Agilent Back To Basics in Optical Communication

Back t o Basics
in Opt ical Communicat ions

Technology
Back t o Basics in Opt ical Communicat ions Technology
Copyright Agi l ent Technol ogi es, 2002 2
Back t o Basi cs i n Opt i cal Communi cat i ons
Technol ogy
Today . . .
The innovat ions t hat enable 2.5 10 40 1000 Gb/ s
The sci ence that dri ves the technol ogy
The sci ence that dri ves the technol ogy
Recipe:
(1) Review t he physical foundat ion of t he t echnology
(2) Derive t he t echnology from t he science
(3) The major issues in development of t he t echnology
(4) Charact erizat ion and t est of t he t echnology
The Sci ence: Four Easy Pi eces
1. Geomet ric Opt ics
- How fibers work
2. Physical Opt ics
- Propert ies of elect romagnet ic waves
- Opt ical filt ers and spect rum analyzers
3. At omic Physics
- How t ransmi t t ers, receivers, and ampl ifi ers work
4. Elect rodynamics of cont inuous media
- How t he index of refract i on affect s t he syst em
- Dispersi on
But fi rst , a w ord from our sponsors. . .
s s s s Agi l ent Technol ogi es Li ght w ave Trai ni ng
Underst anding Light wave Technology
Underst anding Opt ical Passive Device
Charact erizat ion
Underst anding Opt ical Transmit t ers and
Receivers and Their Charact erizat ion
Underst anding DWDM
Opt ical Spect rum Analysis/ OSA User s
Course
Charact erizing Polarizat ion Effects
Eye Diagram Analysis
TDR in High-Speed Digit al Design
Bit Error Rat e Analysis
Digit al Communicat ions Analyzer User s
Course
Back t o Basics in Opt ical
Communicat ions Technology
Underst anding Opt ical Net working
The Element s of Light wave Technology
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Today s Present at i ons
Geomet ric Opt ics: The opt ic fiber as a wavegui de
Physical Opt ics and Passive Component Charact erizat i on
Light Transmi ssi on, Recept i on and Modul at i on: Act ive Component
Charact erizat i on
Opt ical Si gnal Ampl ificat ion and DWDM
Dispersion: The evolut ion of t he index of refract ion wit h wavelengt h
and pol arizat i on
Charact erizing t he Opt ical Net work
Hi gh Speed Net w orki ng
Why we re all here. . .
Net w orki ng at Hi gh Speed
Pulses of infrared light
guided t hrough glass fibers
move huge blocks of dat a
long or short dist ances
insensit ive t o elect rical int erference
cheap and light weight
Telephone Dat a Cable TV
Long dist ances WAN - Wide Area Net s
Short Dist ances LAN - Local Area Net s
In bet ween MAN - Met ro Area Net s
Hi gh Speed Net w orki ng i s Accel erati ng
1995
2000 2005 2010 Year
10
20
30
40
50
Relative
Load
1990
Total: 35%/year
Voice: 10%/year
Source:
Opt i c Fi ber based Net w orki ng
Informat ion is carried by light confined in glass fibers:
Light is modul at ed by pulsing t he source:
SONET/ SDH are Timed Division Mult iplex (TDM) prot ocols:
OC-3 51.84 Mb/ s OC-12 622 Mb/ s OC-48 2.488 Gb/ s OC-192 9.953 Gb/ s
OC-768 40 Gb/ s
Cl addi ng
Primary coating
(e.g., soft plastic)
Cor e
S
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la
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s
2
DC
RF
0
" 0 " " 1 "
> >> P P
dB 10
" 0 "
" 1 "
P
P
Opt i cal Net w orki ng - The DWDM Forest
Dispersion
Compensator
Dispersion
Compensator
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
LAN
Cross
Connect
(Switch)
Data
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Geomet ri c Opt i cs
The index of refract ion
Tot al int ernal reflect ion
The opt ic fiber as a waveguide
Single and mult i mode fibers
Cl addi ng
Primary coating
Cor e
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2
Fibers
Dispersion
Compensator
Dispersion
Compensator
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
LAN
Cross
Connect
(Switch)
Data
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Opt i c Fi bers and t he Index of Refract i on, n( )
The index of refract ion of a di el ect ric is gi ven by
At t he boundary of t wo media, incident light is
reflect ed or t ransmit t ed (a.k.a., refract ed ),
The relat ionship bet ween t he angles of incidence
and t ransmission is given by
Snell s Law:
) sin( ) sin(
trans cladding inc core
n n =
trans
cladding
n
n
core
inc
medium
vacuum
c
c
n ) (
Opt i c Fi bers Cont ai n Li ght by
Tot al Int ernal Refl ect i on
At incident angles larger t han a crit ical angle, all light is reflect ed - cont ained:
Typical values:
Bending cables losses
Only light inject ed in a cone of some angle smaller t han
NA
will be cont ained by t he fiber
The spec for t his is numerical apert ure, NA:
cladding core
n n >
2 2
sin
clad core NA
n n NA =
trans inc
<
NA
trans
cladding
n
n
core
inc
inc
trans
85 80 ~
TIR
) sin( ) sin(
trans cladding inc core
n n =
Reflect ion Int ernal Tot al =
o
90
trans

Conduct i ng Wavegui de Anal ogy
Opt ic Fibers are diel ect ri c waveguides
First , consider conduct ing waveguides:
Conducting
wave guide
Boundary Condit ions:
E
T cond
= 0 and B
cond
= 0
give . . .
The cut off wavelengt hs, or frequencies, det ermine
t he modes of propagat ion
Single Mode (SM) a < < 2a
Mult i Mode (MM) < a
For a given range of wavelengt hs t here are
Single and Mult i Mode waveguides
- single mode doesn t mean single wavelengt h
a
1
= 2a
2
= a
3
= 2a/3
C
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o
f
f

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t
h
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Modal Di spersi on:
Wavegui de di spersi on arises from t he dependence of t he group vel ocit y
on t he frequency, , and t he mode-cut off frequency
cutoff
= 2c/
cutoff
.
Modal dispersion occurs when a pulse is composed of waves of more
t han one mode.
The different modes t ravel at very different , speeds Modal Dispersion
2
1
2
cut off
= c
group
0
0.5
1
V
group
/c
1

2

3
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Opt i c Fi bers are Di el ect ri c Wavegui des
Boundary condit ions:
Smoot h decay of t he el ect ri c field at
t he core/ cladding boundary
Cladding
d
d
Core
1
> 2d
Core
2
> d
Core
3
> 2 d
Core
/3
Single Mode:
1
< <
2
e.g., for 1.5 m,
d
Core
10 m.
Single mode cut off
wavelengt h is larger t han
t he fiber core di amet er
2
2
0 0
2 2
t
n
=
E
E
) (
) (
z t j
e r E E

