ALL INDIA RADIO

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO AIR

1.1

INTRODUCTION
A national service planned, developed and operated by the Prasar Bharati Broadcasting

Corporation of India Sound broadcasting started in India in 1927 with the proliferation of private radio clubs. The operations of All India Radio began formally in 1936, as a government organization, with clear objectives to inform, educate and entertain the masses. AIR today has a network of 237 broadcasting centers with 149 medium frequency (MW), 54 high frequency (SW) and 177 FM transmitters. The coverage is 91.85% of the area, serving 99.18% of the people in the largest democracy of the world. AIR covers 24 Languages and 146 dialects in home services. In External services, it covers 27 languages; 17 national and 10 foreign languages.

1.2 HISTORY
The first radio programme in India was broadcast by the Radio Club of Mumbai in June 1923. It was followed by the setting up of a Broadcasting Service that began broadcasting in India in July 1927 on an experimental basis at Mumbai and Kolkata simultaneously under an agreement between Government of India and a private company called the Indian Broadcasting Company Ltd.

When India became independent, the AIR network had only six Stations located at Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Lucknow and Tiruchirapalli with a total complement of
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18 transmitters - six on the medium wave and the remaining on short wave. Radio listening on medium wave was confined to urban limits of these cities. As against a mere 2,75,000 receiving sets at the time of Independence, now there are about 132 million estimated radio sets in the country. Now the broadcast scenario has drastically changed with 215 broadcasting centers, including 77 local Radio Stations, covering nearly cent-per-cent country's population.

1.3 THREE TIER BROADCASTING SYSTEM

AIR has a three-tier system of broadcasting, namely, national, regional and local. National channel of All India Radio started functioning on May 18, 1988. It caters to the information, education and entertainment needs of the people, through its transmitters at Nagpur, Mogra and Delhi beaming from dusk to dawn. It transmits centrally originated news bulletins in Hindi and English, plays, sports, music, newsreel, spoken word and other topical programmes, to nearly 76% of the country's population fully reflecting the broad spectrum of national life. The Regional Stations in different States form the middle tier of the broadcasting. Including North-Eastern Service at Shillong disseminates the vibrant and radiant cultural heritage of the North-Eastern region of the country. Local Radio is comparatively a new concept of broadcasting in India. Each of the station serving a small area provides utility services and reaches right into the heart of the community, which uses the microphone to reflect and enrich its life.

CHAPTER 2 IMPORTANT MILESTONES

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August 15,1947

There were Six Radio stations at Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta,

Madras,Tiruchirapalli and Lucknow. July 20, 1952 First National Programme of Music broadcast from AIR July 29. 1953 National Programme of Talks (English) commenced from AIR. 1954 First Radio Sangeet Sammelan held. October 3, 1957 Vividh Bharati Services started. November 1, First TV station in Delhi started (at that time, it was part of AIR). 1959 1974 Akashvani Annual Awards instituted.

July 23, 1977 1985

First ever FM service was started from Madras. All AIR stations were provided with 5 channel satellite receiver

terminals. May 18, 1988 Introduction of National Channel. April 1, 1993 The 150 th station of AIR commissioned at Berhampur (Orissa). August 15, 1993 Introduction of Times slots on FM Channel to private Parties at September 1994 Delhi-Bombay. 28,Four 500 KW Superpower Shortwave transmitters at Bangalore inaugurated. This has made Bangalore one of the biggest transmitting centres in the world. October 31,The 175th station of AIR commissioned at Nasik.

1994 August 5, 1995 Multi-track recording studios commissioned at Chennai. May 2, 1996 Launching of AIR on-line Information Services on Internet. January 13,Started Audio on demand on Internet Service. 1997 April 1, 1997 January 1998 February 1998 July 17, 2000 Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) introduced at Delhi on experimental basis. 26,'Radio on Demand' service on 2nd FM Channel Transmission. 25,AIR 'News on Telephone' and AIR 'live on Internet'. Regional Staff Training Institute (Tech.) started functioning at Bhubaneshwar (Orissa)
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Nov 12, 2001

Museum of Radio and Doordarshan was inaugurated. Declared as The Public Service Broadcasting day to commemorate Gandhiji's visit to AIR

Feb 27, 2002 July, 2002 Jan 26, 2004 Apr 01, 2004 Dec 16, 2004

AIR launched its first ever digital statellite home service which will cater to Indian sub-continent and South-East Asia. Celebrated 75 years of Broadcasting. Bhasha Bharati Channel of AIR launched at Delhi and Classical Music Channel launched at Bangalore. Launch of Kisan Vani Programme from 12 Stations of AIR. DTH Service of Prasar Bharati, with 12 AIR Channels, launched.

