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Laws of friction
x
W F
W F
Friction force is independent of apparent area of contact Frictional force does not depend on velocity
(not always so: static usually greater than sliding )
W F
[Friction is well characterized enough to make a reasonably stable parameter to measure for given materials under given conditions]
Friction Testing
Standard methods (also used for wear testing) Pin-on-disc: W
Lubricant ? Abrasive ? Shielding Fluid ?
Pin-on-flat: F etc....
proof ring
Point
(abrasive)
W F
W F
W F
W F
a)
b)
c)
d)
Problem is that though work is done in stages (a) and (b), it is all regained in stages (c) and (d). For friction, which is a dissipative process, we need a route by which sliding converts energy to heat. Plastic work must be done.
Two surfaces are pressed together with load W. They deform until the area of contact (A) is enough to support the load: A=W/H where H is hardness of material. To move the surfaces sideways, must overcome the shear strength s of the junctions, with force F. F=sA Hence: F=sW/H =s/H For most materials: So we expect H = 3 y: s = y = y /3 = s / H = 1 / 27 0.2
W F
This should be applicable to: same metal contacts dissimilar metal contacts (H and s apply to the weaker metal) Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Friction 4
Basic concept: ploughing. Applies to hard on soft metal surfaces. Model a single event as a hard cone of semi-angle ploughing through the softer surface.
Area of groove, A = a x F = H a x F = H x2 tan and W = H a2 / 2 ( divide by 2 as only half cone is supported) W = H (x tan a)2 / 2 So:
W F
2a x
= F
=2
tan
Since surface slopes are usually small - less than 10 > 80, and hence predicted < 0.1. For rough ceramics sliding on metals, though, this mechanism may give much higher values of .
Friction Coefficients
All these friction coefficients are in air. In vacuum they are much higher still. Gold Copper Chromium Work hardening: at the asperity contacts, the material may have gone a long way up the stress- strain curve: s will be >> than y /3. Junction growth: the shear stress as dF is applied to each asperity contact increases the contact area. Silver / brass Cast Iron Indium Metal on Itself 2 0.7-1.4 0.4 Silver Magnesium Lead 1 0.5 1.5
On steel (0.13%C) 0.5 0.2 0.4 2 Copper brass Steel Lead 0.8 0.5 0.8 1.2
We expected ~0.2 !
Junction Growth
Principal stresses (from Mohrs circle)
W W 2 A.1 = + + F 2 2 W W 2 A. 2 = + F 2 2 W 2 A.(1 2 ) = 2 + F 2
At yield, 1 - 2 = uniaxial yield stress, y:
2 2
A F W
W 2 2 2 2 A . y = 4 + F 2 = W 2 + 4F2
Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Friction 7
A 2 . 2 = W 2 + 4F2 y
F 1 W 2 s= = y A 2 A
BUT, since the shear stress in the junction, s, is always less than y, in principle failure will never occur...
(at least for metals, where we always have yield before fracture) The junctions will get bigger and bigger until seizure; the two metals have effectively welded together. (N.B. in real systems, junction growth through thermal effects may be important.) The question is now: Why arent friction coefficients always very large ? Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Friction 8
Suppose interfacial film has shear strength i: and the bulk material has yield strength y: If no junction growth (film may inhibit it), then a lower limit of friction is:
F = Ai W = A y = F W = i y = i 2 y
(Hence use of lubricants: more later) Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Friction 9
Fmax = i Amax
In the metal, as before:
A 2 . 2 = W 2 + 4F2 y
In the limit, as the film shears:
2 2 A max . 2 = W 2 + 4i2 A max y
In the metal, y = 2 y
2 2 4.A max .2 = W 2 + 4i2 A max y
1 2 y 1 i
2
1.5
1.0
(substrate rigid)
0.5
i 2 y
i / y
11
Friction of Metals
Oxide films prevent junction growth have low shear strength, i
2
Co-eff. Friction
1.5
0.5
Resistivity
10-2 1 100
This is typical of a soft metal 10-4 with a moderately hard but brittle oxide. Extremes of behaviour:
Load (N)
Chromium: hard metal with hard and tough oxide: no transition to high as load increases Tin: very soft metal: offers little support to (soft) oxide film: high at all loads Steve Roberts - Surface Engineering - Friction 12
Increased plasticity:
Co-eff. Friction
1.5
Co-eff. Friction
F.C.C. (high T) 1.5 (Ti) 1 H.C.P. 0.5 0 B.C.C. (< BDT) B.C.C. (> BDT) F.C.C. (low T)
T (C) Stainless steel sliding on nickel in air. (heating and cooling) Possible phase changes in metal or oxide. (effects related to above diagram)
13
Friction of ceramics
From our analysis of friction, we expect low friction if: Hardness of material, y,, is high; Environmental effects: Atmospheric water or oxygen may react with the surface of a non-oxide ceramic to give a weak surface film, further lowering friction. e.g Si3N4: (pin-on-disc test)
Engineering ceramics increasingly used for low smooth contact friction parts as: Very high hardness (e.g. Al2O3 - 2000 kg mm-2 = 20GPa) - Asperity contacts are likely to be purely elastic (Hertzian) - No junction growth even at high pressures Low adhesion between surfaces - So even if there is some plasticity, junction growth will be very limited.
0.7 0.6 0.5
Co-eff. Friction
14
Brittleness
Friction is often measured for these materials by using a sharp point (often diamond). Fracture around the contact track may add an extra energy loss mechanism
0.8
Co-eff. Friction
Co-eff. Friction
Load (N) Friction of 90 diamond cone on SiC substrate. Fracture is observed above ~4N load.
Temperature (C)
15
Hertzian Contact
x
P
2a
Simplest case is sphere, radius R, pressed against flat surface. Contact is purely elastic. In ceramics, r can propagate surface cracks to form ring and then cone cracks.
r
r = 1 2 P 2 r 2
1 3
Tensile Compressive
3PR a= E` 1 = E` 1 i2 Ei
1 2 s Es
16
Friction of Polymers
Different from metals (and ceramics) since:
x
17
Fdefm. = AW
3E
1 3
(Note dependence on W and on E - unlike metals) is directly related to , the loss tangent. In polymers, both real E and imaginary E (loss tangent, ) vary with temperature.
E1/3
Fdefm
2 1
Fdefm.
(arb units)
E1/3
0 -200
-100
100
200
1
Rough PMMA Surfaces
0.1 1 10 100
Load (N)
A / W W2/3 / W W-1/3
Adhesion is due to Van der Waals type forces: Junction growth is limited -
1000