=
T
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Mul t i Mode Fi bers
Modal Dispersion
In Mult i Mode fibers suffer Modal Di spersion from
Bit rat e x Dist ance product is severely limit ed!
100/ 140 m Silica Fiber: ~ 20 Mb/ s km
0.8/ 1.0 mm Plast ic Opt ical Fiber: ~ 5 Mb/ s km
Single mode fibers do not suffer modal dispersion!
2
2
mode
1 ~
c v
group
Fi ber St ruct ure
Mult i-mode: 100/ 140 or 200/ 280 m
Single Mode: 9/ 125 or 10/ 125 m
n
r
1.465
1.460
Ref r act i ve
I ndex ( n)
Di amet er ( r )
Cl addi ng
Primary coating
Cor e
1.480
1.460
100 m
140 m
S
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G
la
s
s
2
NA = 0.24
TIR
= 80
NA = 0.12
TIR
= 85
Coupl ers
The solut i on i ncludes t he smoot h decay of E in t he cladding
This evanescent wave t ravels along wit h t he guided wave
Energy t ravels along t he cladding and it s easy t o get it out
Join t wo fibers t oget her - a double wave guide
Light can t unnel from one core t o t he ot her - a coupler
This is how couplers work
Waves t unnel from one core t o t he next
Core
Core
Cl addi ng Cl addi ng
The Di rect i onal Coupl er
Si ngl e Wavegui de w i t h Tw o Cores
Solving t he wave equat ion wit h t wo single mode
cores gives . . .
A t ransverse wave t hat oscillat es bet ween cores
End Side
d
Incident signal power oscillat es back
and fort h bet ween t he t wo cores as t he
light propagat es t he lengt h of t he
coupler
The dist ance along t he fiber where t he signal is in a given core depends on . . .
Wavelengt h
The dist ance bet ween t he cores
The geomet ry of t he t wo original single mode fibers
Wave Coupl i ng Spl i t t ers
The lengt h of a direct ional coupler can be t uned so t hat incident light of a
given wavelengt h wil l exit t he coupler in a specific core
L
1
,
2
1
a
b
c
d
Couplers can be designed t o
demult iplex incoming signals
In reverse t he demult iplexer is a
mult iplexer
Wit h different single mode fibers
and geomet ry couplers can be
very select ive wit h narrow
channel spacing.
The wavelengt h dependence can
also be reduced over ~ 100 nm t o
give a wavelengt h independent
3 dB coupler.
Fibers
Dispersion
Compensator
Dispersion
Compensator
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
LAN
Cross
Connect
(Switch)
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Physi cal Opt i cs
and
Passi ve Component
Charact eri zat i on
Physi cal Opt i cs
Elect romagnet ic waves
El ect romagnet i c Spect rum
Frequency
R
F
R
a
d
a
r
I
n
f
r
a
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e
d

L
i
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V
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i
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U
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X
-
R
a
y
s
Wavel engt h
1 Mm
1 km 1 m 1 mm 1 nm 1 m
1 kHz
1 MHz 1 GHz 1 THz 1 EHz 1 PHz
| U | L | C | S | E | O | LAN
Frequency
Wavel engt h
1600
300
1000 800
nm
400 1400 1200
THz
200 250 400
Net w orki ng w avel engt h bands
Waves
Describe light wit h = wavelengt h, = frequency
1500 nm 200 THz
= c = 299,792,458 m/ s
30 cm/ ns (1 ft / ns)
and reserve
f = modulat ion frequency

Magnetic Field
Strength, B
Electric Field
Strength, E
The rel at i onshi p bet w een
opt i cal frequency bandw i dt h, and
w avel engt h l i new i dt h,
Let frequency bandwidt h be
and wavel engt h linewidt h be
Then since
or
The relat i onship bet ween
bandwidt h and linewidt h i s
or, equivalent ly

c =
c
=
=
2
c
=
2
c
Recipe for creat ing el ect romagnet ic waves:

=
C A
d d
dt
d
n l B S
E
0 0
2

=
C A
d d
dt
d
l E S
B
The st rengt h of t he magnet ic field is small so
we only consider t he elect ric field.
Changing Electric
Field, E
Changing Magnetic
Field, B
2
2
0 0
2 2
t
n
=
E
E
2
2
0 0
2 2
t
n
=
B
B
El ect romagnet i c Waves
Induct ion
El ect ri c Fi el d Component s
E
y
E
x
An E-Field is t he vect or sum
of t he component s E
x
and E
y
Int roduct i on t o Pol ari zat i on
Linear Polarizat ion
Project ion of E is a line
Circular Polarizat ion
Project ion of E is a circle
E
y
E
x
E
y
E
x
Poi ncar Sphere
Represent at i on of Pol ari zat i on
Graphical represent at ion of state of polarizat ion using St okes
paramet ers (S
1
, S
2
, S
3
)
Left -hand
circular
polarizat ion
(0,0,-1)
S1
a
x
i
s
S
2 a
x
i
s
S
3
a
x
i
s
45 degree linear
polarizat ion (0,1,0)
Right -hand
circular
polarizat ion
(0,0,1)
Vert ical linear
polarizat ion (-1,0,0)
Coherence
Coherence t he phase relat ionship of waves
L
c
L
c
Coherent waves
component s of coherent waves have
well defined phase relat ionships.
Incoherent waves
component s of incoherent waves
have random indet erminat e phase
relat ionships.
Coherence Ti me and Coherence Lengt h
Coherence t ime (T
C
)
Average t ime for t he wave t rain to lose it s phase relat ionships
Coherence l engt h (L
C
)
Average dist ance over which superposed waves lose t heir phase relat ionships
There is a Fundament al Relat ionship bet ween Coherence and Bandwidt h
1. The bandwidt h det ermines t he coherence lengt h and t ime,
T
c
1/(4 ), L
c
c/(4 )
2. A minimum opt ical bandwidt h is required for a pulse of durat ion T, 1/(4T)
Rest rict s t he spacing of DWDM signals for given rat es
C C
T c L =
4
1

C
T
Short coherence l engt h broadband source
Coherence and Opt i cal Bandw i dt h
Examples
Light Bulb:
LED:
DFB Laser:
<
<
)
`
>
>
m 5
ps 02 . 0
THz 50
nm 500 Width Line Spectral
C
C
Optical
L
T
BW
)
`
m 50
ps 2 . 0
THz 5
nm 50 Width Line Spectral
C
C
Optical
L
T
BW
)
`
m 30
ns 100
MHz 10
pm 1 . 0 Width Line Spectral
C
C
Optical
L
T
BW
Int erference
Int erference = effect of adding waves from different sources
Const ruct ive Int erference Dest ruct ive Int erference
Condit ions for int erference:
waves must be coherent and
have t he same polarizat ion
coherent sources add in phase
Incoherent sources
add in power:
[ ]

+ = =
k
k k
k
k
t E t P t P
2
Total
) sin( ) ( ) (
2
Total
) sin( ) (
|
.
|
\
|
+ =

k
k k
t E t P
+ =
+ =
Physi cal Opt i cs
Int erference and Diffract ion
Int erference Based Technol ogi es
Int erference
Fiber Bragg Grat ing
Opt ical Mux/ Demux
Opt ical Spect rum Analyzer
d
d'
n n'
Thin Film filt ers
Wavelengt h Met er
Passive
Component s
Dispersion
Compensator
Dispersion
Compensator
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
LAN
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(Switch)
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Int erference Bet w een Tw o Sources
Const ruct ive Dest ruct ive
Waves
Int erference i n One Di mensi on
The Mi chel son Int erferomet er
Input
beam
Fixed reference
mirror
Moving
mirror
Int erference
fringe pat t ern
When t he mirror moves,
t he int erference pat t ern alt ernat es
light (const ruct ive fringes) and
dark (dest ruct ive fringes) on t he det ect or.
The dist ance bet ween fringes is relat ed t o
t he wavelengt h of light
1/ 2 silvered
mirror
The Wavel engt h Met er
Wit h a reference beam t he Michelson int erferomet er can measure
absolut e wavelengt hs
wit h an accuracy of 300 fm and resolut ion bandwidt h of 30 pm
e.g., Agilent 86122
Wavelength
Reference
Unknown
Signals
Fixed Mirror
Signal
Processing
Moving Mirror
FFT t he fringe pat t ern
signal spect rum
The Fabry Perot Et al on
d
/2 /4
A resonant cavit y cont aining
mult i ple refl ect ions/ t ransmissi ons
If d = / 2 t hen
reflect ions and t ransmissions
int erfere const ruct ively
If d = / 4 t hen
int erference is dest ruct ive
Which makes a filt er
It s also t he foundat ion for a LASER, as we ll see soon.
Thi n Fi l ms
Series of Fabry-Perot Et alons wit h different propert ies
Ant i-reflect ive coat ings
- must be cent ered at some wavelengt h
Select ive t ransmission/ reflect ive coat ings
Many possibilit ies:
d
d'
n
n'
Layers Substrate
Incoming
Spectrum
Reflected
Spectrum
Transmitted
Spectrum
Tunabl e Fabry- Perot Fi l t ers
Fi lt er shape
Repet it ive passband wit h Lorent zian shape
Free Spect ral Range FSR = c/ 2 n L (L: cavit y lengt h)
Finesss F = FSR/ BW (BW: 3 dB bandwidt h)
Typical specifi cat ions for 1550 nm applicat ions
FSR: 4 THz t o 10 THz, F: 100 t o 200, BW: 20 t o 100 GHz
Insert ion loss: 0.5 t o 35 dB
Fiber
Piezoelect ric-act uat ors
Mirrors
Opt ical Frequency
FSR
1 dB
30 dB
The In- Fi ber Bragg Grat i ng ( FBG)
A si mple fil t er and a cornerst one of t he Opt ical Revolut i on
To make a st ret ch of fiber i nt o a grat ing:
scrat ch t he fiber wi t h ult ra-viol et l ight
Waves are t ransmit t ed and refl ect ed at each scrat ch
Regul ar int ervals bet ween grat ings refl ect one wavel engt h
- a not ch filt er
Cl addi ng
Primary coating
Cor e
S
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2