CHAPTER 3 CHAIN OF COMMAND

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CHAPTER 4 INTRODUCTION TO AIR, AJMER

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4.1

INTRODUCTION
All India Radio in Ajmer (Prasar Bharti) was established on 11th December,

1955. Initially it was started with 20KW power and connected to A.I.R Jaipur station. In 1987, its power is raised up to 200KW. Its range covers almost all over Rajasthan. HPT AIR Ajmer is situated at 10Kms far from the Ajmer bus stand at N.H.No.8 in NORTH direction, near GAGWANA village. It is 120Kms far from Jaipur in SOUTH Direction in the state of RAJASTHAN. Its coordinates are 7443'00" and 2631'07", Longitude and latitude respectively. A.I.R Ajmer is working under the Ministry of (I & B)and It is Broadcasting all the Primary channel service program of Rajasthan state. It Studio is located at Jaipur. As AIR AJMER is working since 1987 its technical installation is very good. This station had been Achieved Best Maintained award two times in 1999 & 2009.Which shows technical efficiency of dedicated team AIR AJMER.

4.2

SALIENT FEATURES
1. Transmitter Type/Make 2. Radiated Power 3. Operated Frequency

: BEL HMB140 : 2*100 kW : 603 kHz

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ALL INDIA RADIO 4. Wavelength 5. Mast Height 6. Electrical Height 7. Mast Base Impedance 8. Site Area 9. Transmission Hours

: 497.51 meters. : 200 meters. : 248 meters. : 778.4+j50.3 ohms. : 238656 Sq.Mtrs. : 05:30-09:30 hrs. 12:00-15:00 hrs. 17:00-23:10 hrs.

10. Coverage Area:

a. Ajmer-Kota-Jhalawar-Ujjain b. Ajmer-Chittorgarh-Udaipur-Banswara c. Ajmer-Sikar-Churu-Bikaner d. Ajmer-Jaipur-Alwar-Delhi e. Ajmer-Pali-Jodhpur-Pokran 11. Power Supply

256 kms. 223 kms. 197 kms. 215 kms. 221 kms. : Two 11KV overhead feeder from Madar, Gagwana.

12. Stand By Power Supply

: 2*400KVA 3-phase Alternator of Company KIRLOSKAR

CHAPTER 5 MODULATION

5.1

MODULATION

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Modulation is a process of superimposing information on a carrier by varying one of its parameters (amplitude, frequency or phase).

5.2

NEED FOR MODULATION

Modulating the signal over higher frequency can reduce antenna size. To differentiate among transmissions (stations) Maximum to minimum frequency ratio can be reduced to minimum by modulating the signal on a high frequency.

5.3

TYPES OF MODULATION
In general, there are three types of modulation: a) c) Amplitude Modulation Pulse Modulation b) Angle Modulation

In All India Radio we use Amplitude Modulation.

5.3.1 Amplitude Modulation:If the amplitude of the carrier is varied in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal (information), it is called amplitude modulation.

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Vc(t)

Carrier freq.fc Amplitude A c

Vm(t )

Modulating Signal freq.mf amplitude A m

V(t) Amplitude Modulated DSB Signal Carrier amplitude corresponding to negative peak of signal is zero for 100% modulationA(m=Ac)

Fig. 1 Amplitude Modulation

5.3.1.1

Spectrum of AM Signal:The spectrum of AM signal is shown in figure 2. If f m = modulating frequency fc =

Carrier frequency. The Spectrum of AM signal will be as below :

Power in the carrier,

Carrier Level LSB USB

fc -fm

fc
Frequency

f c+f m

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Fig. 2 Spectrum of AM Signal

ALL INDIA RADIO

Pc

1 Ac 2

1 (A c )2 2

Power in the sideband,

Plsb = Pusb = 1 A ma c 2 2
2

A 2 1 (m a ) 2 c 4 2

Power in the upper side band(Pusb) Hence total power, Pt

= =

Power in the lower side band (Plsb) Pc + Pusb + Plsb

where Ac ma Am

= = =

Amplitude of the carrier Modulation Index = Am/Ac Amplitude of the modulating signal

CHAPTER 6 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH POWER TRANSMITTER

6.1

INTRODUCTION
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A.M. Transmitter of any power in general will have a separate HF and AF stages. In the conventional transmitters, vacuum tubes are used right from the first stage to the final stage and the preliminary stages are solid state devices. To study the transmitter we have to study the following things:Power supply arrangement, RF chain, AF chain, Output Circuit, Control Electronics, Cooling Arrangement & Earthing System of the transmitter.

