception).
→ Electrical conductivity

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 Electrical conductivity
ionic & covalent solids do not conduct

ionic liquids (high T) do conduct

covalent liquids do not conduct

eg. pure water has an extremely low conductivity

However, dissolve a metal halide in H2O - the resulting

solution is a good conductor.
⇒ metal halides are …
Electrolytes
→ produce conducting solutions in water

Covalent compounds are

Non-electrolytes
→ produce non-conducting solutions in water

Solubility & Precipitation Reactions

A precipitation reaction results when an insoluble solid is
formed from solvated ions brought together by mixing
solutions of soluble substances

eg. AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

↑
solid particles precipitate
out of solution

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Ag+(aq) + NO3−(aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq) →
AgCl(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3−(aq)
↑ ↑ ↑
precipitates these ions
because AgCl(s) remain in solution
is an insoluble
(in H2O) solid

What solids are soluble?

Solid classified as … Solubility in water (@ 25° C)
soluble ≥ 0.1 mol L−1
sparingly soluble 0.01 to 0.1 mol L−1
insoluble ≤ 0.01 mol L−1
eg. most sulfates (SO42−) are soluble
exceptions: Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+ & Pb2+ sulfates

Learn: Table 4.1 on page 139

Solubility refers to equilibrium between solid & ions in

saturated solution

eg. Ag+(aq) + Cl−(aq) AgCl(s)

net ionic equation corresponding to above rxn

Equilibrium lies far to the right – replace by →

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6
 Some Solubility Rules
Table 4.1 on page 139

Almost all salts of NH4+ & the alkali metal cations are soluble.

Otherwise solubility is classified according to anion …

Anion Soluble Insoluble

____________________________________________________________________________________
NO3−, ClO4−,
CH3COO− all
(more … eg.
HCO3− & ClO3−)

Cl−, Br− & I− all except … Ag+, Hg22+, Cu2+ &

Pb2+

SO42− Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+ &

all except …
Pb2+
_____________________________

CO32, NH4+ & everything else

PO43−, alkali metal
S2−, cation salts

O2− & OH− NH4+, alkali metal everything else

& larger alkaline earth
(beginning with Ca2+)
cation salts
_____________________________________________________________________________________

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 ACID BASE REACTIONS
Arrhenius definition of an acid:
produces aqueous solution containing H+(aq)
→ actually H3O+(aq) is a better description of the H+ ion
in acidic aqueous solution

eg. HCl(g) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl−(aq)

Cl −H O−H → Cl− + H−O+−H

| |
H H

Aqueous acid solutions:

→ sour (eg. vinegar)
→ change color of indicator
(eg. phenolphthalein: red → clear)
→ react with many metals to produce H2(g)
i.e. H3O+ is an oxidizing agent
eg. Zn(s) + 2 H+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
Fe(s) + 3 H+(aq) → Fe3+(aq) + 3/2 H2(g)

In an acid electrons are pulled away from an H – making the H

more likely to come off as H+
H−A egs H − Cl, H−S−H

δ+ δ− δ+ δ− δ+ 2δ− δ+
A is more “electronegative” than H

Contrast: Arrhenius bases form OH−(aq) in water

eg. NaOH(s) + H2O(l) → Na+(aq) + OH−(aq) + H2O(l)

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 BRONSTED-LOWRY DEFINITION
Acid is a proton donor
Base is a proton acceptor

i.e. an acid-base reaction is a proton transfer reaction

HA + H2O H3O+ + A−
acid base acid base

→ an acid has an H which it can donate as H+

→ a base has a lone pair of e−s which can accept the proton
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Strong Acids Weak Acids
(only ones) (examples)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
HCl HF HOCl

HBr H2CO3 H2SO3

HI CH3COOH

H2SO4 H3PO4

HNO3 HNO2

HClO4 HClO2 H3BO3

HClO3 most acids are weak

_____________________________________________________________________________________
Learn the strong acids

NOTE: strength is not related to concentration

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 Strong acids

HA(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + A−(aq)