In Fi ber Bandpass and Chi rped Fi l t ers
Band Pass Filt ers
Combine simple Fiber Bragg Grat ings (FBG) t o form Et alons t uned t o
different wavelengt hs and make in fiber Fabry-Perot bandpass filt er
Overlap grat ings t uned t o different wavelengt hs - Moire filt er
L
Chirped Filt ers
Uneven grat ing spacing can be used in different applicat ions
- e.g., compensat ion of Chromat ic Dispersion (more lat er)
Int erferomet ri c Fi l t ers
Combi ned Technol ogy: Coupl er + Int erferomet er + FBG

2
is reflect ed by t he grat ings
The Coupler is chosen so t hat t he
2
couples t o 2 on reflect ion
Only
2
emerges from 2
The second coupler is wavelengt h-independent t o form a Mach-Zehnder
band pass filt er.
Make mux/ demux, add-drop node, et c
1
2
3
1
,
3
, . . .
1
,
2
,
3
, . . .
Arrayed Wavegui de Grat i ng
General i zed Mach- Zehnder Int erferomet ri c Fi l t er
An MZI fi lt er wit h wavel engt h dependent coupling
1 x n mux/ demux
Lower loss, flat t er passband
+ + +

Mult iport coupler Mult iport coupler

Array of waveguides shift s t he relat ive phases of each wavelengt h result ing in const ruct ive
and dest ruct ive int erference of different wavelengt hs at different out put s
Low loss in forward direct ion - 0.2 t o 2 dB
High loss in reverse direct ion - 20 t o 80 dB
Reflect ed
light
Pol ari zat i on Based Technol ogy
The Isol at or
Main applicat i on:
To prot ect lasers and opt ical amplifiers from reflect ions t hat
can cause inst abilit ies
Input light is polarized and t ransmit t ed t hrough a series of polarizors
Series of polarizors reject light of all polarizat ions in t he back direct ion
Input l ight
Add Drop Nodes and Ci rcul at ors
Combi ned Technol ogy: Coupl er + Isol at or + FBG
Circulat or based Add Drop Node (ADN)
Add
i
Drop
i
Three isol at ed port s:
Port 1 port 2
Port 2 port 3
Port 3 port 1
Filt er reflect s
i
Add / Drop
Common
Passband
Thin fi lm based ADN
Monochromat ors and Opt i cal Spect rum Anal yzers
Tw o Di mensi onal Grat i ngs
Transmission grat ing
Refl ect ion grat ing


Det ect or
Det ect or
Int erference From Grat i ngs
Two Sli t s
Five Slit s
More slit s
more int erference
Wit h more int erference
purple red and blue
Spect rum i s Resol ved
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
sin() in units of /b
Increasing t he number of slit s
50 slit s
1000 slit s
Increases t he spect ral resol ut ion
Wavelengt hs can be resolved wit h
amazing accuracy: 60 pm
Grat i ng Based Technol ogi es
Grat ings are t he basis for many t ools and component s:
Monochromat ors
Not ch/ passband fi lt ers,
Mult i pl exers/ demult i plexers
Opt ical Spect rum Analyzers

Transmit t ing grat ings

and
refl ect ing grat ings
Grat i ng Based Opt i cal Spect rum Anal yzer
Rotate grating to shine

different color, ,
through aperture
Grating angle, , determines spectral
line shining through aperture
ADC Processor
Amplifier
Display
Input
Photodiode
Aperture
Sweeping Monochromator
Opt i cal Spect rum Anal ysi s
Exampl es
Opt i cal Ampl i fi er Test i ng
Gain, Noise Fi gure, t i lt
et cet era
WDM Component s
50 GHz Mux, Filt ers,
Add/ Drop Component s
WDM Si gnal s
Signal t o noise for
channel spacings
as l ow as 50 GHz
Source Test i ng
FP, DFB lasers
Amplit ude, SMSR
Performance
Accuracy, =
0
10 pm
Resolut ion, ~ 40 pm
Dynamic range ~ 70 dB
Physi cal Opt i cs
Component Charact erizat ion
Fi l t er Charact eri st i cs
i -1

