ISSN 0030 400X, Optics and Spectroscopy, 2010, Vol. 108, No. 3, pp. 425432. Pleiades Publishing, Ltd.

., 2010. Original Russian Text D.S. Mogilevtsev, A.S. Maloshtan, A.A. Ignatenko, S.Ya. Kilin, 2010, published in Optika i Spektroskopiya, 2010, Vol. 108, No. 3, pp. 460467.

SINGLE PHOTON SOURCES

Efficient Single Photon Generator Based on Entanglement between the Emitter and Field in a Photonic Crystal near the Band Edge
D. S. Mogilevtsev, A. S. Maloshtan, A. A. Ignatenko, and S. Ya. Kilin
Stepanov Institute of Physics, National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Minsk, 220072 Belarus e mail: maloshtan@tut.by
Received August 3, 2009

AbstractThe possibility of using the long lived entangled state between the emitter and field near the band edge of the density of states of a photonic crystal to create an efficient generator of single photons is consid ered. The generator can be efficiently excited by incoherent pumping, excludes simultaneous generation of two photons, and ensures a high probability of extracting the photon into a specified mode. DOI: 10.1134/S0030400X10030173

INTRODUCTION Current problems of quantum informatics and communication require efficient and controllable sources of single photons that are capable of generat ing photons with stable characteristics and can operate on demand. The existing proposals on implementing single photon sources assume the use of single emit ters (atoms, molecules, quantum dots, localized defects in semiconductors, color centers in solid state structures, etc.) or their ensembles in a structured environment; the transformation of certain quantum states of light, e.g., the attenuation of coherent states; the application of parametric nonlinear processes (such as light frequency down conversion; and the involvement of the conditional generation of single photon states from multimode states based on mea surement results of certain modes [1]. Photonic crystals present wide possibilities for cre ating single photon generators. In particular, photo nic crystals make it possible to collect emitted radia tion into a selected mode and to considerably reduce the rate of spontaneous decay of the emitter [24]. However, there no attempts have been made to cre ate a single photon generator using another nontrivial property of a photonic crystal, namely, strong coupling between the emitter and the field in the case where the transition frequency of the emitter is near the band edge of the density of photon states of the crystal. It has long been known that the spontaneous decay of an emitter whose transition frequency is near the band edge is subjected to freezing; i.e., after a certain initial period of decay, the population of the excited state reaches a stationary nonzero value [58]. This freez ing or potential decay is a consequence of correlations that arise between the emitter and field modes of the reservoir at frequencies near the band edge. Due to the

occurrence of the band, as the emitter interacts with the field, a part of the emitted radiation is localized in a spatial region close to the emitter (i.e., at a distance on the order of several lattice unit cells of the photonic crystal). Therefore, the microcavity that is created in this case does not have any spatial defect and localizes the radiation [9]. For a two level quantum emitter, this cavity is, in fact, single mode. The mode structure of the reservoir (i.e., the band in the spectrum of the den sity of states) is such that a superposition of modes whose frequencies are near the band edge and that strongly interacts with the emitter is separated [9]. This superposition can be considered a single collec tive field mode. The other modes weakly interact with the emitter and can be considered as a Markovian res ervoir [10]. The interaction of this collective mode with the emitter leads to the formation of a bound radiationfield (BRF) state. This state is rather stable with respect to losses (inhomogeneities and finite size of the photonic crystal, nonzero value of the density of states, absorption of the material, etc.) if the rate of losses is smaller than the reciprocal time of formation of the BRF state [11]. In this work, we will demonstrate that, based on the BRF state in a photonic crystal, an efficient and con trollable single photon source can be created, which can largely exceed the existing single photon genera tors based on single isolated quantum emitters. Two distinctive features make the BRF state a promising candidate for this role. First, in the absence of external excitation, the BRF state of a two level emitter can contain no more than one photon (in contrast to reso nator schemes [1]). Second, the BRF state can be effi ciently excited, by not only coherent [9], but also incoherent pumping, which makes it possible to obvi

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MOGILEVTSEV et al.