→ completely ionized in H2O

→ high electrical conductivity

Weak acids

eg. HF(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + F−(aq)

→ lots of HF in solution
→ smaller electrical conductivity
→ weak acids are incompletely ionized in H2O

Redox rxns of acids

reduction
eg. Mg(s) + 2H3O+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + H2(g) + 2H2O(l)
oxidation

Mg → Mg2+ + 2e−
2e− + 2H3O+ → H2 + 2H2O

Bases
→ molecule or ion
→ proton acceptor (must have lone e− pair)

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eg. HCl(g) + NH3(g) → NH4Cl(s) (= NH4+Cl−)

H H
− + −
δ .. δ δ | .. |
:Cl − H + :N − H → :Cl: − + H − N+− H
.. | .. |
H H
acid base weak base weak acid

In general, HA + B A− + HB+

Weak Bases:

eg. NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH−(aq)

H H
| .. | ..
H − N: + H − O: H − N+− H + :O:−
| | | |
H H H H

→ incomplete ionization
→ @ equilibrium - small concentration of NH4+ & OH−
→ larger conc. Of NH3

Strong Bases in H2O:

H2O(l)
eg. NaOH(s) → NaOH(aq) = Na+(aq) + OH−(aq)

OH−(aq) + H2O(l) H2O(l) + OH−(aq)

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eg. NaH(s) + H2O(l) → H2(g) + OH−(aq) + Na+(aq)

Na+ H− + H−O−H → H−H + −

O−H + Na+
↑
strong base
& reducing agent

Strong Bases (ionic)

Hydroxides: Li+OH−, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, & CsOH

Ca2+(OH−)2, Sr(OH)2 & Ba(OH)2
Not very soluble

Mg(OH)2 is even less soluble

however, it dissolves in acidic solution, but not basic
solution => it is a basic hydroxide like the above

Corresponding oxides react with H2O to form OH−

eg. Li2O, CaO

Li2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2 LiOH(aq)

− −
O 2− + H−O−H → O−H + O−H

Hydrides: Li+H−, NaH, KH, …

Amides (of group I): Na+NH2−, …

Aqueous acid-base rxns

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egs. NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

KOH(aq) + HI(aq) → KI(aq) + H2O(l)

base + acid → salt + water

Na+ + OH− + H3O+ + Cl− → Na+ + Cl− + 2H2O

K+ + OH− + H3O+ + I− → K+ + I− + 2H2O

OH− + H3O+ → 2H2O

common rxn
net ionic rxn

Conjugate acid-base pairs:

HCN(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + CN−(aq)

weak acid base strong acid base

Bronsted acids: HCN & H3O+

stronger
Bronsted bases: H2O & CN−
Stronger

Acid-base "Half reactions":

HCN → H+ + CN−
acid 1 base 1 ← conjugate acid-base pair

H2O + H+ → H3O+
base 2 acid 2 ← conjugate acid-base pair

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 Examples of Acid-base reactions
HBr(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Br−(aq)
acid base acid base

O2−(aq) + H2O(l) → OH−(aq) + OH−(aq)

base acid base acid

HSO4−(aq) + H2O(l) SO42− + H3O+(aq)

acid base base acid

HCO3−(aq) + H2O H2CO3(aq) + OH−(aq)

base acid acid base

CH3COOH + H2O CH3COO− + H3O+

Strong acid reacts with strong base to form (very) weak acid &
(very) weak base.
→ Strong acids are conjugate to very weak bases
→ Strong bases are conjugate to very weak acids.

Weak acids are conjugate to weak bases

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 HYDROLYSIS OF SALTS

Cations and anions can act as acids and bases …

For example, NH4Cl forms an acidic solution when dissolved

in water.

