CHAPTER 8 OSCILLATORS Positive Feedback Objectives To determine the conditions necessary for oscillation.

. To design and test sine and square wave oscillators. Discussion Switching from negative to positive feedback requires only a tiny change in circuit configuration but results in a huge change in operation. For example, if our body temperature regulation mechanism changed from the stabilizing effects of negative feedback to the runaway effects of positive feedback, we would quickly succumb to a rapidly decreasing or increasing body temperature. When positive feedback is combined with negative feedback, the result is often oscillation. Specifically, three conditions are necessary for oscillation. 1. Closed-loop gain >=1. 2. Positive feedback (loop phase shift = 3600). 3. Initial spark (noise) The two major classifications of oscillators are sine and square. Within each category are numerous varieties and types. This chapter will highlight several popular oscillator configurations.

SIMULATION PRACTICE Sine wave oscillators Phase-shift 1. Draw the phase-shift oscillator of Figure 8.1, a good choice for low-frequency applications.

FIGURE 8.1 (The phase-shift oscillator)

2. To provide positive feedback (3600 of phase shift), the op amp supplies 1800 so each RC network must supply 600. To determine the frequency that results in a 600 phase shift, we note the following: Tan 600 = 1.73 = Xc/R where Xc = 1 / (2fC)

Using this equation, determine the predicted frequency.

1.73= 12fCR f= 121.731000(0.47uF) f=195.74 Hz

3. Run PSpice and display the output waveform from 0 to 100ms.

(a) Record below the experimental frequency of oscillation: Frequency Oscillation = ________ (b) Is the above frequency of oscillation approximately equal (within 50%) to the calculated value of step 2? Yes No

(c) Why does the amplitude increase during the early cycles?

It is easiest to think of a cycle as the movement from a position of stable equilibrium to one of maximum displacement, or the furthest possible point from stable equilibrium. Because stable equilibrium is directly in the middle of a cycle, there are two points of maximum displacement. (d) What limits the steady-state amplitude? The amplitude of a cycle is the maximum displacement of particles during a single period of oscillation, and the greater the amplitude, the greater the energy of the oscillation. When an object reaches maximum displacement, it reverses direction, and, therefore, it comes to a stop for an instant of time. Thus, the speed of movement is slowest at that position, and fastest as it passes back through the position of stable equilibrium. An increase in amplitude brings with it an increase in speed, but this does not lead to a change in the period: the greater the amplitude, the further the oscillating object has to move, and, therefore, it takes just as long to complete a cycle.

1. Referring to the figure 8.1, display the waveforms at points 1, 2, and 3. (Be sure to label the wire segments 1, 2, and 3 as shown.)

(a) Do the waveforms show the 600 phase shift? (Suggestion: Shift the X-axis to the 100ms-150ms range.) Yes No

(b) Does the amplitude drop as we move from point 1 to point 3? Yes No

1. Using Fourier analysis (Plot, X-axis Settings, Fourier), generate the frequency spectrum of Figure 8.2.

(a) Is there a dominant fundamental frequency?

Yes No (b) Does the fundamental frequency approximately equal to the time-domain frequency measured is step 3? Yes No

Colpitts 1. Draw the Colpitts oscillator of Figure 8.3, a good choice for higher (radio) frequencies.

FIGURE 8.3 (The Colpitts oscillator)

2. Using the equation below, determine the frequency of the tank circuit which sets the oscillation frequency. F= 12 (L x Ct)1/2 where Ct = CT1 X CT2CT1+CT2

CT= 0.1u(0.01u)0.11u = 9.1x10-9 F= 12(10u+CT) F = 158.04

3. However, when we display the output waveform (from 0 to 10s), there is no signal! The problem is one of insufficient spark. One solution is to pre-charge one of the tank capacitors.

Waveform form 0 to 10uS

Using either CT1 or CT2, initialize either capacitor with a small voltage (such as 1V)

4. Again, display the output waveform from 0 to 10s. This time, the signal exists-but clearly, it has not reached steady-state conditions by 10s. Using the No-Print Delay option, display the waveform from 200 to 210s. (See PSpice Note 3.1 from Volume 1.)

Output Waveform from 200 to 210 uS 5. Measure the resonant frequency and compare to the calculated value of Step 7. Are they similar? fR (PSpice) = ________

6. Add a plot of Vf (the feedback signal shown on Figure 8.2). Is Vf 1800 out of phase with Vout? Yes No

7. Generate a frequency spectrum for the Colpitts oscillator (similar to Figure 8.2 for the phase-shift oscillator). (a) Is there a DC Component? (Does the time-domain signal show a DC component?) Yes No

(b) Is there less distortion (a sharper fundamental frequency with fewer harmonics) than with the phase-shift oscillator? Yes No

(c) Does the fundamental frequency approximately equal to the time-domain frequency measured in step 10? Yes No

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. What are the three conditions necessary for oscillation? a. You must have a feedback loop. b. The loop gain must be greater than unity (1). c. There must be 180 degrees or more phase shift from input to the output. 1. During what period of oscillator operation in the closed-loop gain greater than one? (Hint: how does the signal initially build up?) The reason: the amplifier will oscillate if the fed-back output signal is in phase with the input signal at the frequency at which its open loop voltage gain equals its closed loop voltage gain and the open loop voltage gain is one or greater. The oscillation will occur because the fed-back output signal will then reinforce the input signal at that frequency. 2. For a real-world oscillator, what serves as the spark? My research shows that one of the sources of spark in an oscillator is the spark transmitter. Almost everyone has heard the effect of switching a light on or off when a radio is in the room; the spark in the switch causes RF radiation which the radio picks up. The spark transmitter did the same thing, though with a modicum of tuning. The spark transmitter is very simple, but it generated a large number of technical problems mostly due to very large induced e.m.f.s when the spark struck, which caused breakdown of the insulation in the primary transformer.

3. For the Colpitts oscillator of Figure 8.3, explain how the loop phase-shift is 3600. The configuration of the transistor amplifier is of a Common Emitter Amplifier with the output signal 180o out of phase with regards to the input signal. The additional 180o phase shift require for oscillation is achieved by the fact that the two capacitors are connected together in series but in parallel with the inductive coil resulting in overall phase shift of the circuit being zero or 360o. Resistors, R1 and R2provide the usual stabilizing DC bias for the transistor in the normal manner while the capacitor acts as a DC-blocking capacitors. The radiofrequency choke (RFC) is used to provide a high reactance (ideally open circuit) at the frequency of oscillation, ( r ) and a low resistance at DC.