i

i+1
Passband
Crosst alk Crosst alk
Passband
Insert ion loss
Ripple
Wavelengt hs
(peak, cent er, edges)
Bandwidt hs (0.5 db, 3 db, ..)
Polarizat ion dependence
St opband
Crosst alk reject ion
Bandwidt hs (20 db, 40 db, ..)
Tot al Insert i on Loss
A measure of t he loss of light wit hin an opt ical component .
DUT Without
DUT With
P
P
IL
10
log 10 ) dB ( =
Devi ce
Refer ence
Source
Device
Under
Test
Power
Meter
Reference Path
Fi l t er Transmi ssi on Spect rum ( Insert i on Loss)
OSA Met hod:
Broadband Source + - Sel ect i ve Det ect or
Fast Sweep
High Dynamic Range
Good Sensit ivit y
Incoherent Light
Not ch Filt er
Source spect rum Det ect or sensit i vit y
and resolut i on
Transmit t ed spect rum
Test Sol ut i on
8614x Opt i cal Spect rum Anal yzer seri es
Built in appl i cat ions t o charact erize
Sources, DWDM signals,
Passive Component s,
Ampl ifiers
Built in Broadband Sources
10 pm absolut e accuracy
2 pm repeat abi li t y
60 pm resolut ion bandwidt h
70+ dB dynamic range
600 nm 1700 nm
Fi l t er Transmi ssi on Spect rum ( Insert i on Loss)
TLS Met hod: - Sel ect i ve Source + Broadband Det ect or
Not ch Filt er
P
Paramet ers t o Test
Cent er
3 dB Bandwidt h
Ripple
Isolat i on
Devi ce
Refer ence
) (
) (
log 10
10
DUT Without
DUT With
P
P
IL =
Test Sol ut i ons
86082
Wavel engt h Domai n
Component Anal yzer
Tunabl e Laser Syst em/
Pow er Met er
+ Phot oni c Foundat i on Li brary
Fast filt er charact erizat ion
resolut ion: < 1 pm
Speed: > 2 sweeps/ s
Range: 1260 1640 nm
Vert ical accuracy 0.06 dB
Configurable t o perform all
paramet er t est s
Scaleable t o mult i-channels
resolut ion 0.1 pm
Low SSE
Insert i on Loss as a Funct i on of Wavel engt h
Sw ept Insert i on Loss
Two st andard approaches:
1. Use a Tunable Laser Source (TLS)
Worry about back scat t ering int erference issues
2. Use a Broadband source and an OSA
Short coherence lengt h of source no int erference issues
Must calibrat e and subt ract baseline spect rum
Need high spect ral densit y (energy at each wavelengt h)
Reference p/ n 5980-1454E:
St at e of t he art charact erizat ion of opt ical component s for DWDM applicat ions
Ret urn Loss
Tot al Ret urn l oss
A measure of t he li ght reflect ed by a component
reference
reflected
P
P
RL
10
log 10 =
Device Terminat ion
Light
Input
At t enuat or
Power Det ect or
Angled
Out put
Direct ional
Coupler
DUT
Ret urn Loss Met er
Module (81534A)
Insert i on/ Ret urn Loss Measurement Subt l et i es
Beware of mult i ple refl ect ions! !
If mult i pl e refl ect ions occur wit hin a dist ance less t han L
C
t hen t here wil l be int erference fringes on t he det ect or
uncert aint y in RL up t o 100%
Avoid using coherent beams
LED or Tungst en lamp i deal, but t oo low spect ral energy densit y
for most cases
But RL() may be desired and may depend on and
a narrow source has a large L
C
Common t o use a Fabry-Perot l aser
high power, wit h si debands t o mit i gat e int erference,
st ill . . . L
C
~ met ers
Underst and t he device and t he source
Pol ari zat i on Dependent Loss
Recall Polarizat ion descri bes t he
orient at ion of t he el ect ric fi eld
The at t enuat ion of light in fibers and net work el ement s vari es
according t o polarizat ion.
Polarizat ion Dependent Loss
t he variat ion of at t enuat i on wit h polarizat ion.
Monit or out put power of DUT while varying polarizat ion t o get
min
max
10
log 10 ) dB (
P
P
PDL =
Pol ari zat i on Dependent Loss
Insert ion loss wit h polarizat ion cont rol:
Source
Device
Under
Test
(DUT)
Power Meter
or
OSA
Optical
Isolator
Polarization
Controller
(PC)
Reference Path
Need:
Const ant power int o DUT
Polarizat ion Cont roller (PC)
eit her provide all st at es,
or use a Mller mat rix t echnique
Polarizat ion independent power met er/ OSA
Look for PDL < 0.1 dB
8169 Polarization
Controller
min
max
10
log 10 ) (
P
P
PDL = dB
Passive
Component s
Dispersion
Compensator
Dispersion
Compensator
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
LAN
Cross
Connect
(Switch)
Data
2
.
.
.
n
Data
2
.
.
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n
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x
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Li ght
Transmi ssi on, Recept i on,
and
Modul at i on:
Act i ve Component
Charact eri zat i on
Modul at i on
Put t ing informat ion int o pulses of light
Int ernal and ext ernal modulat ors
Dispersion
Compensator
Dispersion
Compensator
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
LAN
Cross
Connect
(Switch)
Data
2
.
.
.
n
Data
2
.
.
.
n
d
e
m
u
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t
i
p
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x
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m
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p
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x
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r
Modulat ors
Modul at i on
Encodi ng Dat a i nt o Li ght Pul ses
Ext inct ion rat io: t ypically, about 10 dB.
Average power:
,
" 0 "
" 1 "
Logic
Logic
P
P
E =
( )
" 0 " " 1 " 2
1
Logic Logic Avg
P P P + =
" 0 "
" 1 "
10
log 10 ) (
Logic
Logic
P
P
E = dB
0
1 1
0
0
1
Time
P
logic "1"
P
logic "0"
P
avg
P (mW)
NRZ - Non Ret urn t o Zero and RZ - Ret urn t o Zero Modulat ion
Modul at i on Techni ques
Encoding dat a int o binary pulses
Direct modulat ion:
modulat e LASER input power
LASER chirp
1.5 Mb/ s - 2.5 Gb/ s
Indirect modulat ion:
Indirect or phase modulat ion
Modulat ion wit h absorpt ion or
Modulat e wit h int erference
Const ruct ive 1, dest ruct ive 0
AM sidebands dominat e line widt h
Can approach = 1/(4
bit
)
10 Gb/ s - 40 Gb/ s 200 Eb/ s
DC
RF
DC
MOD
RF
Indi rect Modul at i on
Mach- Zehnder Pri nci pl e
Split t he beam and vary t he opt ical pat h lengt hs t o get :
Logic 0 - dest ruct ive int erference - opt ical pat h lengt h difference of (2n-1) / 2
Logic 1 - const ruct ive int erference - opt ical pat h lengt h difference of n
Vary pat h lengt hs t o
change relat ive phase
Split beam
Merge beam
Dest ruct ive int erference
logic 0
The relat ive phase
changes!
An ext ernal elect ric field applied t o some cryst als, e.g., LiNbO
3
, changes t he index
of refract ion, n = n(E)
1. Use an RF modulat ion signal t o apply a volt age across t he cryst al
2. Varies t he index of refract ion of each pat h
3. Change t he pat h lengt hs t o get desired int erference
Modulat e t he light signal!
Indi rect Modul at i on
El ect ro- Absorpt i ve Modul at i on
A soli d-st at e based shut t er
Pass a cont inuous wave t hrough a diode
Logic 1 - No applied bias,
larger band gap
light t ransmit s t hrough
Logic 0 - High reverse bias,
smaller band gap
light is most ly absorbed
E
n
e
r
g
y
Conduct ion Bands
Valence Bands
Cont inuous wave input
gap
E h >
gap
E h <
Indi rect Modul at ors
Laser
sect ion
Modulat ion
sect ion
DFB laser wit h ext ernal
on-chip modulat or
Polarizat ion sensit ive, need correct launch
Mach-Zehnder Modulat or
Elect ro-Absorpt ive Modulat or
At omi c Physi cs:
Li ght Generat i on
Elect romagnet ic radiat ion
Light Emit t ing Diodes (LED)
Light Amplificat ion by St imulat ed Emission of
Radiat ion (LASER)
Dispersion
Compensator
Dispersion
Compensator
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
LAN
Cross
Connect
(Switch)
Data
2
.
.
.
n
Data
2
.
.
.
n
d
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Opt ical
Transmit t ers
The Premi se for Radi at i on
All radiat ion result s from t he accelerat ion of a charge
An LRC circuit An oscillat ing dipole:
An at omic t ransit ion
+
-
+
+
2p state
to a
1s state
1s
2p
Spont aneous Emi ssi on
Light is spont aneously emit t ed when an elect ron decays from a
higher t o a lower energy st at e.
In an at om In a semiconduct or
E
n
e
r
g
y
Conduct ion Bands
Valence Bands
E
n
e
r
g
y
Li ght Emi t t i ng Di ode ( LED)
Dat acom t hrough air & mult imode fiber
Inexpensive
(lapt ops, airplanes, LANs)
Key charact erist ics
Most common for 780, 850, 1300 nm
Tot al power up t o a few W
Spect ral widt h 30 t o 100 nm
Coherence lengt h 0.01 t o 0.1 mm
No specific polarizat ion
P
-3 dB
P
peak
BW
E
n
e
r
g
y
Spont aneous
Emission
Conduct ion Bands
Valence Bands
Data in
LASER
Li ght Ampl i fi cat i on by St i mul at ed Emi ssi on of Radi at i on
Requirement s for LASER:
Confine light in a resonant cavit y t o
set up st anding waves
Excit e more elect rons t o higher energy levels
More phot ons from st imulat ed emission t han
from spont aneous emission
populat ion inversion
St imulat ed Emission will resonat e in t he cavit y
amplificat ion
Mirrors confine s t o
2L/ n & also reject non-
perpendicular light
L
St imulat ed Emission light t hat is
monochromat ic (same wavelengt h)
coherent (in phase)
polarized
Fabry- Perot ( FP) Laser
Reflect ive coat ings along cavit y allow only
n/ 2 wavelengt hs t hrough
Mult iple longit udinal mode (MLM) spect rum
Classic semiconduct or laser
First fiberopt ic links (850 or 1300 nm)
Today: short & medium range links
Most common for 850 or 1310 nm
Tot al power up t o a few mW
Spect ral widt h 3 t o 20 nm
Mode spacing 0.7 t o 2 nm
Highly polarized
Coherence lengt h 1 t o 100 mm
Good coupling int o fiber
P
peak
I
P
Threshold