Incoherent pumping

Emitter

The proposed generator operates as follows. Ini tially, an emitter inside a photonic crystal is excited by incoherent radiation whose spectrum is near the band edge. The generator should be pumped within the time period sufficient to attain thermal equilibrium between the emitter and reservoir (we note that, as will be seen below, deviations from the thermal equilib rium can nevertheless be rather significant, which is important for increasing the operation rate of the pro posed generator. Then, as the pumping is switched off, the system is relaxed to a state that is a mixture of an ideal BRF state and a vacuum. It is important to note that, by selecting the frequency of the emitter (or the structure of the photonic crystal), it is possible to achieve the excitation of the ideal BRF state with a probability close to unity. As soon as the BRF state is excited, it is necessary to adiabatically change the waveguide frequency, e.g., in a way in which microcavities are dynamically tuned [13, 14], and to shift the waveguide frequency to a range close to the band edge and to the transition fre quency of the emitter. Then, the BRF state dissociates and a photon is emitted into the waveguide mode. After that, the generation procedure is repeated. It should be noted that, in this scheme, there is no neces sity for the system to return to any specific initial state because the incoherent pumping erases all informa tion on the preceding state of the system. We consider the scheme of the generator described above in greater detail. In the rotating wave approxi mation and on a base that rotates at the transition fre quency 0 of a two level emitter, the Hamiltonian that describes the interaction of the emitter with the elec tromagnetic field of a photonic crystal and with a sin gle mode waveguide is written as ( 1) Hg =

Waveguide defect

Fig. 1. Scheme of proposed single photon generator. Emitter is inside a three dimensional photonic crystal near (or even inside) an extended waveguide used for the collec tion of photons. Crystal is pumped by thermal radiation.

ate the preparation of the initial state of the emitter prior to the next excitationemission cycle. Moreover, we will demonstrate in this work that, using incoherent pumping, a nearly ideal BRF state can be obtained. Also, it is possible to achieve a nearly complete collec tion of the emitted radiation into a selected waveguide mode and to develop the scheme such that the waveguide losses would be small [12]. It should be noted that this collection is implemented by a coher ent excitation exchange between the BRF state and the waveguide mode; i.e., the degree of indistinguish ability of emitted photons can be expected to be high. MODEL The following construction of a single photon gen erator is proposed. A two level emitter is placed in a three dimensional photonic crystal spatially close to an extended single mode waveguide (Fig. 1). In this case, it is not necessary to create any cavity defect. Ini tially, the frequency of the waveguide mode is within the band and far from its edge and from the transition frequency of the emitter. It is also assumed that the rate of all losses is much lower than the formation time of the BRF state.

b
+

+ j j bj

g (
j +

bj + bj )
+

(1)

+ a a a + g a ( t ) ( a + a ), where b j , a+ and bj, a are the operators of the creation and annihilation of reservoir modes and the waveguide mode, respectively; j and a are the detunings of the reservoir modes and waveguide mode from the transi tion frequency of the two level system; = | | are + the vectors that describe the upper and lower states of the two level system; and gj and ga(t) are the interac tion constants of reservoir modes and waveguide mode (they assumed to be real). In the presence of losses, the dynamics of the sys tem is described by the following equation: d g /dt = i [ H g, g ] + L g , (2)
+

where g is the common density matrix of the system and L is the superoperator that describes the action of losses.
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EFFICIENT SINGLE PHOTON GENERATOR

2 U 0i 103

427

4 2 0 25 3 2 1 0 2 U 0i 0.010 0.005 0 4 0 4 8 30

()

35 (b)

40

12 (c)

16

20

0
2

12

Fig. 2. Examples of distributions of coefficient U 0i for different densities of states (shown in the insets). Transition frequency of two level emitter is indicated by dashed line;
2 U 00

= (a) 0.5699, (b) 0.801, and (c) 0.5759.

