Instrumentation and

measurement
Types of error
Measurement standards
Dimension analysis
 1.0 Type of Errors
•Gross Errors
•Systematically
•Environmental

Gross Errors
· Refer to errors due to human mistake in reading
instruments and recording and calculating measurement
results.
· Example 1: read the temperature as 31.5C while the actual
reading may be 21.5C
· Example 2: read 25.8C and record as 28.5C
· Prevention: read and record carefully, and taking the
average of several reading
 Systematic Errors
a) Instrumental errors
i) Due to inherent shortcoming in the instrument
· Inherent due to their mechanical structure.
· They may be due to improper calibration, construction,
manufacturing limitation, or
faulty instrument.
Example: If the spring (use for producing controlling torque)
of a permanent magnet instrument has become weak, the
device will always read high.
Overcome methods by:
- Recalibrated carefully
- Apply correction factors after determining the instrumental
errors
- Proper maintenance, use and handling of instruments
 Systematic Errors
• ii) Due to misuse of instrument
• Example: Failure to adjust the zero of instruments
• · Using leads of too high resistance (when measure
low R value)
• · Measuring an ac signal which beyond the instrument
bandwidth response.
• Overcome methods by:
• - Recalibrate system carefully
• - Using the right instrument for the particular
application
 Systematic Errors
• iii) Due to loading effect of instruments
• · Due to the internal resistance of the device
• · Due to the active filters effect of the device
• · Leakage of current or voltage
• · Improper ground or reference
• Loading effect cause inaccuracy of measurement -
Can be avoided by using appropriate instrument or
using them intelligently. Example: using a voltmeter
which has a relatively high resistance compared to the
load resistance.
 b) Environmental Errors
• · Effect due to the temperature, pressure, humidity, dust,
vibrations or external magnetic or electrostatic fields.
• · Overcome methods
• i) Keeping the conditions as nearly as constant as possible.
• Example: temperature can be kept constant by keeping the
equipment in a
• temperature-controlled enclosure.
• ii) Use equipment, which is immune to these effects
• Example: variations of resistance with temperature can be
minimized by using the materials, which have a very low
resistance temperature co-efficient
 b) Environmental Errors
• iii) Employ techniques, which eliminate the effects of
disturbances
• Example: effect of humidity & dust can be entirely
eliminated by hermetically sealing the equipment
• iv) Apply computed correction
• 2 (c) Observational Errors
• · The errors that introduced by the observer
• i) Parallax error – using a wrong method in observing
the values
• ii) Reaction time – different instantaneous reaction of
the people. Ex: Watch timer
 2.0 Measurement standard
2.1 Terms
2.2 Fundamental and secondary units
2.3 Symbols and notation (refer attachment)
2.4 Equation and numbering
2.5 Dimension analysis
 2.1 Standards terms
• Dimension- defines some physical characteristics.
Example, Length, volume,
• velocity, heat and etc.
• · Unit – is a standard or reference by which a
dimension can be expressed numerically
• · SI unit – The international system of units - It is
based on seven well-defined base units (meter,
kilogram, second, ampere,
• Kelvin, Mole, Candela) and two supplementary,
dimensionless units (Radian,
• Steradian)
 2.2 Fundamental and secondary
units

• There are five fundamental units or base units:

• a) Meter (m), L
• b) Kilogram (Kg), M
• c) Second (s), T
• d) Ampere (A), I
• e) Kelvin (K), q
• Secondary units are the product of fundamental units
• For eg : Area ( L2)- m2, Newton, Kgms-2 and etc…
Derived Units
2.3 Symbols and notation
 2.4 Equation and numbering
• It is important to have a right concept to write an equation. For
an example:
• Y=MX + C
• Where M and C are the constants. X and Y are the variables.
• X is always refers as the input/ changes to the system. (Always
put at the right side of
• the equation.)
• Whereas,
• Y is always refers as the result/effect that cause by the
changing of the X. (Always
• put at the left side of the equation and also always as a single
term)
 2.5 Dimension analysis
• It is necessary condition for correctness that
every equation be balanced dimensionally.
• For example:
• Newton, F(N) = mass M(kg) X acceleration
LT-2 (ms-2) = [M][L T-2]
• = [MLT-2]
• Unit for force = N = kg ms-2