Anatomy Final Exam Study Guide Intro to Anatomy 1.

Levels of organization of the human body -Atom > cell > tissue > organ > organ system > organism 2. Organ systems (11) 1) Skeletal bone, cartilage 2) Muscular movement, contraction, support, heat 3) Cardiovascular blood, arteries, veins 4) Reproductive sexual organs 5) Endocrine pituitary, thyroid, hormones 6) Nervous fast response to stimulus 7) Respiratory lungs, trachea, supplies oxygen 8) Urinary removes nitrogen 9) Lymphatic immune helps clean blood 10) Digestive stomach, intestine, breaks down food 11) Integumentary skin, protection, waterproof 3. What does the muscular system do, structures associated with the skin, etc. -Provides movement, contraction, support and heat 4. Homeostasis ability to maintain constant internal conditions 5. Positive vs. negative feedback mechanisms -Negative shuts off original stimulus -Positive increase original stimulus, push further away from normal 6. Anatomical position -Body erect with parallel, arms hanging on sides and palms facing out 7. Directional terms Superior- toward the upper part

Inferior- toward the lower part Anterior- toward the front Posterior- toward the back Medial- toward midline Lateral- away toward the midline Intermediate- between a more medial and lateral structure Proximal- closer to origin of the body Distal- farther from the body surface Superficial- toward body surface Deep- away from body surface Dorsal- near the back Ventral- near the stomach

8. Body land marks (Anterior and Posterior view)

Tissue types 9. 4 primary tissue type 1) Connective- support 2) Muscle- movement 3) Nervous- control 4) Epithelium- covering 10. Types of muscle tissue Skeletal- voluntary, pull on bones or skin, long, cylindrical, multinucleated, striations Cardiac- in heart, striations, involuntary Smooth- no striations, walls of hollow organs ( stomach, bladder, uterus, blood vessel ), involuntary, contraction, peristalsis

11. Shapes of epithelium Squamous- flat Cubiodad- cubed shaped Columnar- column shaped

12. Transitional epithelium Skin 13. 2 components of skin 1) Epidermis- stratified squamous, keratinized (tough), separation of layers causes blisters, occurs from friction or burns 2) Dermis- dense connective tissue 14.Acne- common skin disease 15.Arrector pili- small muscles attached to hair follicles, causes hair to stand up to trap warm air, otherwise known as goosebumps 16. 3 types of burns 1) First degree burn- only epidermis is damaged (sunburn) 2) Second degree burn- epidermis and dermis, blisters form, most painful 3) Third degree burn- destroys entire skin, growth of skin is not possible, not painful (burns nerves), infections, circulatory problems, water loss 17. Skin coloring red vs. blue Red- rich supply of blood Blue- lack of oxygen Simple- one layer Stratified- many layers

Skeletal System

18. What are the functions?

-Support, movement, protection, storage for calcium, fat and minerals, and blood cell formation 19. Fossa vs. foremen 20. ? 21. Number these vertebrates Cervical- 7 Thoracic- 12 Lumber- 5 Number of ribs- 24 Fossa- a trench or hollow part in bone Foremen-a hole in bone

22. Body movements Flexion- decrease angle between bones or saggital plane Extension- opposite of flexion Abduction- moving limb away from midline Adduction- towards midline Rotation- movement of bone along longitudinal axis Circumduction- proximal end is stationary, distal end moves in circle (form a cone) Pronation- moving hand from anterior to posterior position Supination- opposite of pronation (holding soup) Inversion- moving sole of foot medially Eversion- opposite of inversion Dorsiflexion- point toes up Plantar flexion- point toes down

23. Biggest bone in body? Femur

Muscle system

24. ActinMyosin- responsible for actin-based motility 25. Sarcoplasmic reticulum- membranous network that allows for calcium to be released to stimulate muscle contraction 26. Twitch- result of nervous system problem (single stimulus) Tetanus- cells stimulate so fast that they do not relax (most contraction) 27. Isotonic- muscle shortens Isometric- muscle does not shorten 28. Muscle fatigue- (cramps) muscle is being stimulated even though it is not being connected, true muscle fatigue is rare, get rid of lactic, fill ATP and CP reverse, so breathing continues heavily after exercise 29. Slow vs. fast fibers Slow- takes 3 times longer to contract than fast, contract for extended period of time, smooth muscles, oxygen bought to cells quickly store oxygen in cells, large number of mitochondria to perform aerobic respiration Fast- most skeletal muscle, contract .01 sec or less, densely packed fibers, large amount of glycogen storage, few mitochondria, fast fibers fatigue quickly because use lots of ATP and primary anaerobic respiration

30. Muscular dystrophy- group of inherited muscle destroying in disorders; affect limbs that upward, wheelchair by 12, dont live to adult, muscles can build fat around