It is assumed that ga(t) is zero up to the moment of turning on the waveguide tuning. It is also assumed that, for the considered evolution times of the emitter, the losses of the BRF state can be neglected and only the losses of the waveguide mode are taken into account. It is convenient to consider the problem described using the method of collective operators, which makes it possible to obtain an equation that describes the emitter, the collective mode, whose state is the BRF state, and the waveguide mode for the reservoir at a nonzero temperature from the master equation (2). METHOD OF COLLECTIVE OPERATORS The idea of the method of collective operators is reduced to the formal diagonalization of Hamilto nian (1), which is quadratic in atomic (+, ) and + field ( a j , aj) operators in the absence of the waveguide part, and to its representation in the form [8] H0 =

are formed using the unitary transformation with the following matrix elements: U jl = g l U j0 j l ( at j > 0 ), gl
2 1/2 2

(4) .

U j0 = 1 +

l=1

( )
j l

For the coefficients Ujl of matrix (4), the following relations hold:

k=0

jk U lk

= jl ,

j=0

U
j 2

2 j0

= 0.

The eigenvalues j can be found from the equation j = 0 +

l=1

gl . j l

(5)

j=0

C
j

+ j Cj ,

where the collective atomfield operators C j = U j0 +

l=1

U a

jl l

(3)

Equation (5) can be solved either by diagonalizing the Hamiltonian matrix (1), directly from formula (5), for example, iteratively. Note that, since the set of eigenmodes of a real photonic crystal is (sectionally) continuous in frequency, to apply the method of col lective operators in practice, it is necessary to dis cretize the function of the density of states of the pho tonic crystal (below, we will denote this function as (), the discretization procedure was described in detail in [11]). Examples of the spectra of eigenvalues for collec tive operators are presented in Fig. 2. It is seen from

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this figure that the application of the method of collec tive operators to reservoirs with bands shows such a remarkable feature as the presence of small parameters that can be used for constructing the perturbation the ory. More exactly, one of the coefficients U0j consider ably exceeds the remaining coefficients. This property of this coefficient (we will denote it as U00) indicates that there is a part of the whole system that is described by the collective operator C0 and within which the emitter is strongly bound with the field. This property makes it possible to derive the master equation for the part of the entire system that is responsible for the for mation of the BRF state. MASTER EQUATION The use of the method of collective operators at times that exceed the formation time of the BRF state makes it possible to obtain the master equation from expression (2) for the density matrix averaged over the whole reservoir except for the collective mode, which is strongly bound to the two level system and is involved in the formation of the BRF state. The start ing point of the derivation procedure is the representa tion of collective operators (3) as a sum of the transi tion operator from the upper level of the two level sys tem to the lower level and the bosonic annihilation operator, which describes the collective mode of the reservoir, independent of the collective mode that par ticipates in the formation of the BRF state, C j = U j0 C + B j' , where the collective radiation field operator is given by C = B0 B0 = ( 1

However, since U j0 U k0 / ( 1 U 00 )
2

1,

in this case, the modes B 'j are nearly independent. The modes form a reservoir that is weakly bound with the emitter. In the absence of the interaction with the waveguide mode, this can be taken into account explicitly if Hamiltonian (1) is written as H0 =

j=1

B
j

+ j Bj

j=1

U
j +

j0 ( C

B 'j + B 'j C )

(8)

0 C C + 0 ( C C + B 0 B 0 ). Hamiltonian (8) clearly shows how to average modes over the reservoir that are not involved in the formation of the BRF state. However, the averaging procedure itself is nontrivial. For a reservoir at a non zero temperature, this averaging yields the following equation: d/dt = i [ H, ] + [ ( n + 1 )L { C } nL { C } ] + a L { a },
+

(9)

where is the decay rate into the structured reservoir, a is the rate of losses of the waveguide mode, and n is the average number of photons in reservoir modes. The superoperator L acts on the density matrix as fol lows: L { x } = ( 2xx x x x x ), where x = C, C +, and a. Note that the operator C, defined by Eq. (6), deter mines the ideal BRF state. This state has the highest possible degree of entanglement among all the states that satisfy the relation C | 0 = 0, | 0 = U 00 |+ |0 B + 1 U 00 | |1 B ,
2 + + +

U 00 1 U 00
2

, (6)

2 1/2 U 00 )

l=1

l0 a l ,

and the collective mode operators have the following form (j > 0): B j' = B j ( 1 U j0 ) Bj = ( 1
2 1/2

+ B0

U 00 U j0 1 U 00
2

, (7)