6.2
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

POWER SUPPLY IN 100kW TRANSMITTER

HT -11 kV PA & Modulator : Thyristor controlled for smooth variation of HT 800 V Power Supply 1070 V 1900 V - 650 V : : : : Screen voltage to PA valve. Screen voltage to modulate valve. Plate voltage to RF Driver (i) Grid Bias to PA Modulator & RF Driver (ii) (iii) A tap on -650 V provides -600 V supply to the cathode of RF Driver -100 V for the screen of RF Driver.

6. 7.

Thycon Unit Audio Unit

: :

+ 12 V DC and - 12 V DC + 24 V and + 10V.

8. 9.

Reflectometer Control Circuits VDDB VDDC VDDD :

+ 15 V & - 15 V

+ 15 V - Logic circuits. + 12 V - Relays + 15 V for indication lamps.

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VDDE 10. Main supply to transmitter

- 15 V - Comparator. : 415 V. 3 Phase 50 Hertz

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ALL INDIA RADIO 3 600 Ante Tertiary Modu 415 AVR V Condensed TubeR.F. Control R Crystal S Compos P ectifier Modulator Transistor BroadR.F. Rectifier Blower Bloc Tran 4Wire VOscillator nna Windin lation vapour Filament Supervi Band Distribu 30KVA HT ite +800V +900V 2XCQK25 -650V Thycon AVR +1070Final k Network sfor (MAS g Trans cooling Heating sion Stage Transistor tion Unit Signal VA.F.11KV 12 -400V 450 KVA mer T) Driver form system Amplifier A..F. Stage diag er

ram for 100 kw MW TRA NSM ITTE RS

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CHAPTER 7 RF CHAIN
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7.1

RF STAGE
RF circuits consist of a crystal oscillator, transistor power amplifier, RF. Driver and

Power Amplifier of 100 kW HMB 140 MW transmitter is shown in Fig.

Block Diagram of RF Chain (HMB-140)

7.1.1 Crystal Oscillator:To oscillate at a consistent frequency, the crystal is kept in a oven. The temperature of the oven is maintained between 68 to 72 o C and the corresponding indication is available in the meter panel. Crystal oven is heated by + 12 V. One crystal oscillator with a stand by has been provided. It gives an output of 5 V square wave which is required to drive the Transistor Power Amplifier. The crystal oscillator works between 3 MHz and 6 MHz for different carrier frequencies. Different capacitors are used to select different frequency ranges. In addition, variable capacitor is used for varying the frequency of the crystal within a few cycles.

The oscillator frequency is divided by 2, 4, or 8 which is selected by jumpering the appropriate terminals. The oscillator Unit gives 3 outputs, one each for RF output, RF Monitoring and RF output indication.

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7.1.2 Transistor Power Amplifier:Oscillator output is fed to the transistor Power amplifier (TRPA). It gives an output of 12 Watt across 75 ohms. It works on + 20 V DC, derived from a separate rectifier and regulator. For different operating frequencies, different output filters are selected (Low Pass Filter).

7.1.3 RF Driver:A 4-1000 tetrode is used as a driver which operates under class AB condition, without drawing any grid current. About 7 to 10 Watts, of power is fed to the grid of the driver through a 75 : 800 ohms RF Transformer, which provides to the proper impedance matching to the TRPA output and also provides the necessary grid voltage swing driver tube.

7.1.4 Various Pin Voltages:The cathode of the driver Control grid Screen grid Plate Voltage : : : : - 600 V. - 650 V. - 100 V. + 1900 V.

Because the cathode is at -600 V, the effective grid to cathode bias voltage (fixed) is -50V and the effective plate voltage is 2500 V. The driver develops a peak grid voltage of 800 to 900 V at the grid of PA and PA grid current of about 0.3 A to 0.4 Amps.

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The required wave form for operating the PA as class -D operation is also developed at the output of the driver by mixing about 20% third harmonic with the fundamental which is the operating frequency of the transmitter.

7.1.5 RF Power Amplifier:CQK - 50, condensed vapor cooled tetrode valve is used as a PA stage. High level anode modulation is used, using a class B Modulator stage. The screen of the PA tube is also modulated by a separate tap on modulation transformer. Plate load impedance of the PA stage is about 750 ohms and the output impedance is 120 ohms, and it is matched by L-C components. Using various combinations of the L-C circuits plate impedance of third harmonic is created, the Harmonics also are filtered imaginatively at the output side. 11 kV DC, the HT voltage is connected to the plate of the PA valves through the secondary of the modulation transformer and RF chokes: hence the AF signal is super imposed on the DC for the PA plate.