Di st ri but ed Feedback ( DFB) Laser
Sidemodes filt ered out
Single longit udinal mode (SLM) spect rum
High performance t elecommunicat ion laser
Most expensive (difficult t o manufact ure)
Long-haul links & DWDM syst ems
Most ly around 1550 nm
Tot al power 3 t o 50 mw
Spect ral widt h 10 t o 100 MHz
(0.08 t o 0.8 pm)
Sidemode suppression rat io
SMSR > 50 dB
Coherence lengt h 1 t o 100 m
Small NA (good coupling int o fiber)
P
peak
SMSR

Compari son of FP and DFB Lasers
1300 1310 1305 nm
REF: 0.00 dBm
-90
-70
-50
-30
-10
10
dBm
1540 1550 1545 nm
REF: 0.00 dBm
-90
-70
-50
-30
-10
10
dBm
Power versus wavelength
Fabry-Perot Laser DFB Laser
Vert i cal Cavi t y Surface Emi t t i ng Lasers
Dist ri but ed Bragg Refl ect or (DBR) Mirrors
Alt ernat ing layers of semiconduct or mat erial
40 t o 60 layers, each / 4 t hick
Key propert ies
Wavelengt h range 780 t o 1310 nm
Gigabit et hernet
Spect ral widt h < 1 nm
Tot al power > -10 dBm
Coherence lengt h: 10 cm t o 10 m
Numerical apert ure: 0.2 t o 0.3
active
n-DBR
p-DBR
Ext ernal Cavi t y/ Tunabl e Lasers
High Power
out put
Low Source Spont aneous Emission(SSE) out put
Adjust angle t o choose
reflect ed wavelengt h
Adjust cavit y lengt h t o choose
resonant wavelengt hs
Agilent Magic
n/2
Grat ing
P
High Power
Low SSE
Tunabl e Laser Syst em
The Agilent TLS syst ems for t he 8164 mainframe
1260 < < 1640 nm in t hree different modules
Two Power out put s:
+5 dBm peak (high power out put )
- 6 dBm peak (low SSE out put )
60 dB signal t o SSE rat io
10 pm absolut e wavelengt h accuracy
2-3 pm t ypical relat ive wavelengt h accuracy, mode-hop free
0.1 pm wavelengt h resolut ion
Ot her Li ght Sources
Need for small coherence lengt h high power light sources:
Whit e light source
Specialized t ungst en light bulb
Wavelengt h range 900 t o 1700 nm,
Power densit y 0.1 t o 0.4 nw/ nm (SM), 10 t o 25 nw/ nm (MM)
Amplified spont aneous emission (ASE) source
Noise of an opt ical amplifier wit hout input signal
Wavelengt h range 1525 t o 1570 nm
Power densit y 10 t o 100 w/ nm
Summary
Semi conduct or Li ght Sources
St imul at ed Emission
(monochromat ic & in-phase)
LASER s
Lasers Require
St imulat ed Emission
Populat ion Inversion
Confinement
E
n
e
r
g
y
LEDs
Spontaneous
Emission
I
P
Threshold
More elect rons i n upper energy
level t han lower
(more phot ons emi t t ed t han
absorbed)
Mirrors confi ne s t o
2L/ n & also reject
non-perpendicular
light
L
Data in
Charact eri zat i on of Transmi t t ers
Out put Power
Power met er
Wavelengt h
Opt ical Spect rum Analyzer,
accuracy
~ 15 pm, 50 pm
Int erferomet er-based wavelengt h met er,
accuracy
~ 5 pm, 0.3 pm
Linewidt h, chirp, modulat ion effect s, ult ra DWDM st ruct ure
High Resolut ion Spect romet er,
accuracy
~ 15 pm, 8 fm
Dist ort ion, Relat ive Int ensit y Noise (RIN), harmonic noise,
Spont aneous emission/ recombinat ion relaxat ion effect s
Light wave Signal Analyzer
El ect rical -Opt i cal Response, Bandwidt h
Recombinat ion t ime scal e affect s modulat ion propert i es
Light wave Component Analyzer
Transmi t t er Li new i dt h Measurement
Wi t h a Hi gh Resol ut i on Spect romet er
Opt ical Het erodyne
Measure t ransmit t er line
st ruct ure wit h t errific
det ai l
resolut ion: 8 fm
Transmit t er
Reference
Int erferomet er
Chi rp/ FM Measurement
Wi t h an HRS
Chirp = A change in t he opt ical
frequency caused by direct
modulat i on of t he laser
Direct Modul at ion
Transmit t er
Reference
Int erferomet er
Modulat or
Chi rp/ FM Measurement
Wi t h an HRS
Indirect Modulat ion wit h a
Mach Zehnder modulat or
Transmit t er
Reference
Int erferomet er
Modulat or
(0.2 nm span)
Hi gh Resol ut i on Opt i cal Spect romet er
Agi l ent 83452A
Opt ical Het erodyne and high resolut i on spect rum analysis
Linewidt h, laser spect ral symmet ry, modulat ion spect rum,
relaxat ion oscillat ions, close-in sidebands, Ult raDWDM spect ra
Resolut ion: bet t er t han 80 fm (10 MHz)
Dynamic Range: 60 dB
Ult ra DWDM spect rum
Li ght w ave Si gnal Anal yzer
Essent ial ly a wide-bandwidt h, cali brat ed OE + El ect rical Spect rum
Analyzer
Measures average opt ical power vs frequency, (over modulat ion
frequency range! )
Harmonic Noise
Rel at i ve Int ensi t y Noi se
Noi se from t he Transmi t t er
Rel at ive Int ensit y Noise
(Incident al Amplit ude Modulat ion)
Measures laser fluct uat ions at modulat ion frequencies
The power vari ance spect ral densi t y , (P)
2
/ BW, i s t he fluct uat ion of
power observed in t he int erval f
mod
t o f
mod
+df
mod
per unit modul at ion
bandwidt h, df
mod
.
Aft er el ect rical conversion (recal l (opt ical power)
2
(elect rical power) ),
measure RIN from t he el ect rical spect rum analyzer:
[ ]
1 -
Hz RIN
2
2
) ( 1
avg
P
P
BW
=
BW RIN i i
avg RIN

Measuri ng Rel at i ve Int ensi t y Noi se
Wi t h an LSA
DFB Laser
[ ] dB/ Hz
BW P
P
RIN
avg
1 ) (
log 10
2
2
|
|
.
|
\
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Agilent 71400
Solid st at e phot on count ers
responsivit y
Phot o Diodes
effi ciency, gain, dark current
At omi c Physi cs:
Li ght Det ect i on
Dispersion
Compensator
Dispersion
Compensator
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
LAN
Cross
Connect
(Switch)
Data
2
.
.
.
n
Data
2
.
.
.
n
d
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Opt ical
Receivers
Li ght Det ect ors
Valence
Bands
Conduction
Bands
E
n
e
r
g
y
Phot ons are absorbed in an
int rinsic layer of semiconduct or
creat e e
- hole pairs
Apply a reverse-bi as pot ent ial
phot ocurrent
Quant um Efficiency = number of elect rons creat ed per phot on, ()
Responsivit y = phot ocurrent per unit of opt ical power (A/ W)
hc
e
P
i
R