2 1/2 U j0 )

l=1

U a .
jl l +

where |n b is the n photon Fock state of the collective mode B0. Clearly, any superposition or mixture of this state with the ground state of the system, | |0 B , is also the BRF state. The unitary part of Eq. (9) is described by the Hamiltonian H = a a a ( 0 + C )C C + ( 0 + 2 C n ) + 0 B 0 B 0 + g a ( t ) ( a + a ). We note that this mode superposition is strongly entangled with the two level system at times that con siderably exceed the formation time of the BRF state [9]. For these times, any reservoir that admits the for mation of the BRF state can be described using only
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+ + + + + +

(10)

These modes obey the relation [ B j' , B 0 ] = 0. However, the modes themselves, which are described by the operators B j' , are not independent. These modes sat isfy the following commutation relations:
+ 2 [ B 'j , B 'k ] = jk U j0 U k0 / ( 1 U 00 ).

EFFICIENT SINGLE PHOTON GENERATOR () 0|(t)|0 0.4 0.2 0 4 0|()|0 1.0 0.5 0 20 10 n 0.4 0.8 U00 n 2 0 (b) 10 Dt 20

429

Fig. 3. Incoherent excitation of BRF state: (a) time projection of state of system onto an ideal frozen state and (b) asymptotic value of the projection (see (11)). The two examples correspond to a stepwise density of states and n is the average number of photons in each reservoir mode.

four parameters. The first two parameters, the detun ing C and the decay rate , are given by the expressions + i C = v C / ( + i ), = ( /v C ) ( 0 + ),
2 2

OPERATION OF THE GENERATOR: EXCITATION OF THE BRF STATE We consider the process of the excitation of the BRF state to be the first stage of operation for the pro posed scheme of a single photon generator (Fig. 3). Irrespective of the initial state of the emitter, the inter action of the emitter with an incoherently excited res ervoir during a rather long time interval [0, Toff] trans fers the system to a state close to thermal equilibrium. At the time instant Toff, the pumping is switched off. Figure 3a shows that the probability of the system is in the BRF state after the switching off of the pumping increases. This circumstance is the most significant for the efficient excitation of the BRF state. In addition, Fig. 3a shows that the probability that the system is in the BRF state after the switching off of the pumping increases with increasing pumping inten sity. This increase slows down when the pumping intensity reaches a few thermal photons in each mode of the reservoir. However, either by selecting a certain structure of the photonic crystal or by detuning the transition frequency of the emitter from the band edge, one can achieve a nearly ideal excitation of the BRF state for a small number of photons in reservoir modes (Fig. 3b). If the parameter U00 becomes small, i.e., if the greater part of the ideal BRF state belongs to reservoir modes, the BRF state can be excited with a nearly unity probability by a comparatively weak inco herent pumping. This can be demonstrated by consid ering the decay of the emitter and the collective mode

( w 0 ) ( w ) = 1 P dw , vC w 0

where is the antibunching detuning from the transi tion frequency of the emitter, and vC is the normaliza tion factor, = 1 dw ( w 0 ) ( w ), vC

vC =

dw ( w ),

P donates the principal integral value. The remaining two parameters, i.e., the coefficient U00, which determines the amplitude of the probability that the emitter is in the excited state for the ideal BRF state, and the Lamb shift 0, were described in the pre ceding section. A more detailed description of the parameters can be found in [10, 11]. Here, it is sufficient to note that, 1 and 0 0 in the contin deep in the band, U00 uous spectrum and, far from the band edge of from 0. Then, sharp changes in the density of states, U00 0 is the Lamb shift for the homogeneous medium.
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bound with it, which are in equilibrium state, into the vacuum reservoir. The decay problem is described by Eq. (9) at n = 0. Assuming, for simplicity, that 0 + C = 0, we can easily find that, to determine the prob ability of decay of the k photon state | k into the ideal BRF state, it is sufficient to estimate the projection of the ideal BRF state onto the state | k ( ) = C
k1