CHAPTER 8 AF CHAIN

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8.1

AF STAGE

AF Stage (HMB-140)

The AF stage supply the audio power required to amplitude modulate the final RF stage. The output of the AF stage is superimposed upon the DC voltage to the RF PA tube via modulation transformer. An Auxiliary winding in the modulation transformer, provides the AF voltage necessary to modulate the screen of the final stage. The modulator stage consists of two CQK-25 ceramic tetrode valves working in push pull class B configuration. The drive stages up to the grid of the modulator are fully transistorized.

8.1.1 High Pass Filter:The audio input from the speech rack is fed to active High Pass Filter. It cuts off all frequencies below 60 Hz. Its main function is to suppress the switching transistors from the audio input.

This also has the audio attenuator and audio muting relay which will not allow AF to further stage till RF is about 70 kW of power.

8.1.2 AF Pre Amplifier:-

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The output of the High Pass Filter is fed to the AF Pre-amplifier, one for each balanced audio line. Signal from the negative feed back network from the secondary of the modulation transformer and the signals from the compensator also are fed to this unit.

8.1.3 AF Pre Corrector:Pre- amplifier output is fed to the AF Pre-correctors. As the final modulator valve in the AF is operating as Class B, its gain will not be uniform for various levels of AF signal. That is the gain of the modulator will be low for low level, input, and high for high level AF input because of the operating characteristics of the Vacuum tubes. Hence to compensate for the non linear gain of the modulator the Pre-corrector amplifies the low level signal highly and high level signal with low gain. Hum compensator is used to have a better signal to noise ratio.

8.1.4 AF Driver:2 AF drivers are used to drive the two modulator valves. The driver provides the necessary DC Bias voltage and also AF signal sufficient to modulate 100%. The output of AF driver stage is formed by four transistors in series as it works with a high voltage of about -400 V.

The transistors are protected with diodes and Zener diodes against high voltages that may result due to internal tube flashovers. There is a potentiometer by which any clipping can be avoided such that the maximum modulation factor will not exceed.

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8.1.5 AF Final Stage:AF final stage is equipped with ceramic tetrodes CQK-25. Filament current of this tube is about 210 Amps. at 10V. The filament transformers are of special leakage reactance type and their short circuit current is limited to about 2 to 3 times the normal load current. Hence the filament surge current at the time of switching on will not exceed the maximum limit.

CHAPTER 9 OUPUT CIRCUIT

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OUTPUT CIRCUIT

The L-C combination of the output circuit provides the following:

1.

The required load impedance for Class D operation that is there should be a third harmonic impedance in addition to the fundamental impedance.

2.

Matches the plate impedance of 750 ohms to the feeder impedance of 120 ohms at the operating frequency.

3.

Filters the entire 2nd and 3rd harmonic before the feeder.

CHAPTER 10 THYRISTORS & LIMITERS

10.1 THYRISTORS

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The basic solid state device used in 100kW Transmitters is THYRISTOR. Thyristors are now extensively used in power control and in our network it is well utilized in modern transmitters. The best known thyristor device is Silicon Control rectifier or SCR which is the solid state equivalent of thyratron. An SCR has got three terminals, an anode, a Cathode and a triggering gate, and is a uni-directional device whereas bi-directional thyristors are PN PN devices which can conduct in either direction like a triac. Triac is extensively used as voltage regulator for fans and dimmer control for lights. A thyristor is constructed with alternate layers P type and N type germanium or silicon semi-conductor. P type is having excess of holes and N type excess of electrons. If this diode is forward biased, the junction J1 and J3 shall be forward biased whereas junction J2 shall be reverse biased. Due to this the junction J 2 offers high impedance and all the voltage will be dropped across this.

