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SAE 2003-32-0045
JSAE 20034345
A Hybrid Transmission for SAE
Mini Baja Vehicles
Mark Allen and Robert LeMaster
University of Tennessee at Martin
2003 SAE/JSAE Small Engine Technology
Conference & Exhibition
Madison, Wisconsin, USA
September 15-18, 2003
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Printed in USA
2003-32-0045 / 20034345
A Hybrid Transmission for SAE Mini Baja Vehicles
Mark Allen and Robert LeMaster
University of Tennessee at Martin
ABSTRACT
This paper describes a hybrid
transmission consisting of a Salsbury style
rubber belt continuously variable
transmission (CVT) and a two-speed
manual transmission. Rubber belt CVT
transmissions are used extensively in the
Mini Baja competitions. Although widely
used, rubber belt CVTs have a limited
torque ratio range, and teams must reach
a balance between top speed and pulling
or hill climbing capability. The hybrid
transmission described in this paper
provides a wider range of torque ratios by
combining a CVT with a two-speed
manual transmission. Included is a
description of the major components, a
derivation of the equations used to model
the primary pulley in a simulation used to
select the desired gear ratios, and a
summary of performance characteristics
obtained from testing.


INTRODUCTION

Commercially available rubber belt CVT
transmissions are attractive to student
design teams because they provide
inexpensive automatic transmissions
(press on the gas and go) and are easily
integrated with the 10hp Briggs and
Stratton engines used in the competitions.

One of the critical design parameters for a
Mini Baja vehicle is the gear ratio
between the CVT output shaft and the
drive axle. A CVT can provide a
continuously variable torque ratio ranging
from approximately 3.7:1 to 0.7:1,
depending on the particular CVT being
used. The 0.7:1 ratio is realized only if
the torque on the secondary pulley output
shaft is small enough to allow the CVT
secondary pulley to reach its maximum
expansion. The torque at which maximum
expansion occurs can be controlled to some
extent by the selection of the torsion-
compression spring found in the secondary
pulley. In general, a set of fixed ratio
gearing, chain drives, or belt pulleys is
used between the CVT secondary pulley
output shaft and the drive axle. The
torque ratio for the system is chosen to
achieve the best mix between top-end
speed and low-end torque.

DRIVE TRAIN

A schematic of the drive train in the UT
Martin vehicle is shown in Figure 1. The
drive train consists of the engine, CVT,
two-speed manual transmission, belt
drive, reversing gears, and a differential.

The rear differential (item 5 in Figure 1)
was designed to be the front differential of
a Yamaha Grizzly 600 ATV. Because this
differential was part of a 4-wheel drive
system, it can be operated in either a
Copyright 2003 SAE International and Copyright 2003 Society of Automotive Engineers of Japan, Inc.
limited slip or full-lock configuration.
This differential provides several
advantages over the straight axles
commonly found in Mini Baja vehicles.
First, the limited slip mode enables a
tighter turning radius because it
accommodates a differential tire speed
between the tires on the inside and
outside of the turn. It also makes the car
more stable and less prone to roll in the
high speed turns encountered in the
maneuverability competition. Second, the
full-lock configuration significantly
increases the traction in muddy or
slippery conditions.


Figure 1. Drive train schematic.

An electrically driven actuator is used in a
Yamaha Grizzly to switch between the
limited slip and full-lock configurations.
This electrical actuator was replaced with
a manually operated cable in the UT
Martin vehicle.

The packaging of the drive train required
orienting the engine with its output shaft
facing the rear of the engine. This
resulted in the drive shaft having a
direction of rotation opposite of that
needed. This was corrected by a
reversing gear box (item 4 in Figure 1).
This gear box has a 1:1 torque ratio, and
has its output shaft feeding directly into
the differential. Figure 2 shows a CAD
representation of the reversing gear box.
Both the differential and the reversing
gear box are below the waterline when
the vehicle is in the water. The reversing
gear box housing and bearing caps have
o-ring seals, and the shafts are equipped
with shaft seals to keep the lubricants in
and the water out.



Figure 2. CAD representation of reversing
gear box with front housing cover
removed.