Assume that the interaction constant ga is so small that the time of the variation of the BRF state because of its interaction with the a mode considerably exceeds the formation time of this state. Then, the system will very rapidly decay from the level | 0 |0 a into the ground state (indeed, the decay rate in the absence of the interaction with the a mode is / 1 U 00 [10]). Assuming that the matrix elements that correspond to this state are zero, we can obtain the following system of equations from Eq. (9): d aa /dt 2 a aa ig a U 00 ( a a ), d a /dt [ i ( 0 a ) a ] a + ig a U 00 ( aa ), d /dt ig a U 00 ( a a ), where the matrix elements are xy = x| |y ; x, y = a, . Indeed, Eqs. (12) are equivalent to the equations that describe the decaying JaynesCummings equa tions. The only difference is that, instead of the two level system that interacts with the field mode, we deal with the two level system that is strongly bound with the collective mode. With respect to the interaction with the waveguide mode, this unified system behaves as a single two level system. For simplification, we assume that the reciprocal decay rate of the waveguide 1 mode, a , is much greater than the typical formation time of the BRF state and the characteristic interac tion time of the BRF state with the waveguide mode (however, the considered a is nevertheless assumed to be much greater than the rate of losses). Then, it fol lows from Eqs. (12) that the probability of there being one photon in the waveguide mode can be estimated as aa ( t ) 2g a U 00 [ 1 cos ( t ) ]/ ,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

| k/ k| ( C )

+ k1

k1

| k.

The asymptotic value of the probability of the excita tion of the BRF state is given by the expression 0| ( ) | 0 = n + 2 n + 1 n ( 1 2 n + 1
k 2 2 ( U 00 2 U 00 )

(12)

k=0

( 1 + n )

n ( 1 U 00 )
k+1

+ k (1

2 U 00 ) )

(11)

2 2 U 00 2 k 1 U 00 , 2 1 U 00

where n is the average number of photons in reservoir modes prior to switching off the pumping. Results obtained with this expression are shown in Fig. 3b. It follows from this figure that, at small U00, the BRF state can be excited with a probability close to unity by a comparatively weak incoherent pumping that corre sponds to only a few photons per mode. OPERATION OF THE GENERATOR: EMISSION OF A PHOTON Now, we consider the process of emission of a pho ton, which occurs as the BRF state is bound with the waveguide mode. To estimate the efficiency of collect ing photons emitted in the course of the interaction between the BRF state with the waveguide mode, we assume that, at the moment of the switching off of the pumping, there is an ideal BRF state, and the waveguide mode is in the vacuum state. In this case, the problem is described by the master equation (7) with n = 0. This is a single photon problem, and it can be easily solved numerically. However, this problem can be simplified and accurately solved if we note that, in the case of the single photon problem, the basis of the states of a system consisting of the emitter, a col lective mode B, and a waveguide mode a is formed by the following states: (i) ideal BRF state and waveguide mode a in the vacuum state, | | 0 |0 a ; (ii) a state with a single photon in the a mode, |a | |0 B |1 a ; (iii) the ground state of the entire system, | |0 B |0 a ; and (iv) a state that is orthogonal to the ideal BRF state and contains zero photons in the waveguide mode, | 0 |0 a , | 0 = 1 U 00 |+ |0 B U 00 | |1 B .
2

(13)