10.2 LIMITING AMPLIFIER

Limiting amplifiers are used in transmitter. During a transmission, there may be peaks occasionally which may overload the modulator valves and trip the transmitter. The occasional peaks may be for a short duration and it can not be controlled manually. Modulation of the transmitter also has to be kept very high of the order of 70% or more on average. transmitter. To take care of all these things, limiting amplifiers are used in

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10.3 AM LIMITER
In AIR Limiting Amplifiers of Meltron make ME 277 DX Limiter are being used in large numbers. Many of the stations may also be using Limiting Amplifiers of BEL make. The principle of working and the modules used in both the Limiting Amplifiers are same. In the Meltron Limiter, integrated circuits (mostly operational amplifiers) are used. Whereas the same function is realized in BEL Limiter using transistors. Over driving the audio stage of transmitter is protected by the Limiting Amplifier by employing a combination of pre-delay and feedback control. The audio signal is delayed by approximately 300 micro second during whom time necessary control signal is calculated and set. The limiter (both Meltron and BEL) uses the combination of compressor and expander circuits, which increases the audio level (density) as is necessary for extending broadcast in fringe area.

CHAPTER 11 COOLING TECHNIQUES

11.1 COOLING TECHNIQUES

In BEL/BBC solid state transmitter of 100 KW/300 kW MW and 50 KW/100KW/500KW SW transmitters, condensed vapor cooling is used for the PA and
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modulator valves. Here a circulation of fast flowing stream of de-mineralized water is used. High velocity water flows through the valve jacket and transforms into vapor due to the dissipation of power in anodes. The tubes are fitted with a specially formed anode which sits in a cylindrical cooler. Due to the fast flow of water, the vapor is condensed to water as soon as they are formed. Hence the cooling efficiency is much higher. The temperature of water coming from the transmitter can theoretically reach about 900 C, but in practice, it is desired to about 700 C in normal programme modulation. Filaments of the tubes are cooled by forced air by means of a high pressure blower. It also cools the R.F. driver valves, the third harmonic and second harmonic suppression coils. The dematerialized water is pumped by pumps (one in circuit and one as standby) from the water tank to the PA and modulator tubes through the water piping. At the inlet/outlet of each tube, a double ball valve is provided to facilitate shutting off water supply when the valve is required to be changed. Except for changing the valve, this should be kept in open condition always. (Lever in the horizontal position).

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11.2 AIRCONDITIONING
The primary function of an air-conditioning system is to maintain conducive conditions for human comfort. Comfort air-conditioning, is defined as the process by which simultaneously the temperature, moisture contents, movement and quality of air in enclosed spaces, intended for human occupancy may be within required limits. In order to satisfy the stipulated requirements a complete air-conditioning system is to perform the following functions.

Cooling and dehumidification for summer conditioning. Heating and humidification for winter conditioning. Air filtration and proper ventilation the year round.

Necessarily, these functions involve control of temp. humidity, purity and movement of air.

11.2 REFRIGENT CYCLE

Mechanical refrigeration is achieved by alternately compressing and expanding the refrigerant with the help of a compressor and pressure reducing device (such as expansion valve).

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Compressor serves two purposes; first it draws the refrigerant from the evaporator (cooling coil) and forces it into the condenser and secondly it increases the pressure of the refrigerant. By sucking the refrigerant, the compressor reduces the pressure in the cooling coil and maintains it at a level low enough to permit the refrigerant to boil or vaporize and consequently absorb heat in the process. (refrigerant boils at a relatively low temperature when pressure is reduced). By discharging refrigerant vapour into the condenser the compressor increases vapor pressure and temperatures. The hot vapour flows to the condenser, where it is condensed into liquid at high pressure giving up heat to atmospheric air or water depending upon whether the condenser is air cooled or water cooled.

CHAPTER 12 CONTROL ELECTRONICS

12.1 DIGITAL BASIC:Digital techniques are now well established in the world of broadcasting the fact that though the digital system seems more complex, however, it has many advantages, such as higher accuracy, stability, flexibility etc.

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Therefore, in spite of their complexity and higher costs, digital circuits are being used for great variety of operations. Secondly with the easy availability of digital circuits in I.C. forms, extreme large digital circuits can be reliably built in small volumes at relatively low cost.

12.1.1 Analog and Digital Signals:A continuous signal is known as analog signal. It has many continuous values.

On the other hand, a digital signal has discrete values -either it is available or not available.

The input to and output from a microphone, the output of a loudspeaker, a singer singing a song etc. is examples of continuous signals. A switch is being switched ON an OFF, the output available is a digital signal. This has been shown in fig.

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Control and interlocking circuits of the transmitter are to perform four major functions:1. Ensure correct switching sequence. 2. Indication of the status of the transmitter

12.2.1 Switching Sequence of Transmitter:a) b) c) d) Ventilation. Filament Grid Bias/Medium Tension High Tension

12.2.1.1 Ventilation:All the transmitters handle large amount of power. Basically the transmitters convert power from AC main's to Radio Frequency and Audio Frequency energy. The conversion process always results in some loss. The loss in energy is dissipated in the form of heat. The dissipated energy has to be carried away by a suitable medium to keep the raise in temperature of the transmitting equipment within limits. Hence, in order to ensure that the heat generated by the equipment is carried away as soon as it is generated the ventilation equipment need to be switched on first.