A cogged timing belt and pulley
combination (item 3 in Figure 1) is used to
transmit power from the output shaft of
the transmission to the input shaft of the
reversing gear box. The transmission
and engine are located above the
differential and reversing gear box and
are above the waterline. A cogged belt is
required to keep the belt from slipping
when the lower pulley gets wet.

HYBRID TRANSMISSION

The hybrid transmission contains a rubber
belt CVT and a two-speed manual
transmission (items 1 and 2 in Figure 1).
The CVT is a Model 780 Automatic Torque
Converter manufactured by Comet
Industries. It contains a primary pulley
(driver) and a secondary pulley (driven).
The primary pulley is connected to the
engine output shaft, and the output shaft
of the secondary pulley is connected to the
input shaft of the manual transmission.

The CVT serves two purposes. First, it
acts as a torque converter that allows the
operator to simply press on the gas and go
in either low or high gear. Second, it acts
as a clutch to disengage the engine from
the manual transmission during shifting.

The CVT and other drive train
components were selected to achieve a top
speed in the vicinity of 35 mph. Once
torque/velocity ratios needed to meet the
top speed requirement were identified, the
low gear ratio on the manual transmission
was selected to yield a 20 mph top speed
in low gear. Based on the results of a
computer simulation discussed in later
sections, a low gear ratio of 1.7:1 was
chosen.

MANUAL TRANSMISSION

The primary objective of connecting a
manual transmission in series with the
CVT is to obtain a wider range of torque
and velocity ratios. The variety of events
included in the Mini Baja competitions
requires that an overall best drive train
torque/velocity ratio be used. A vehicle
designed for top speed alone will perform
poorly in the pulling event and will have
difficulty climbing hills. Conversely, a
vehicle designed to do well in the
pulling/climbing events will sacrifice top
speed. The most successful Mini Baja
teams are those that have found the
optimal drive train torque/velocity ratios
based on several years of competition.

The manual transmission is based on
automotive transmissions that contain
continuously meshing gears and is shifted
by sliding a dog eared shifter along a
splined shaft. The gearing and shifter are
shown in Figure 3.

Gear 4 is integral to the input shaft and
Gears 2 and 3 are integral to the lay shaft.
Gear 1 is free to rotate around the output
shaft.

In high gear (1:1) the shifter dog ears are
engaged with dog ears on Gear 4. Torque
is applied to the input shaft, and is
transmitted through the dog ear interface
to the involute spline connecting the
shifter and output shaft. In low gear,
(1.7:1) the shifter dog ears are engaged
with the dog ears on Gear 1. Torque is
applied to the input shaft, and is
transmitted through the lay shaft
containing Gears 2 and 3, through the dog
ear interface between the shifter and Gear
1, and through the shifter to the output
shaft via the spline.



Figure 3. CAD representation of the
manual transmission gearing

All gears are full depth involute spur
gears having a 20
o
pressure angle and a
diametral pitch of 8. All gears and
shafting are made from 8620 steel which
was carburized after machining operations
were complete. The gearing was designed
in accordance with the American Gear
Manufacturers Association design criteria.
The I-DEAS Software was used to model
and create detailed drawings of all
components. In addition to analyzing the
gear strength based on the AGMA
methods, a finite element analysis was
performed to verify that the gear teeth
had sufficient strength.

The shift mechanism is shown in Figure 4.
The pivot passes through the transmission
housing, and the polymer bearing serves
as an anti-friction interface between the
housing and the pivot. The inner shift
link is slotted to accommodate the
translation of the shift fork along the
guide rod as the mechanism is rotated
about the pivot. The shift mechanism can
also be seen along with the gearing in
Figure 5.


Figure 4. CAD representation of shift
mechanism



Figure 5. Interior view of transmission
showing gears and shift mechanism.

The transmission housing is made from
aluminum and was carved from two large
blocks using a CNC machining center.
Although drawings for the housings were
made, the CAD solid model geometry
information was used to generate tool
paths during the machining process.
Figure 6 shows an external view of the
overall assembly complete with housings
and bearing caps. Figure 7 shows the
engine coupled to the hybrid transmission
consisting of the CVT and manual
transmission. Figure 8 shows all of the
parts in the transmission.



Figure 6. Overall view of transmission
assembly




Figure 7. CAD representation of engine
and hybrid transmission assembly



Figure 8. Picture showing all of the parts
in the manual transmission.