where = 4g a U 00 + ( a 0 ) . It follows from expression (13) that, if the fre quency of the a mode is close to the transition fre quency of the two level system, which is changed due to the interaction with the structured reservoir, a com plete excitation exchange between the BRF state and the waveguide mode is possible. A photon that is in the BRF state can be transferred to the waveguide without losses. Expression (13) also limits the rate of losses, a, of the waveguide mode. Clearly, to obtain the regime described by expression (13), it is necessary that a be much smaller than . It is worth noting that, if the constant ga is so small that 1 greatly exceeds the for mation time of the BRF state and the pumping time, then it is not necessary to adiabatically tune the fre quency of the waveguide. This weak interaction with the waveguide will not affect the creation of the BRF state by switching on and off the incoherent pumping and will be sufficient to efficiently extract a photon.
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However, it is much more difficult to retain the rate of losses to be much smaller than . PROSPECTS FOR PRACTICAL IMPLEMENTATION Let us now discuss the quantitative characteristics of our scheme and the possible variants of its practical implementation. As was already noted, the character istic formation time of the BRF state also determines the duration of the working cycle of our photon gun. For the incoherent excitation at n on the order of unity, a sufficient equilibrium with the reservoir is achieved at times close to the formation time of the BRF state. After switching off the excitation, approxi mately the same time is required for the formation of the BRF state. Assuming that, near the band edge, the shape of the density of states is rectangular, the follow ing simple rule can be formulated for the estimation of the formation time of the BRF state: for a two level system whose frequency is close to the band edge, the formation time of the BRF state is comparable with the reciprocal height of the density of states [9, 10]. Consequently, if we set the spontaneous decay time in an unstructured medium to be, e.g., ~1 ns for optical frequencies (this is rather pessimistic assumption, since, in contrast to unstructured media, the density of states of real systems may have clearly pronounced peaks near the band edge [12, 15]), the formation time of the BRF state can be considered to be a few nano seconds. The photon extraction process can be more prolonged and its duration is determined by the bind ing coefficient ga of the BRF state with the waveguide. Note that the tuning rate does not impose any limita tions on the operation of the proposed scheme. If it is not very large, a waveguide with a smaller ga can be used so that the frequency of oscillations is much smaller than the tuning time and the time jitter of the generated photon is eliminated. Also, if necessary, the tuning can be performed such that it does not affect the BRF state. It is clear that this can be achieved if the parameter U00 remains constant during the tuning pro cess. This is not unrealistic, since U00 is determined by the integral over the density of states. Furthermore, if the refractive index of a waveguide defect is higher than that of the photonic crystal, the tuning of the waveguide will result in a considerably smaller effec tive change in the refractive index in the structure of the photonic crystal. If the frequency of the waveguide is adiabatically tuned (which, generally speaking, is not necessary for the survival of the BRF state in this case), this tuning should be performed at times that considerably exceed the formation time of the BRF 1 state. As a result, g a can be two orders of magnitude shorter than the formation time of the BRF state, which will ensure the generation rate about 10 MHz. If photonic crystals with a high density of states near the band edge are used, the formation time of the BRF
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state can become significantly shorter than 1 ns. For example, in accordance with the results of [12], this time can be on the order of a few microseconds. Cor respondingly, the assumed generation rate will be about 1 GHz. From a practical viewpoint, one of the most prom ising candidates for implementing the described scheme of single photon generator is a structured dia mond crystal with single color centers [16]. Nitrogen vacancy (NV) centers [17] and nickel containing (NE8) centers [18] in diamond are examples of such color centers. The frequency of the resonance of the NE8 center is close to the telecommunication fre quency ( ~ 800 nm), and its width is very small (the width at half height is ~1.5 nm), which makes it very promising for use as a spectrally limited source of sin gle photons in fiber optics [19]. The existing technol ogies for preparing structured diamonds make it possi ble to create the required structures of photonic crys tals in diamond [20]. Also, it is very likely that it is not necessary to create three dimensional photonic crys tals in order to implement the proposed generator. By arranging the emitter inside (or even on the surface) of two dimensional structures, such as an optical fiber with a photonic crystal structure [21] or a planar pho tonic waveguide [12], and due to the high density of states at the band edge, one can ensure that the forma tion rate of the BRF state greatly exceeds the rate of losses due to the finiteness of the band. CONCLUSIONS We have proposed a scheme for an efficient single photon generator. The scheme is based on the use of correlations that arise between radiation and the field in the case where the transition frequency of the emit ter is near the band edge. Incoherent pumping of the photonic crystal can efficiently excite a long lived entangled state of the emitter and field modes with fre quencies close to the band edge. In the case of a two level system, this state is single photon. A photon can be extracted from this state in the on demand mode by dynamically tuning the frequency of the waveguide mode, namely, by shifting this frequency to the fre quency of the emitter, which is changed due to the interaction with the reservoir. A nearly unity collection efficiency of photons can be achieved even in the case where the interaction with the waveguide mode is weak. This scheme does not require the preparation of the initial state of the generator in order to generate a series of identical single photon pulses because the incoherent pumping erases all information on the ini tial state of the system. REFERENCES
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Translated by V. Rogovoi

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