Marinella d matic Meiosis ( i/ma o s s/) is a special type of cell division necessary for sexual reproduction.

The cells produced by meiosis are gametes or spores. The animals' gametes are called sperm and egg cells. Whilst the process of meiosis bears a number of similarities with the 'life-cycle' cell division process of mitosis, it differs in two important respects: the chromosomes in meiosis undergo a recombination which shuffles the genes producing a different genetic combination in each gamete, compared with the co-existence of each of the two separate pairs of each chromosome (one received from each parent) in each cell which results from mitosis. the outcome of meiosis is four (genetically unique) haploid cells, compared with the two (genetically identical) diploid cells produced from mitosis. Meiosis begins with one diploid cell containing two copies of each chromosome one from the organism's mother and one from its father and produces four haploid cells containing one copy of each chromosome. Each of the resulting chromosomes in the gamete cells is a unique mixture of maternal and paternal DNA, ensuring that offspring are genetically distinct from either parent. This gives rise to genetic diversity in sexually reproducing populations, which provides the variation of physical and behavioural attributes (phenotypes) upon which natural selection acts. Prior to the meiosis process the cell's chromosomes are duplicated by a round of DNA replication, creating from the maternal and paternal versions of each chromosome (homologs) two exact copies, sister chromatids, attached at the centromere region. In the beginning of meiosis the maternal and paternal homologs pair to each other. Then they typically exchange parts by homologous recombination leading to crossovers of DNA between the maternal and paternal versions of the chromosome. Spindle fibers bind to the centromeres of each pair of homologs and arrange the pairs at the spindle equator. Then the fibers pull the recombined homologs to opposite poles of the cell. As the chromosomes move away from the center the cell divides into two daughter cells, each containing a haploid number of chromosomes composed of two chromatids. After the recombined maternal and paternal homologs have separated into the two daughter cells, a second round of cell division occurs. There meiosis ends as the two sister chromatids making up each homolog are separated and move into one of the four resulting gamete cells. Upon fertilization, for example when a sperm enters an egg cell, two gamete cells produced by meiosis fuse. The gamete from the mother and the gamete from the father each contribute one half of the set of chromosomes that make up the new offspring's genome. Meiosis uses many of the same mechanisms as mitosis, a type of cell division used by eukaryotes like plants and animals to split one cell into two identical daughter cells. In all plants and in many protists meiosis results in the formation of spores: haploid cells that can divide vegetatively without undergoing fertilization. Some eukaryotes, like Bdelloid rotifers, have lost the ability to carry out meiosis and have acquired the ability to reproduce by parthenogenesis. Meiosis does not occur in archaea or bacteria, which reproduce via asexual processes such as binary fission. Fertilisation (also known as conception, fecundation and syngamy) is the fusion of gametes to produce a new organism. In animals, the process involves the fusion of an ovum with a sperm, which eventually leads to the development of an embryo. Depending on the animal species, the process can occur within the body of the female

in internal fertilisation, or outside (external fertilisation). The entire process of development of new individuals is called reproduction. conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells by direct cell-to-cell contact or by a bridgelike connection between two cells.[1] Discovered in 1946 by Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum,[2] conjugation is a mechanism ofhorizontal gene transfer as are transformation and transduction although these two other mechanisms do not involve cell-to-cell contact.[3] Bacterial conjugation is often regarded as the bacterial equivalent of sexual reproduction or mating since it involves the exchange of genetic material. During conjugation the donor cell provides a conjugative or mobilizable genetic element that is most often aplasmid or transposon.[4][5] Most conjugative plasmids have systems ensuring that the recipient cell does not already contain a similar element. The genetic information transferred is often beneficial to the recipient. Benefits may include antibiotic resistance, xenobiotic tolerance or the ability to use new metabolites.[6] Such beneficial plasmids may be considered bacterial endosymbionts. Other elements, however, may be viewed as bacterial parasites and conjugation as a mechanism evolved by them to allow for their spread. Why is meiosis necessary to sexual reproduction? each cell has two copies of each chromosome and is hence a diploid. during meiosis, the cell divides into two with each of the new cell having only one copy of each chromosome making them into haploids. a haploid cell from each parent (sperm and ova) will then fuse (fertilization) to give a diploid cell which then proceeds to form a whole new organism.

1) meiosis allows the child to have the genes of both the parents, without meiosis further generations would only be copies of either one of the parents which means that no new organisms will be formed and we would only have copies. this means no variety. moreover, mating would not be important and therefore animals would cease to mate (kindly remember that intercourse is made pleasurable only so that animals mate to reproduce) 2)if there are going to be only copies of a certain genetic strain then a disaster (drought, cold, heat, infection etc) would wipe out the whole species. the sole reason that there are still a huge varity of living beings is because some strains are better equipt to survive than others and they are eventually selected by such disasters to proceed with life. 3) the process of evolution takes place because of meiosis. 4) during meiosis, crossing over takes place wherein the sister chromatids exchange genetic information before they are seperated, which means even though u and ur brother may carry the same set of chromosomes from both ur parents (very very rare), there will still be subtle differences between u. 5)moreover, it is all the chromosomes in one set do not move together i.e. ur mother has one set of chromosomes from her father and one set from her mother. when her cells undergo meiosis u dont receive a whole set from either ur grandparents, the set u receive from ur mother has randomly some of ur grandmothers and some of ur grandfather's chromosomes. Stages of Meiosis with a Description

Though meiosis is invisible to the naked eye, human life -- and that of all organisms that sexually reproduce -depends upon it. Meiosis is the process by which a diploid cell divides into four "daughter" cells. Meiosis creates more egg and sperm cells and actually involves two separate divisions but only one replication of cell DNA. 1. Prophase I o In prophase 1, homologous chromosomes beginning crossing over while the DNA tightly coils.

Metaphase I o In metaphase 1, the microtubules assemble into a spindle and the nuclear membrane disappears. Pairs of homologous chromosomes (or "homologues") attach themselves to opposite polar microtubules and then align themselves on the metaphase plate. Anaphase I o During anaphase 1, the microtubules are reduced in length, causing the chromosome pairs to be pulled toward the poles, dragging sister chromatids with them. At this point, each pole has a full set of haploid chromosomes. Telophase I o In telophase 1, the nuclear membrane, which previously disappears, re-forms around the daughter nuclei. At this point, there are two sister chromatids per chromosome in each daughter nucleus. Meiosis 2 o During meiosis 2, the cell prepares to divide. A new spindle develops as the nuclear membrane degrades. The sister chromatids reorient themselves toward opposite poles. Then nuclear envelopes grow around the daughter chromosome pairs. As nuclear envelopes take shape around the daughter chromosomes, their shape as four distinct cells begins to emerge. The diploid then splits, forming four cells.