TOP SPEED SIMULATION

Based on analyses of past Mini Baja
competitions, it was decided that a top
speed of 20 mph in low gear was desirable.
Since the CVT pulley ratio is sensitive to
both engine speed and torque,
determining the low gear torque/velocity
ratio is not straightforward. Therefore, a
mathematical model of the vehicle and
drive train was developed to aid in the
selection of the low gear ratio.

The mathematical model was used to
compute the engine torque required to
overcome the aerodynamic drag, rolling
resistance, and inclined weight forces
acting on the vehicle as a function of
vehicle velocity. The required torque was
then compared to the engine torque curve.
Top speed is associated with the point
where the two curves cross.

Figure 9 shows an example plot obtained
from the simulation. The top curve relates
resistive torque and engine torque to
engine speed. The lower curve relates
engine speed to vehicle speed. In the
example shown, a top speed of 37 mph is
predicted. However, since the governors
on Mini Baja vehicles are set to 3600 rpm,
a top speed of only 31 mph is expected.


Figure 9. Example of plot created by the
simulation

The equations that describe the CVT
pulley ratio as a function of engine speed
and torque are quite complex.
Mathematical models for the secondary
pulley can be found in the literature and
are based on the work of Worley [1].
Mathematical models of several primary
pulleys are also contained in the literature
[2-3]. However, a model of the primary
pulley used in the UT Martin vehicle was
not found. Therefore, it was necessary to
develop these equations from first
principles. The following section contains
a derivation of the primary pulley
equations used in the top speed
simulation.

PRIMARY PULLEY EQUATIONS

Figure 10 shows the cross section of the
primary pulley. This figure shows only
one of three flyweights located at 120
degree intervals around the axis of
rotation. As the primary pulley rotates,
the centrifugal force acting at the center of
mass of the flyweight causes the flyweight
follower to press against the dome. The
dome serves as a constraining surface
which the follower follows as the engine
speed is increased. As the flyweight
follower moves along the domes inside
surface, its center of rotation moves
axially and causes the moveable portion of
the primary pulley to press against the
side of the belt. The force exerted on the
moveable portion of the pulley interacts
with the belt force from the secondary
pulley and causes the belt to seek a
position of equilibrium between the
primary and secondary pulley belt side
forces.


Figure 10. Cross section of the primary
pulley showing one of three flyweights

Lagranges equation is used to aid in the
development of the equations governing
the forces and motion of the primary
pulley. Lagranges equation for
constrained motion may be written as


i
i i
d L L
Q
dt q q
| | c c
=
|
c c
\ .

(1.1)


Where
j j
L T C V = + is the
Lagrangian augmented to accommodate j
constraint equations,
j
are Lagrangian
multipliers associated with constraint
equations
j
C , T is the kinetic energy, V is
the potential energy,
i
q are i generalized
coordinates used to describe the geometry
of the system, and
i
Q are generalized
forces associated with each of the
generalized coordinates. In the analysis
under consideration, only the steady-state
solution is desired, and all derivatives in
Eq. 1 associated with time, t, are equal to
zero. The steady state form of Eq. 1 is


i
i
L
Q
q
c
=
c
(1.2)

Table 1 summarizes the three generalized
coordinates used to describe the motion
and geometry of one of the primary pulley
flyweights.

Table 1. Generalized Coordinates
Generalized
Coordinate
Description
x x-coordinate of the
follower center point
y
y-coordinate of the
follower center point
r
x
x-coordinate of the
flyweight pivot point

Constraint C1 requires that the distance
between the flyweight follower center
point and the flyweight pivot point remain
constant. Mathematically this constraint
may be written in terms of the generalized
coordinates as

( ) ( )
2 2
2
1
0
r r r
C x x y y r = + = (1.3)

where x , y , and
r
x are generalized
coordinates,
r
y is the y-coordinate of the
flyweight pivot point, a constant, and
r
r is
the distance between the follower center
point and the flyweight pivot point.