) (
) (
) (
) ( = =
Opt ical
Phot o
Phot o Di odes
PIN (p-layer, int rinsic layer, n-layer)
Highly linear, low dark current
Det ect or is followed by a Transimpedance
Amplifier
Avalanche phot o diode (APD)
Int rinsic gain up t o x100 lift s t he opt ical signal
above elect rical noise of receiver
St rong t emperat ure dependence
Main charact erist i cs
Quant um efficiency (elect rons/ phot on)
Dark current
Wavelengt h dependence, responsivit y
n
+
Bias Volt age
A
P
D

G
a
i
n
Mat eri al Aspect s of PIN Di odes
Silicon (Si)
Least expensive
Germanium (Ge)
Classic det ect or
Indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs)
Smoot h responsivit y
High speed
Not ice t he sharp wavelengt h rolloff
- due t o E
band gap
> h = hc/
0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7
90%
70%
50%
30%
10%
Quantum
efficiencies
Si
InGaAs
Ge
Wavelength ( m)
R
e
s
p
o
n
s
i
v
i
t
y

(
A
/
W
)
hc
e
R

) ( ) ( =
Quant um efficiency
Noi se
Thermal (Johnson) Noise i s t he int rinsic noise from t he l oad resist or in
t he phot odiode circuit
R = Load resist ance
k = Bolt zmann s const ant = 1.38 10
-23
J/ K
T in Absolut e, B = modulat ion bandwidt h
R
B kT
i
rms Therm
4
Dark current , i
d
, is t he current generat ed in t he absence of light
Thermally or spont aneous diffusion generat ed charge in t he phot odiode.
Typical values at T = 300 K, Si: 1 - 10 nA, Ge: 50 - 500 nA, InGaAs: 1 - 20 nA
Shot Noise, (quant um noise) is from t he random arrival t ime of elect rons
in t he det ect or- Shot noise causes t he phot o-current t o fluct uat e about a
mean, i
avg
and includes t he dark current .
- Trouble wit h small signals in noisy environment s
- Shot noise limit ed means shot noise > t hermal noise
B i i e i
d avg rms shot
) ( 2 + =

Recei vers:
Sensi t i vi t y and Modul at i on Bandw i dt h
High sensit ivit y requires a l arge/ deep det ect or
Need t o det ect each phot on = increase quant um efficiency
creat e more elect ron-hole pairs and cat ch each one
Large Bandwi dt h requires a smal l/ shall ow det ect or
Need t o finish det ect ion process fast t o accommodat e a short pulse
Larger t he det ect or t he longer t he relaxat ion t ime of t he det ect ion process
Tradeoff bet ween sensit ivit y and bandwidt h:
Larger bandwi dt h, lower sensit ivit y
Example: Sensit ivit y Modulat ion rat e
Light wave Clock/ Dat a Receivers: Agilent 83446A -28 dBm 2.5 Gb/ s
Agilent 83434A -16 dBm 10 Gb/ s
Typi cal Pow er Level s
Transmit t er:
6 t o +17 dBm (0.25 t o 50 mW)
Opt ical Ampl ifier:
+3 t o +20 dB (gain of 2 t o 100 t imes input )
Difference bet ween opt ical and el ect rical power:
Opt ical power is convert ed t o phot ocurrent ,
i
photo
= P
optical
G, G = conversion gain, t ypical ly 0.4 - 0.9 A/ W,
so
in dB, a change in P
opt ical
means t wice t hat change in P
elect ric
R G P P R i P
optical electric
2 2
) ( = =
(dB) (dB)
optical electric
P P = 2
i Optical
f Optical
i electric
f electric
electric
P
P
P
P
P

(dB) log 20 log 10 = =
Act i ve Component Charact eri zat i on
Transmi t t ers, Recei vers, Regenerat ors
Measure Elect ro-opt ic response
Fixed wavelengt h, measure response vs f
mod
Vect or net work analyzer wit h precisely calibrat ed opt ical int erface
Measures E/ O, O/ O, O/ E, E/ E devices
Gives 3 dB bandwidt h
Flat ness of frequency response
RF Receiver
& Display
O/ O
O/ E
E/ O
E/ E
RF
Li ght w ave Component Anal ysi s
Source Responsivit y = Opt ical power
produced (W)/ elect rical current
supplied (A)
Receiver Responsivit y = Elect rical
current produced (A)/ opt ical power
supplied (W)
Modulat ion Rat e
Modulat ion Rat e
W/ A
A/ W
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=
in
out
s
I
P
R
10
log 20 (dB)
|
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=
in
out
r
P
I
R
10
20log (dB)
Typical Laser Frequency Response Typical Phot odiode Frequency Response
Frequency Response and Modul at i on Bandw i dt h
Li ght w ave Component Anal yzers
8702
300 KHz - 3 or 6 GHz
8703
50 MHz - 20 GHz
86030
45 MHz - 50 GHz
Dispersion
Compensator
Dispersion
Compensator
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
LAN
Cross
Connect
(Switch)
Data
2
.
.
.
n
Data
2
.
.
.
n
d
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Act ive
Component s
Modulat ors,
Transmit t ers,
Receivers
Opt i cal Si gnal
Ampl i fi cat i on
and
DWDM
Raman scat t ering
Opt ical pumping
At omi c Physi cs:
Opt i cal Ampl i fi cat i on
Si gnal At t enuat i on
P
o
w
e
r

A
b
s
o
r
b
e
d

(
d
B
/
k
m
)
1200 1400 1600 1000 1800
OH absorpt ion
(nm)
O
-
b
a
n
d
E
-
b
a
n
d
S
-
b
a
n
d
C
-
b
a
n
d
L
-
b
a
n
d
U
-
b
a
n
d
UV-absorpt ion
IR-absorpt ion
Rayleigh
Scat t ering
Typical fiber at t enuat ion
0.2 dB/ km
amplificat ion every 25 - 50 km
(Not very good fiber)
Net working wavelengt h
bands
Opt ical
Amplificat ion
Dispersion
Compensator
Dispersion
Compensator
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
LAN
Cross
Connect
(Switch)
Data
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Spont aneous and St i mul at ed Emi ssi on
Spont aneous emission
Light is spont aneously emit t ed
when an elect ron decays t o a
lower energy st at e.
St imulat ed emission
Incident light st imulat es t he decay of an elect ron.
Light is emit t ed t hat is ident ical ident ical t o incident light .
Same wavelengt h, direct ion, polarizat ion, and phase
Twice as much light
out going as incident
gain of t wo
Raman Scat t eri ng
When a bound elect ron i s excit ed t o some energy E
ex
and
decays by emit t ing light of energy E
light
, wit h
E
light
E
ex
it is called Raman scat t ering
E
light
E
ex
Lifet ime of t he excit ed st at e is t he relaxat ion t ime
~ 1 ms - met ast able (Erbium)
< 1 ns - unst able (SiO
2
)
Opt i cal Ampl i fi ers - Erbi um Doped Fi ber Ampl i fi er
1. Dope a fiber wit h erbium 2. Pump energy int o t he fiber
3. Transmit and amplify t he signal
Amplified signal Signal
Pump
light
Amplified Spont aneous Emission
(ASE) noise!
Erbi um Doped Fi ber Ampl i fi ers
Erbium
doped fiber
LASER pumping energy
int o Er doped fiber
Incoming
signal
Out going amplified signal
plus
Coupler
ASE noise
Two major charact erist ics:
Gain
Noise
Ampl i fi er Input / Out put Spect ra
Signal spect rum
Amplifier Spect rum
wit h no input
Amplified Signal
Spect rum
(Amplified Signal +
Reduced ASE +
Amplified Source noise)

Out put Spect rum
ASE spect rum
wit h no input
1575 nm
-40 dBm
1525 nm
+10 dBm
Amplified signal
spect rum
- t he input signal
sat urat es t he
amplifier)
The relaxat ion t ime of Er causes a ~ 1 ms t ime scale for t he ASE
background t o shift bet ween levels wit h and wit hout a signal
Ot her Opt i cal Ampl i fi er Technol ogy
Semi conduct or and Raman Opt i cal Amp s
Same physical principle but different energy st ruct ure
Ot her Dopant s: xDFA
50 nm
3 dB
Wavelengt h
G
a
i
n