Normally the cooling provided in a transmitter could be classified on the following lines: 12.2.1.2 Filament:All the transmitters invariably employ tubes in their drive and final stages of RF amplifiers and sub modulator and modular stages of AF amplifiers. tubes can be switched on.
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Cooling for the tube filaments. Cooling for the tube Anodes. General cooling of the cubics. Cooling for coils, condensers, Resistors etc.

After ventilation

equipments are switched on and requisite air and water flow established, the filament of the

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The cold resistance of the filament is very low and hence application of full filament voltage in one strike would result in enormous filament current and may damage the tube filament. Hence, it becomes necessary to apply the filament voltage in steps. Various methods adopted are:

Use of step starter resistance: Here the filament voltage of the tubes is given through a series resistance (called step starter resistance). The series resistance which limits the initial filament current is shorted and after a time interval by the use of a timer switch.

Use of special filament transformer which allows slow build up of the filament voltage.

Application of filament voltage in 3 or 4 steps.

The emission from the tubes depends upon the temperature of the filament. Generally it takes some time for the filament to reach a steady temperature after it is switched on. Hence, it is not desirable to draw any power from the tube till it attains a stable temperature. This means that the further switching on process has to be suspended till the filament temperature and hence the emission becomes stable. sequence namely bias switching on. This aspect is taken care of by

providing a time delay of 3 to 5 minutes between the filament switching on and the next

12.2.1.3 Bias and Medium Tension:-

For obvious reasons the control grid of the tube has to be given the necessary negative bias voltage before its anode voltage can be applied. Hence, after the application of full filament voltage and after the lapse of necessary delay for the filament temperature to become stable bias voltage can be switched on. Along with bias generally anode and screen voltages of intermediate stages and driver stages are also switched on. Application of bias and medium tension makes available very high voltages for the various transmitter equipment. Hence, in order to ensure the safety of the personnel access to this equipment should be forbidden before the application of bias and medium tension. This is ensured by
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providing the interlocking so that the bias and medium tension can be put on only after all the transmitter and other HV equipment doors are closed to prevent access.

CHAPTER 13 PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSMITTER

13.1 NEED OF PARALLEL OPERATION:At times it may not be possible to get the required power from the single transmitter for the required coverage of the broadcast service. In such conditions, it is essential to combine two or more transmitters to get the required power. Besides combined operations also facilitate operation of single transmitter in case of failure of one transmitter thereby achieving reliability of the service.

13.2 REQUIREMENTS:Like parallel operation of alternators/generators there are three conditions to be satisfied for parallel operation of two transmitters. They are: Frequency of the transmitter should be the same. The phase of the signal of the transmitters at combiner should be the same.

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The power levels of both the transmitters should be such that the amplitude at the combiner is equal.

Impedances can be converted into a parallel impedance and vice versa using the following formulae: -

R =R 1 +( X / R p s s s

)2 )

13.3 PROCEDURE FOR TUNING & COMBINING:-

Tune each arm of the network for impedance equal to load impedance. Connect the network and terminate the load impedance. Measure the load impedance offered at each of the transmitter. It should be equal to load impedance. If not adjust the reactance.

Open and short-circuit the output point of one of the transmitter (in off condition) and measure the load impedance at the other transmitter. It should not change.

Now put on the transmitters with a single oscillator source. If there is unbalance try to adjust with the phase control of oscillator for minimum unbalance.

If the unbalance still persists try to adjust the power levels of the transmitters either by HT or AVR variations.

Modulate the transmitter slowly to see whether there is unbalance. If so check the audio phase to each of the transmitter.

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CHAPTER 14 FEEDER LINE, ATU, ANTENNA

14.1 FEEDER LINE:R.F. Energy of a transmitter is guided up to radiator (mast) by the propagation of Trans-verse Electro-magnetic waves along systems of parallel conductors called Transmission lines or feeder lines. The input energy is stored in the field of conductors and is propagated along the system at some finite velocity. It is essential to keep the antenna at a distance from transmitter due to prevent

Radiation hazard Pick up from antenna and consequent problem with transmitter circuit Normally this distance is either on 50 V/m field strength contour or minimum half the wavelength at frequency of operation.