The second constraint equation requires
that the center point on the follower stay
in contact with the inner surface of the
dome. The contact portion of the dome is
hemispherical in shape, and the center of
the follower follows a circular arc offset
from the dome surface. Mathematically,
this constraint may be written in terms of
the generalized coordinates as

( ) ( )
2 2
2
2
0.
d d d
C x x y y r = + = (1.4)

Where x and y are generalized
coordinates, and
d
x and
d
y are the
coordinates of the center point of the arc
offset from the dome surface.

The kinetic energy is given by the
equation

( )
2 1
3 .
2
cm
T m y e = (1.5)

Where
cm
y is the y-coordinate of the
flyweight center of mass, m is the
flyweight mass, e is the angular velocity
of the engine, and the number three takes
into account that there are three
flyweights. Since most of the weight in
the flyweight is due to weights located at
the follower, the y-coordinate of the
flyweight center of mass is approximated
by the y-coordinate of the center point of
the follower. Using this simplification, the
kinetic energy may be written as

( )
2 1
3 .
2
T m ye = (1.6)

The potential energy is given by the
equation

( )
2
0
1
3 .
2
T
V K mgy u u
| |
= + +
|
\ .
(1.7)

Where
T
K is the stiffness of the
torsional springs located at the pivot point
of each flyweight, u is the angular
rotation of the flyweight, and
0
u is the
initial angular rotation required to obtain
the preload in the torsional spring. In a
manner similar to that used in the kinetic
energy equation, the y-coordinate of the
center of mass is approximated by the y-
coordinate of the concentrated masses
located at the follower. In the current
study, the torsional spring preload was
measured, and the value of
0
u was
computed. The three takes into account
that there are three flyweights.

An expression relating u and the
generalized coordinates is needed so that
the potential energy can be written in
terms of the generalized coordinates.
Figure 11 shows a flyweight in its initial
and a rotated position. In the initial
position, a vector
0
R
G
can be defined that
relates the initial follower coordinates
0 0
, x y to the initial flyweight center of
rotation coordinates
0 0
,
r r
x y . Another
vector R
G
can be defined that relates the
follower coordinates , x y to the flyweight
center of rotation coordinates ,
r r
x y for an
arbitrary engine speed. The cross-product
of R
G
and
0
R
G
can be used to obtain the
following expression relating u and the
generalized coordinates , x y and
r
x .


1
cos u u

= (1.8)

where


( )( ) ( )( )
0
0 0
2
- -
.
o o
r r r r
r
x x x x y y y y
u
r
+
=
(1.9)

In this equation,
0 0
, x y ,
0 0
,
r r
x y ,
r
y , and
r
r
are constants. The derivative of u with
respect to the generalized
coordinates x , y , and
r
r are required to
evaluate Eq. 2. This is facilitated by
approximating Eq. 9 using the polynomial
equation


4 3 2
12.85 29.10 24.0729
7.3556 0.5467
u u u
u
u ~ +
+
(1.10)

This equation provides a very good
approximation foru over the range of u
under consideration and greatly simplifies
the mathematical complexity.

The only non-zero generalized force is the
belt side load,
p
f . This force is associated
with the
r
x generalized coordinate, and
resists the translation of the flyweight
pivot point in the x-direction. The
magnitude of this force compared to the
belt side force on the secondary pulley
controls the position of the belt on the
pulleys.

At this point, all terms needed to develop
the primary pulley equations via the
steady-state Lagranges equation are
known. The application of Lagranges
equation provides five equations with five
unknowns. The unknowns are the three
generalized coordinates and the two
Lagrangian multipliers. The Lagrangian
multipliers are the forces needed to
enforce the two constraint equations. A
summary of the governing primary pulley
equations are found in the Appendix.

The equations governing the primary
pulley, secondary pulley, and resistive
forces acting on the vehicle are all a
function of engine/vehicle speed, and are
very nonlinear. The equations were
solved using an incremental Newton-
Raphson scheme implemented in
MATLAB.


Figure 11. Position vectors used to
determine the rotation angle of the
flyweight.


PERFORMANCE

The vehicles top speed in the high gear
ratio (1:1) was measured during testing to
be 35 mph, which met the design goal.
Testing showed that a higher belt pulley
(item 3 in Figure 1) torque ratio than
predicted by the simulation was required
to achieve the desired top speed. There
are many parameters that affect the top
speed. These include rolling resistance,
aerodynamic drag, drive train losses, etc.
One of the parameters that had a
significant impact on top speed during
testing was tire inflation, which
contributes significantly to rolling
resistance. The higher pulley torque ratio
also resulted in better acceleration, which
is desirable.