(
d
B
)
Raman Amplifier
Use vibrat ional energy st at es of SiO
2
inst ead of at omic st at es of a dopant
Raman scat t ering among vi brat ional st at es
Pump laser t hrough t he whole fiber
- pump energy is very high
- st at es are not met ast able
Gain region over ~ 100 nm cent ered about 13 THz above t he pump frequency
Semiconduct or Opt ical Amplifier (SOA)
- St imulat ed emission in of t he signal as it
t raverses an excit ed semiconduct or
- Pump t o high energy st at es by bias current or
ext ernal pump laser
- Tend t o be very noisy
Gain region can be t uned wit h band gap
Opt i cal Ampl i fi ers - Summary
EDFA
- Mat erial is doped wit h Erbium
- Mat erial is pumped wit h
1480 or 980nm
- Good for 1550nm signals
Pump Light
Signal (pre-amp)
Signal (post -amp)
Raman Amplifier
- Whole undoped fiber is pumped
- Wide signal -range
- Amplificat ion t hroughout fiber lengt h
- High pump power required
DWDM
Dense
Wavel engt h
Di vi si on
Mul t i pl exi ng
Int roduct i on t o
Dense Wavel engt h Di vi si on Mul t i pl exi ng
Use many different wavelengt hs on one fiber
single mode or mult i-mode fibers
Combine different wavelengt hs t o increase dat a rat e
e.g., 125 s at 40 Gb/ s each 5 Tb/ s (Alcat el, Feb-2002)
New and growing t echnology requiring
mux/ demux and opt ical swit ch t echnologies
peculiar dispersion propert ies
worry about noise at different s
worry about opt ical crosst alk - four wave mixing
1565 nm
RL +0.00 dBm
5.0 dB/ DIV
1545 nm
Amplified
Spont aneous
Emission (ASE)
Channels: 16
Spacing: 100 GHz (~ 0.8 nm)
Ampl i fi ed Dense Wavel engt h Di vi si on Mul t i pl ex
Spect rum
Basi c DWDM Desi gn
Wavelengt hs
Power l evels
Signal-t o-noise rat ios
2
n
1
n-1
2
n
1
n-1
S
R
m1
S
dn
R
n
S
1
R S R
R
1
S
d1
S
n
R
mn
Ampl i fi ed DWDM Spect rum
P

Channel Gain
Noise Figure
Cent er
Span Tilt
Gain Flat ness
Channel Spacing
Ampl i fi er Charact eri st i cs
out
in
SNR
SNR
Figure Noise =
Signal
in
Signal
out
P
P
G =
Gain = 0 50 dB
Noise Figure = 3.5 12dB
= Out put Spect rum of Amplifier wit hout input
= Input spect rum t o Amplifier
= Out put spect rum from Amplifier
Int erpol at ed Source Subt ract i on ( ISS) Met hod
EDFA
Opt ical Spect rum Analyzer
Power Met er
Calibrat ion Pat h
Laser Source
Gain & Noise Figure
1. Measure a const ant wave input spect rum
2. Measure t he amplified const ant wave out put spect rum
3. Int erpolat e across t he signal t o est imat e t he background at t he signal
wavelengt h separat e signal and noise
Ti me Domai n Ext i nct i on ( TDE) Met hod
EDFA
Opt ical Spect rum
Analyzer
DFB/ TLS
Gate
Signal
Spect rum
Gat ing of
Signal
Calibrat ion Pat h
Gain & Noise Figure
1. Measure out put wit h
signal gat ed off
2. Long relaxat ion t ime (met ast abilit y) of t he Erbium excit ed st at es allow
direct measurement of t he spont aneous emission curve
Gai n Compressi on
Tot al out put power: Amplified signal + ASE
EDFA is in sat urat ion if almost all Erbium
excit ed st at es are consumed by
amplificat ion
Tot al out put power remains almost
const ant
Lowest noise figure
Preferred operat ing point
Power levels in link st abilize aut omat ically
P
in
(dBm)
Tot al P
out
-3 dB
Max
-20 -30 -10
Gain
Span Ti l t and Peak t o Peak Devi at i on
dB
nm
Span Tilt
Peak-t o-Peak
Deviat ion
Charact eri zi ng Semi conduct or and
Raman Ampl i fi ers
Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifiers (EDFAs) use energy levels t hat are
met ast able st at es, T~ 1 ms, a long t ime compared t o f
mod
.
Semiconduct or and Raman Amplifiers use unst able st at es:
T
Raman
~ 0.005 ps and T
SOA
~ 1 ns
Time Domain Ext inct ion met hods are not useful
Limit ed t o Int erpolat ed Source Subt ract ion (ISS) for measuring gain and
noise figure
The gain of Raman and semiconduct or amplifiers depend st rongly on
signal polarizat ion, EDFA only weakly.
Measure gain and noise figure as a funct ion of signal polarizat ion
St andard Ampl i fi er Test Set up
EDFA, Semi conduct or, and Raman Ampl i fi er
OA
( DUT)
DFB
DFB
DFB
OSA +
OA-Test
Routine
ATT
SWITCH SWITCH
WDM
TLS
Power
Meter
OSA separat es signals from broadband spont aneous emission
Amplifier charact erist ics depend on input power, wavelengt h, polarizat ion
Sources simulat e operat ion (mult ichannel, adjust able power)
The Compl et e EDFA Test Sol ut i on
Time Domain Ext inct ion Met hod
Int erpolat ed Source Subt ract ion
Met hod
Noise Gain Profile Met hod
Issues i n DWDM
SM fiber can t olerat e up t o 50 mW (+17 dBm)
Nonlinear effect s st art causing t rouble around 10 dBm
About 100 kW/ m
2
!
limit s available channel power t o Power/ channel < 50 mW/ N
channels
Opt ical Amplifiers have limit ed effect ive range
e.g., EDFA: 1525 < < 1565 (roughly)
High power densit ies cause nonlinear scat t ering
e.g., Kerr effect : n = n(E)
Four Wave Mixing (FWM), self-phase modulat ion, . . ., noise
Trends:
Higher capacit y
160 wavelengt hs
12.5 GHz spacing
All opt ical net work (t he grail)
Dispersion
Compensator
Dispersion
Compensator
EDFA
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
ADN
LAN
EDFA
Cross
Connect
(Switch)
Data
2
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EDFA
Opt ical
Amplificat ion
Di spersi on:
The evol ut i on of t he i ndex of
refract i on w i t h w avel engt h and
pol ari zat i on
El ect rodynami cs of
Cont i nuous Medi a
Chromat ic dispersion
Polarizat ion mode dispersion
x
Dispersion
Compensat ors
Dispersion
Compensator
Dispersion
Compensator
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
LAN
Cross
Connect
(Switch)
Data
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Col or: Index of refract i on
Why is a ruby red?
Because t he n
Ruby
() has a resonance at
red
.
For pigment s, e.g., red paint , t he ot her colors are absorbed in t he mess of organic molecules t hat have many
available energy st at es result ing in heat .
White Light
+
+
+
Only red is
absorbed
Red is emitted at
random angles
Ruby "atom"
Excited
ruby "atom"
The Index of Refract i on
The index of refract ion
of a dielect ric is given by
The energy carried by light is det ermined by t he frequency, not t he
wavelengt h, so t he frequency of light in media doesn t change, but t he
wavelengt h does.
The index of refract ion varies wit h wavelengt h,
different colors t ravel at different speeds chromat ic dispersion.
The index of refract ion can also vary wit h polarizat ion
birefringence polarizat ion mode dispersion
The heart of t hese phenomena is t he response of t he media t o t he
elect ric and magnet ic fields t hat compose t he light .
media
vacuum
) (
c
c
n =
media
vacuum
media
vacuum
media
vacuum
) (