NH4Cl(aq) consists of NH4+(aq) & Cl−(aq)

↑ ↑
reacts with H2O no rxn with H2O

NH4+ + H2O NH3 + H3O+

↑ ↑
weak acid weak base

⇒ an acidic solution

Contrast … NaCl(aq) is a neutral solution because neither

Na+ or Cl− react with water

Another example …

LiOCl forms a basic solution when dissolved in water because

of the acid-base reaction,

OCl− + H2O HOCl + OH−

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Carbon dioxide is (slightly) soluble in water. But it doesn’t
exist as CO2(aq)

CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)

↑ ↑
not very soluble carbonic acid

Carbonic acid is a weak acid …

H2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) HCO3−(aq) + H3O+(aq)

Soda-pop & beer are slightly acidic. Note that coca-cola has
additional phosphoric acid.

Adding acid to baking soda (NaHCO3) brings about the reverse

of these two reactions. Bubbles of CO2(g) result.

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 Oxidation Reduction Reactions
REDOX

eg. 2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)

two “half reactions”

❶ Na → Na+ + e− e− loss

❷ Cl2 + 2e− → 2Cl− e− gain

Balance by balancing electrons (2× first reaction plus 1× the

second reaction) …
2 Na → 2Na+ + 2e−

2e− + Cl2 → 2Cl−

____________________________

2Na + Cl2 → 2Cl−

An e− transfer rxn

Loss of Electron = Oxidation

Gain of Electron = Reduction

mnemonic: LEO the lion says GER

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An oxidizing agent (eqs. Cl2 & O2) can oxidize other
substances
→ it takes e−s
→ it gets reduced

A reducing agent (eqs. Na & NaH) can reduce other

substances
→ it gives e−s
→ it gets oxidized

Another example …

Na(s) + H2O(l) → Na+(aq) + OH− (aq) + ½ H2(g)

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Na(s) → Na+(aq) + e−

H2O(l) + e− → OH− (aq) + ½ H2(g)

____________________________________________

Na(s) + H2O(l) → Na+(aq) + OH− (aq) + ½ H2(g)

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 some …
oxidizing agents (product) reducing agents (product)
__________________________________________________

O2 O2− H2 H+

F2 F− metals such as . . . . .

Cl2 Cl− Na Na+

Br2 Br− K K+

I2 I− Fe2+ Fe3+

H2SO4 SO2 Al Al3+

Cr2O72− Cr3+ C CO or CO2

(in acid)

MnO4− Mn2+ H2S SO2 or SO3

(in acid)
MnO2
(in base)
__________________________________________________

→ metals easily lose e−s

→ get oxidized
→ reducing agents
→ nonmetals easily gain e−s
→ get reduced
Halogens are strong oxidizing agents

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 F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2

eg. Cl2(g) + 2Br−(aq) → Br2(aq) + 2Cl−(aq)

2 Br− → Br2 + 2 e−
2 e− + Cl2 → 2 Cl−

⇒ Br− is oxidized to Br2

Cl2 is reduced to Cl−

Cl2 can oxidize Br− & I−

Br2 can oxidize I− - not Cl−
I2 will not oxidize Br− or Cl−

F2 is so strong it can even oxidize H2O

2 F2(g) + 2 H2O(l) → 4 HF(aq) + O2(g)

in contrast

Cl2(g) + H2O(l) HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)

F2 is the strongest oxidizing agent

⇒ it is very difficult to oxidize F− to F2
F2(g) is produced by electrolysis of molten NaF

→ order of halide reducing strength

F− < Cl− < Br− < I−

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 OXIDATION NUMBERS & OXIDATION STATES

measures the extent of oxidation of an atom within a

compound

RULES for assigning oxidation numbers :

1. Atom in elemental form has ON = O

2. ON of monatomic ion = charge on ion

egs. K+ ON = +1
Br− ON = −1

3. ON = −1 for F in all it’s cmpds

→ F in most “electronegative” element

4. ON = +1 for H in all its cmpds except metal hydrides

for which ON(H) = −1

egs. H2O ON(H) = +1

NaH ON(H) = −1

5. ON(O) = −2 except in
i) F2O where ON(O) = +2 &
ii) cmpds with O−O bonds
→ X−O−O−Y ON(O) = −1
eg. H−O−O−H

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6. Other halogen atoms (Cl, Br & I) have ON = −1 unless
they are bonded to more EN atom (i.e. O or halogen above
in group) - in which case, they have +ve ON.