The feeder line should carry the power from the transmitter to Antenna with Minimum loss Minimum radiation.
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14.1.1

Basic Transmission Lines:-

There are three types of transmission lines used at RF. They are :

(i) (ii) (iii)

Open wire feeder lines Co-axial feeder lines Wave guides

14.1.2

Basic Applications of feeder line:-

To guide energy from transmitter to Antenna. In this mode energy move along the lines in a single travelling wave. For Storing energy in excess of that dissipated in load, in the form of standing waves.

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14.1.3

Losses in Feeder Line:There are four types of losses. They are:

Copper Loss: It is due to the heating of conductor. Earth Loss: It arises due to imperfect earth conductivity. Insulation Loss: It is due to insulation loss and is minor in a well designed system. Radiation Loss: It is due to irregularity and usually very small for well designed lines.

14.2 Antenna Tuning Unit (ATU):14.2.1 Introduction

Antenna Tuning Unit (ATU) is to match the feeder line impedance to the mast impedance of MW Transmitters for maximum transmission of power. So ATU is located between the mast base and the feeder line and is very close to the mast base. Commonly Feeder Unit which is located in the aerial field, houses the ATU. ATU can be designed in a number of ways. The method used may be different in different conditions. Criteria depend on the requirements. Especially when directional antenna system is employed by splitting power to different antenna, the phase angle of the network is the most important parameter. In other cases mostly, simplicity and safety against lightning is important. One of the methods adopted in the past was the reactive component of the mast impedance is neutralized, by putting opposite reactive component of same value in series at mast end side, to make the mast impedance purely resistive (i.e. for inductive mast the series reactance should be capacitive and vice versa). Then the resistive

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part of the mast impedance can be matched to the feeder line impedance by selecting a suitable matching network. This matching network can be L, T or network, and can be designed as phase lag or phase lead type. In these cases if a capacitor is put in series, there is every possibility of puncturing of capacitors due to lightning. Hence this method is being discouraged. The second method, which is most commonly used now, is first to convert the antenna impedance into a parallel combination. Most of the bridges used to measure the mast impedance measure it in the series form. This series impedance can be converted into parallel impedance using the following formula: -

R =R 1 +( X / R p s s s

)2 )

14.2.2

T Network
In some typical cases where L network is not possible it may be necessary to

design T networks. This can be designed as follows. T Network between R1 and R2 is possibile only if X32 R1R2

X1 = R1 c, X2 = R1 a , Where a =

X3 =R1 b
X1 X2

n Cos n sin
R1 X 3 X3 R2

1 n .Sin

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=
1 n .Cos n .Sin

= Phase shift

and n = R1/R2

Some times it is possible to design T networks with the load reactance as the X 2 arm of the above network. Therefore there will be only two components in the matching networks , means it is an L network. T network can precisely control phase shifts and can tune wide range of impedances.

14.3 ANTENNA:14.3.1 Introduction

Antenna is usually a metallic device (as a rod or a wire) used for radiating or receiving electromagnetic waves. The radio frequency power developed at the final stage of a transmitter is delivered through cables/feeders, without themselves consuming any power to the transmitting antenna. This travels in the free space in the form of radio waves (electromagnetic waves). The receiving antenna picks up the radio waves and delivers useful signal at the input of a receiver for reception of signals. The transmitting and receiving antennae are reciprocal in the sense, any characteristics of the antenna in general applies equally to both. 14.3.1.1 Antenna Radiation Resistance:-

The input impedance Zin of an antenna is the ratio of voltage to current at its input terminals where the power is fed to the antenna.

Zin

Ra + jXa
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Ra Xa

= =

Resistive part of impedance Reactive part of impedance

Ra Rr Ri

= = =

Rr+Ri Radiation resistance of the antenna Ohmic loss resistance of the antenna.

Radiation Resistance is a fictitious term. It is equivalent of resistance which would dissipate the same amount of power as being radiated by the antenna when fed with the same amount of power.

14.3.3.2

Radiation Efficiency:-

The radiation efficiency determines the effective transfer of power from the input to free space, and given b Radiation Efficiency =

Rr Ri + Rr
Field Regions:Reactive near field (induction field) up to a distance 0.62
a)

D3 .
2D
2

Radiating near field (fresnel field) beyond near field up to a distance of

b)

Far field (Fraunhofer field) beyond fresnel field where 'D' is the largest dimension of the antenna. The measurements of a radiation pattern, gain etc. must be made only in the far field region.
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14.3.3.3

Bandwidth of Antenna:-

The range of frequencies within which the performance of the antenna with respect to certain characteristic (such as input impedance, pattern, beam width, polarization, side lobe level, beam direction, gain) conforms to a specified standard. More commonly in broadcasting the characteristics of importance are gain and input impedance. 14.3.3.4 Aperture of an Antenna 'A':-

This term usually relates only to receiving antenna. Aperture (or effective area) of a receiving antenna is the ratio of power delivered to the load (connected to the Antenna) to the incident power density.