Nervous

31. CNS vs. PNS CNS (Central Nervous System) - process information while

PSN (Peripheral Nervous System)- carries information to and from the CNS and sensory, muscle, and gland cells

32. Autonomic vs. somatic Autonomic- things you cannot control with your body Somatic- things you can control with your body

33. Afferent vs. efferent Afferent- pathways leading to the cortex Efferent- pathways leading away

34. Neurons vs. glial cells Neurons- conducting cells in the nervous system Glial cells- support structures for the nervous system

35. Steps to generate an action potential 1st- Resting potential: all voltage gate closed 2nd- At threshold, Sodium activation gate opens and Sodium permeability rises 3rd- Sodium enters the cell (influx), causing an explosive depolarization to +30 mV, which generation the rising phase of action potential 4th- At peak of action potential, sodium activation gate closes and sodium permeability falls, which reduces the net movement of sodium into the cell. At the same time potassium activation gate opens and potassium permeability rises 5th- Potassium leaves the cell (efflux), causing the repolarization to resting potential, which generates the falling phase of action potential 6th- On return to resting potential, sodium activation gates closes and inactivation gates opens, resetting channel for another depolarizing triggering event 7th- Further outward movement of potassium through still open potassium channels briefly hyperpolarize membrane 8th- Potassium activation gate closes and membrane returns to resting potential

36. Steps in a reflex arc 1st- arrival of stimulus

2nd- activation of a sensory neuron 3rd- information processing by an interneuron 4th- activation of a motor neuron 5th- response by an effector

37. Areas of the brain- medulla oblongata, cerebellum, visual vs. auditory cortex, etc. ?

38. Patellar reflex- (knee jerk) deep tendon reflex and myotatic reflex 39. Parasympathetic vs. sympathetic Parasympathetic- rest and digestive system, increases blood supply to abdomen areas and increases digestion, stores body energy Sympathetic- fight or flight response, nerve directs more blood to the muscle whereas decreases blood supply to the abdominal area, increases heart rate and blood pressure, activate body mechanism to provide immediate energy to face the stress state, utilizes bodys energy to prepare for upcoming stress

Senses

40. What are the 5 special senses? See- ability to look Touch- ability to feel Taste- ability to orientate nourishments Speak- ability to communicate Smell- ability to distinguish oder

41. Taste receptors Chemorecptor- taste buds; most located on tongue, found on papillae

42. Extrinsic eye muscles Lateral rectus- moves eye to side

Medial rectus- moves eye toward nose Superior rectus- rolls eye up, elevates eye Inferior rectus- rolls eye down and depress eye Inferior oblique- rolls eye down and lateral and elevate eye Superior oblique- rolls eye up and and medial and depress eye

43. Parts of eye Pupil- opening in iris that lets light through Iris (intrinsic muscle)- controls the amount of light entering eye (colored part) Lens- focus light on the retina, biconcave structure Retina- contains the photoreceptors Rods- most dense near the edge of retina, see in grey tones and low light Cones- most dense in the center of retina, see details and color Cornea- window which light enters, cornea also has pain receptors Schlera- outermost layer, connects to cornea, thick white connective tissue Choroid layer- blood rich layer, prevents light from scattering Ciliary body (intrinsic muscle)- controls shape of lens Optic nerve- has not photoreceptors, also called optic disk, blind spot Fovea centralis- lateral to blind spot, only has cones, clearest vision Aqueous humor- anterior to lens Glaucoma- canal of schlemm is blocked and increases pressure in eye Vitreous humor- maintains pressure on retina and lens (posterior lens)

44. Refraction of light Refraction- bending of light when it passes through substances of different densities Refactory media in eye; cornea, aqueous humor, lens, vitreous humor; lens is only one that changes density; focus on fovea centrails; bulge for close objects, thin for far objects

45. Semicircular canals, hearing receptors Responds to dynamic equilibrium, ampula- hair cells covered with cupula

Blood

46. Composition of blood RBCs (red blood cells) - RBCs are also known as red blood corpuscles or erythrocytes. They constitute 45% of blood by volume. They contain hemoglobin, which renders blood red in color. RBCs are produced in the bone marrow and they have a life cycle of 100-120 days. Mature RBCs are biconcave and flexible, lacking cell nucleus and organelles. The principle function is to deliver oxygen to different tissues of the body WBCs (white blood cells)- WBCs or white blood corpuscles are known as leukocytes. They make for 1% by volume of total blood. Leukocytes are cells of the immune system that provide protection to the body from foreign particles and infectious diseases. They are derived from hematopoietic stem cells. Leukocytes are classified as granulocytes and agranulocytes. Granulocytes cells include neutrophils, basophils and eosinophils, whereas agranulocytes cells are lymphocytes, monocytes and macrophages. The count of leukocytes in blood is an important factor for normal functioning of body Palates- also known as thrombocytes. They are derived from precursor cells known as megakaryocytes and are devoid of nucleus. The lifespan of platelets is 5-9 days. The most important function of platelets is blood coagulation or blood clotting. If the count of platelets in blood is low, they cause excessive bleeding while the effect is just reverse if the count is more than normal. They are also a source of natural growth factors