7. Sum of all ON = net charge

→ sum over all atoms of neutral molecule = O
→ sum over all atoms of ion = charge of ion
egs.
SO2 IV state of S

ON(S) + 2 ON(O) = 0 ⇒ ON(S) = +4

↑
-2

SO3 VI state of S

ON(S) + 3 ON(O) = 0 ⇒ ON(S) = +6

↑
-2

H2SO4 VI state of S

2 ON(H) + ON(S) + 4 ON(O) = 0 ⇒ ON(S) = +6

↑ ↑
+1 -2

HSO4− VI state of S

ON(H) + ON(S) + 4 ON(O) = -1 ⇒ ON(S) = +6

↑ ↑
+1 -2

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 What does oxidation number (ON) represent?
It is the effective number of electrons lost or gained relative to
the elemental form of the atom.

eg. K → K+ + e−

ON(K) in K+ is +1
K (elemental state of potassium) loses one electron to get to K+
state

Br2 + 2 e− → 2 Br−

ON(Br) in Br− is –1
Each atom of Br2 (elemental state of bromine) gains one
electron to get to Br− state

+δ −δ
eg. H − Cl ON(Cl) = –1
..
there is a partial transfer of one electron of H⋅ to :Cl⋅
..
when HCl is formed

Oxidation number treats polar bonds as though there is a

complete transfer of an electron (one for each bond
formed)

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Balancing redox reactions in cases with solvent (specifically
water) participation

eg. 4 H+(aq) + SO42−(aq) + 2 Br−(aq) →

2 H2O(l) + SO2(g) + Br2(aq)

• This reaction consumes H+(aq) & produces H2O(l)

• How do we determine the coefficients?

• The forward reaction is favored under conditions of high

concentration of H+(aq) – i.e. high [H+] – this is why
concentrated H2SO4(aq) is a strong oxidizing agent,
whereas dilute H2SO4(aq) is not - concentrated H2SO4(aq)
is required to oxidize Br−(aq), as shown here

Balancing Redox Reactions in Acid or Base Medium

1. Identify oxidizing & reducing agents & write unbalanced

reaction
SO42−(aq) + Br−(aq) → SO2(g) + Br2(aq)
+6 −1 +4 0
2. Separate half-reactions &
balance atoms other than O & H
SO4 (aq) + 2 e− → SO2(g) &
2−

2 Br−(aq) → Br2(aq) + 2 e−

These same steps are used for all redox reactions. The next
step is specific to cases of solvent participation …

3. Complete balancing the half-reactions – if not already

balanced

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 If solution is acidic …
• first balance O ’s by adding H2O ’s to the O deficient
side of reaction
• then balance H ’s by adding H+ ’s

If solution is basic
• balance as in acidic solution, then add OH− ’s to both
side, neutralizing H+ ’s resulting from previous step
• use H+ + OH− = H2O

In above example, only the SO42−(aq) half-reaction needs

balancing
4 H+(aq) + SO42−(aq) + 2 e− → SO2(g) + 2 H2O

The last step applies to all redox reactions with or without

solvent participation.

4. Add the half-reactions, balancing electrons. In some

cases, we will need a multiple of one or both half-reactions in
order to cancel the electrons.

4 H+(aq) + SO42−(aq) + 2 e− → SO2(g) + 2 H2O

2 Br−(aq) → Br2(aq) + 2 e−
4 H+(aq) + SO42−(aq) + 2 Br−(aq) → 2 H2O(l) + SO2(g) + Br2(aq)

Figures denoted by ♣ are courtesy of …

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