G2 4

Where G is the gain with respect to the isotropic antenna.

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CHAPTER 15 MEASUREMENT OF TRANSMITTER

DAYTIME MEA

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Transmitter Frequency Radial direction S. Spot No. (Location/

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CHAPTER 16 EARTHING SYSTEM

16.1 EARTHING
The term earthing means connecting the neutral point of a supply system or noncurrent carrying parts of electrical apparatus to the general mass of earth in such a manner that at all times an immediate discharge of electrical energy takes place without danger. The function of earthing is two fold 1. It is for ensuring that no current carrying conductor rises to a potential with respect to general mass of earth than its designed insulation. 2. It is for the safety of the human beings from the electric shocks.

16.1.1

Methods of earthing:There are two popular methods of earthing:

i) ii)

Pipe Earthing Plate Earthing

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Pipe Earthing:-

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Plate Earthing:-

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CHAPTER 17
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SAFETY MEASURES

17.1 SAFETY OF THE EQUIPMENT:i)

All the rotating machinery are provided with switches with magnetic and thermal over load release.

ii)

The air flow and water flow switches and temperature sensors monitors the air flow and water flow of the cooling medium. If the air and water flow fall below a certain pre-determined value, it ensures the necessary tripping sequence.

iii)

Water level in the reservoir and water conductivity are monitored constantly. Momentary release of air flow and water flow switches due to some turbulance for a short duration will not result in the tripping of transmitters. However, if the fault persists for a few seconds then the tripping will result.

iv)

v)

Sometimes thermal sensors are embedded in the filament transformers to monitor its temperature.

vi)

The filament voltage of various high power tubes is monitored. In case of low or high filament voltage tripping of the transmitter filament is initiated.

vii)

Circuit breakers associated with various rectifiers such as grid bias, screen voltage etc. protect the rectifiers and associated equipment against over currents.

17.2 SAFETY OF THE PERSONNEL:-

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Since very high voltages are encountered in transmitters the operating personnel are to be protected by coming into contact with these high voltages accidentally. The safety interlocking generally comprises of :
a.

An earthing switch which earths all the high voltage supplies before the access to the cubicles keys are allowed.

b.

A key exchange panel from where the key to the transmitter cubicles can be utilized only after the earthing switch is put on. The earthing switch is interlocked in the bias circuit and hence the operation of the earth switch automatically switches off up to bias. This provision ensures that the cubicle doors can be opened only when the bias and medium voltages are switched off and earthed through the earthing switch.

c.

In addition to the above earth hooks are provided at various parts of the cubicle and high voltage equipment area. The operating personnel are to short through these earth hooks the high voltage points before any work is undertaken in these equipment.

d.

Some of the transmitters are also provided with additional shorting switches in the cubicles which shorts the supplies in the cubicle as soon as the door is opened.

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CHAPTER 18 SOURCE OF PROGRAM

18.1 INTRODUCTION:The main source of program to AJMER relay station is fulfilled by studio located at JAIPUR through SATELLITE COMMUNICATION. The various All India Radio stations spread throughout the nation are required to relay certain programmes which are originating from Delhi. Similarly there are certain programmes which are originating from capital stations are relayed by the other stations in that region. In order to link Delhi and capital stations with other AIR stations, RN through INSA T is not only cost effective but also provides the good technical quality as compared to DOT lines and SW linkage. The Radio Networking terminal located at AIR stations receives S-Band or C Band transmissions. The programmes thus received after processing are fed to the transmitter for broadcast purposes. Thus RNT acts as the ground terminal for satellite signal reception.

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18.2 STUDIO ACOUSTIC:A broadcasting studio is a room in studio complex which has been specially designed and constructed to serve the purpose of originating broadcasting programs. Whenever any musician sings and we sit in front of a performing musician to listen to him, we enjoy the program by virtue of the superb qualities of our sensory organs namely ears.

However, when we listen to the same program over the broadcast chain at our home though domestic receivers, the conditions are entirely different. We as broadcasters, are continuously engaged in the task of ensuring the maximum pleasure for the listener at home when the artists are performing inside the studios.

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