47. Red blood cell formation Erythropoiesis- occurs within the red bone marrow.

48. Hemoglobin- a red protein responsible for transporting oxygen in the blood of vertebrates 49. Anemia- low oxygen carrying capacity 50. Steps to hemostasis 1st- vasoconstriction- constriction of blood vessels, which increases blood pressure 2nd- blood phalelet plug formation

3rd- coagulation of blood

Heart

51. Flow of blood through chambers including systemic system and lungs Both atriums drop blood into corresponding ventricle

52. List the blood vessels and chambers in order Left ventricle > systematic > right atrium > right ventricle > pulmonary > left atrium > left ventricle > systematic

53. Heart sounds Lubb- closing of AV valves Dubb- closing of semilunar valves

54. Cardiac output Amount of blood pumped by each side of heart in one minute Heart rate x stroke volume (amount of blood pumped by ventricle per contraction) 75 beats per minute x 70 mL per beat = 5250 mL per minute

Circulation

55. Define Veins (afferent)- carry blood to heart Arteries (efferent)- carry blood away from the heart Capillaries- exchange gas and nutrients from blood to tissue, in between arteries and veins

56. Blood pressure- how is it measured, what increases it? Increased cardiac output

Peripheral resistance- amount of friction encountered by blood as it flows through vessels Constricting of vessels Increased blood viscosity Age, weight, time of day, body position, emotional state, drugs, flood Neural factors- sympathetic nervous system, vasoconstriction (bleeding) increase blood preasure due to bleeding Renel factors (kidneys)- retain water, increase blood bressure Rennin- enzymes that controls sodium in blood which is followed by water Temperature- cold is vasoconstrictor Chemicals Epinephrine- increases heart rate Nicotine- vasoconstrictor Alcohol- vasodilator Histamine- vasodilator Diet- low in salts, fats, cholesterol, prevents high blood pressure Hypotension- low blood pressure Systolic below 100mm Hg, associated with healthy life style Hyperextension- high blood pressure

57. Branches off aorta 58. ?????? Right and left renal, brachiocephalic artery, left common carotid, left subclavian, right and left external iliac

Digestion

59. Components of digestive tract

Mouth (oral cavity) with tongue and teeth Pharynx Esophagus (gullet)- 4 layers; [mucosa]- innermost, moistened layer, [submucosa]contains blood vessels, nerve endings, [muscularis external]- muscle layer, [serosa]contains serious fluid and the perinoteum Stomach- can hold up to 1 gallon Small intestine- major digestive organ Large intestine

60. Villi vs. microvilli Villi- fingerlike folds on the deep folds Microvilli- tiny projections on the villi

61. Gallbladder- stores bile 62. Starch digestion and amylase 63. Bile- a bitter greenish-brown alkaline fluid that aids digestion and is secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder 64. Energy use from carbs vs. fat Fat provides more energy than carbohydrate The reason for this is the amount of oxidation that takes place as these compounds are converted to carbon dioxide and water. Carbon for carbon, fats require more oxidation to become CO2 and H2O than do carbohydrates. Roughly speaking, carbohydrates already have one oxygen for every carbon atom, thus, each carbon atom needs only one moreoxygen and each pair of hydrogen atoms needs one more oxygen. However, almost every carbon atom in a fat molecule needs two oxygens instead of just one additional one, and each pair of hydrogen atoms still needs one more oxygen. So, just from counting the number of oxygens needed to be added, fats require about half again as much oxygen for the same number of carbon atoms. Because of this, the oxidation of fats takes longer, but it also gives off more energy.

Respiration

65. Functions of nose Warms air with thin-walled veins

66. Define Larynx (voice box)- routes air and food, thyroid cartilage (Adams apple), epiglottis and vocal cords Trachea- lined with mucous and cilia that beat away from lungs, shaped with Cshaped hyaline rings Alveoli (air sacs)- where gas is exchanged

67. Chemical regulators 68. Define and find total amount (average capacity) Tidal volume- air in and out per breath, 500 mL Inspiratory reserve volume- amount of air forcibly taken in, 3300 mL Expiratory reserve volume- amount of air forcibly exhaled, 1000 mL Residual volume- air that is in lungs all the air, 1200 mL Vital capacity- total amount of exchangeable air, 4800 mL Total lung volume- SELF EXPLANATORY DUH, 6000 mL