The top speed of the vehicle in the low
gear ratio (1:1.7) was measured to be 20
mph, which also met the design goal.

CONCLUSION

A hybrid transmission for Mini Baja
vehicles has been presented that includes
a CVT in series with a two-speed manual
transmission. This transmission provided
a significantly wider range of torque ratios
than possible with a CVT alone.

The simulation used to estimate the top
speed of the vehicle proved invaluable
during the design of the transmission. Its
development also enabled a deeper insight
into the workings of the CVT. The
simulation is capable of estimating only
the top speed of the vehicle. A transient
version of the program would have been
desirable, since it would have enabled
performance over a wider range of
scenarios to be investigated. The
equations used to model the primary
pulley in the CVT are presented. These
equations, coupled with those for the
secondary pulley which can be found in
the literature, are highly non-linear and
are difficult to solve. An incremental
Newton-Raphson algorithm was used in
the MATLAB program to solve the
governing equations.

The use of a CVT in series with a two-
speed manual transmission offers several
advantages over a CVT or manual
transmission used separately. First, the
hybrid transmission enables the vehicle to
be started from stop using either gear. It
does not have to start in low gear to
achieve high gear as would be the case for
a purely manual transmission. The
hybrid transmission can also be shifted
from one gear to the other by using the
CVT as a clutch to disengage the engine
from the manual transmission input shaft.
The hybrid transmission also provides a
much wider range of torque/velocity ratios
than can be obtained from either a pure
CVT or manual transmission.

A drawback to the hybrid transmission is
the additional mass of the manual
transmission. In the Mini Baja East
competition not only must the additional
weight be accelerated and carried up hills,
it must be floated as well.






ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to express
appreciation to B&R Machine and Gear
Corporation, Sharon, TN, for fabricating
the shafts and gearing used in both the
reversing gear box and the manual
transmission; DANA Corporation, Paris,
TN, for fabricating the reversing gear box
housing; and MTD Products, Inc., Martin,
TN, for fabricating the manual
transmission housing. The hardware
described in this paper could not have
been fabricated without their assistance.


REFERENCES

1. Worley, W.S., Designing Adjustable-
Speed V-belt Drives for Farm
Implements, SAE Transactions, 63,
1955, 321-333.
2. DeVilbiss, B.L., Mathematical Modeling
of a Rubber V-Belt Continuously
Variable Transmission, M.S. Thesis,
University of Cincinnati, 1997.
3. Sheu, K.B., et al, New Automatic
Hybrid Transmissions for Motorcycles,
Proc. Natl. Sci. Counc. ROC(A), Vol.
23, No. 6, 1999, pp. 716-727.
APPENDIX

Summary of Primary Pulley Steady State
Equations

First Equation















Second Equation
















Third Equation
















Fourth Equation

( ) ( )
1
2 2
2
1
0
0
r r r
L
C x x y y r

c
=
c
= + =


Fifth Equation

( ) ( )
2
2 2
2
2
0
- - - 0
d d d
L
C x x y y r

c
=
c
= + =

( )
( )
( )
1 2
1 2 0
1
2
2
0
3 3
2
2
o
T
r
d
o r
r
L
y
C C u
my K mg
y y u y
C
y y
y
C
y y
x
y y
u
x r
u
e u u
c
=
c
c c c c
+ + + =
c c c c
c
=
c
c
=
c

c
=
c
( )
( )
( )
1 2
1 2 0
1
2
2
0
3 0
2
2
o
T
r
d
o r
r
L
x
C C u
K
x x u x
C
x x
x
C
x x
x
x x
u
x r
u
u u
c
=
c
c c c c
+ + =
c c c c
c
=
c
c
=
c

c
=
c
( )
( )
( )
1 2
1 2 0
1
2
2
0
3
2
2
0
o
r
T p
r r r
r
r
r
o r
r r
L
x
C C u
K f
x x u x
C
x x
x
C
x
x x
u
x r
u
u u
c
=
c
c c c c
+ + =
c c c c
c
=
c
c
=
c

c
=
c