= = =
c
c
n
vacuum
media
vacuum media
) (
c c =
Chromat i c Di spersi on Spreads Pul ses
Increases t he Bit Error Rat e
Recall from coherence:
t he minimum frequency/ wavelengt h spread of a pulse of light is
n = n() narrower t he pulse, t he larger t he chromat ic dispersion
Modulat ion sidebands and chirp also increase pulse wavelengt h cont ent
4
1

C
T
Pulse Pulse
cT T
4 4
1
2
or t hus
T
T+ T
The Cause of Chromat i c Di spersi on
Two causes:
1. Mat erial Dispersion
The response, permit t ivit y , of t he media:
2. Waveguide Dispersion
n
core
() and n
cladding
() vary different ly wit h
different boundary condit ions for different wavelengt hs
different solut ions t o t he wave equat ion
x
= = =
0 0 0 media
vacuum
) (
c
c
n
D
i
e
l
e
c
t
r
i
c

c
o
n
s
t
a
n
t
Chromat i c Di spersi on - Defi ni t i ons
Define
describes how t he propagat ion t ime varies wit h wavelengt h in ps/ nm
where
g
() is t he propagat ion t ime along a fiber of lengt h L.
Fact or out t he lengt h and get t he
The pulse spreads by an amount

d
d
g
) (
dispersion chromat ic
d
d
L
D
g
) (
1
t , coefficien dispersion chromat ic
D L T
T
T+ T
Chromat i c Di spersi on Observabl es
) (
g
Group
Delay (ps)
0
Chromat ic dispersion coefficient
(ps/ nmkm)
d
d
L
D
g
) (
1
Zero dispersion
wavelengt h,
t ypically 1300 nm
c
g
0
Typical CD value: 10 ps/ nmkm
Tol erabl e Level s of Chromat i c Di spersi on
Require wit h B = bit rat e in Gb/ s
since and so
and
For 1 dB penalt y:
B
g
1
<<
d
c
d
2
= B d
2
1
B d
d
D L
g
=
B d
2
5
10
B
D L <

Bit rat e: 2.5 Gb/ s 10 Gb/ s 40 Gb/ s
max dispersion: 16,000 ps/ nm 1000 ps/ nm 63 ps/ nm
max lengt h: 940 km 60 km 4 km
Dispersion can be good! DWDM syst ems can have very high power densit y
1 mW/ 1 GW/ m
2
Dispersion spreads out t he energy, decreasing energy densit ies.
F
r
o
m

c
o
h
e
r
e
n
c
e

Chromat i c Di spersi on Measurement s
Modul at i on Phase Shi ft Met hod
Opt ical
Modulat or
DUT
Tunable
Laser
Tunable
RF Source
Phase
Det ect or
Signal
Processing
Dat a
1. Form sinusoidal pulses of light of wavelengt h , at f ~ 1 GHz
2. Measure phase difference bet ween generat ed and received pulses,
3. Convert phase difference t o different ial group delay
g
() =
/2f
4. Fit curve t o
g
() and calculat e
d
d
L
D
g
) (
1

Chromat i c Di spersi on Compensat i on
Dispersion compensat ing fiber:
Follow a segment of dispersing fiber wit h a segment of dispersion
compensat ing fiber
There are also compensat ing component s, e.g., t he chirped FBG
Dispersing
fiber
Dispersion compensat ing
fiber
Pol ari zat i on Behavi or i n Fi bers
Recall: Light is polarized
Polarizat ion can change on every refl ect ion
- bends in t he fiber change t he polarizat ion
Index of refract ion can vary wit h polarizat ion
- Cryst al asymmet ry and impurit ies n = n(, r)
- Fiber cross sect ion asymmet ry
boundary condit ions differ wit h different orient at ion
different polarizat ions have different boundary condit ions
Polarizat ion Mode Dispersion (PMD)
E
y
E
x
Pri nci pl e St at es of Pol ari zat i on
Fibers and component s have dist inct
slow and fast polarizat ion axis
T
T+ T
n
x
n
y
PMD i n fi bers i s a Random Process
Small random variat ions in fiber geomet ry and media cause unpredict able
changes in polarizat ion st at es and principal st at es of polarizat ion
For fiber lengt h much larger t han t he correlat ion lengt h, (L >> L
C
)
The Different ial Group Delay, , follows a Maxwellian dist ribut ion
Since cont ribut ions from different segment s are independent , t hey
combine t o a t ot al in quadrat ure (i.e., like t he sides of a right t riangle):
The mean DGD, , increases wit h
For component s, e.g., filt ers, (L >> L
C
) PMD is det erminist ic
2
2
2
3
2
2
) (

= e f
2 2
2
2
1 N total
+ + + = L
L
N
Tol erabl e Level s of Pol ari zat i on Mode Di spersi on
PMD is a random process depending on t emperat ure and geomet ry
PMD combines like t he legs of a right t riangle:
Define t he 1st order PMD Coefficient :
1st order PMD is wavelengt h independent
2nd order PMDdepends on wavelengt h, but is very small
Typical good qualit y fiber:
Older, poor qualit y fiber:
Tolerat e
L
P

=
2
i Total

km / ps 2 . 0
km / ps 2 1
B
Total
1 . 0
<<

N
Fear t he t ail!
Maxi mum Fi ber Lengt h Tol erabl e t o PMD
Require:
< 0.1/ B
high qual i t y
0.2 ps/ km
low quali t y
2 ps/ km
The graph is for
t he average,
Fear t he t ail!
1
100
10,000
1,000,000
100,000,000
L
e
n
g
t
h

(
k
m
)
Data Rate (Gb/s)
0.01
0.1 1 10 100
OC-1 OC-3 OC-12
OC-48 OC-192
OC-768
High quality fiber
Poor quality fiber
Measuri ng Pol ari zat i on Mode Di spersi on
Jones Mat rix Eigenanalysis met hod:
Measure DUT Transfer mat rix
at t hree known polarizat ions
at a set of wavelengt hs, J(): J() P
in
= P
out
Ext ract T() by diagonalizing J()
Polarizat ion
Synt hesizer
Polarizat ion Analyzer
S0 S1 S2 S3
Tunable
Laser
Transfer
Mat rix
O
1
O
2
I
1
I
2
J
11
J
12
J
21
J
22
J() P
in
= P
out
Jones Mat ri x Ei genanal ysi s ( JME) Resul t
Cannot compensat e PMD wit h a passive device
Must have feedback t o monit or PMD and act ively compensat e
Also measure PMD wit h Modulat ion phase shift and int erferomet ric t echniques
Compl et e Di spersi on Test Set
Agi l ent 86038
Modulat ion Phase Shift Met hod
Single connect ion measurement of
Chromat ic Dispersion and
Polarizat ion Mode Dispersion
Excellent for
Broadband device charact erizat ion
e.g., spools of fiber
Narrowband device charact erizat ion
e.g., filt ers, mux/ demux, et c.
Al l Paramet er Test Set
Agi l ent 81910
Part of t he Agilent Light wave Measurement Syst em (816x)
Swept insert ion loss, ret urn loss, polarizat ion dependent loss
Chromat ic and Polarizat ion Mode Dispersion - int erferomet ric t echnique
bot h insert ion and reflect ion
Opt imized for narrow-band component s (e.g., filt ers, mux/ demux, isolat ors, et c.)
Dispersion
Compensat ors
Dispersion
Compensator
Dispersion
Compensator
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
LAN
Cross
Connect
(Switch)
Data
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Charact eri zi ng t he
Syst em
Opt ical Time Domain Reflect omet ry
Noise
Bit Error Rat e Measurment s
Eye diagram analysis
Ext inct ion rat io
Jit t er
Mask t est s
Opt i cal Ti me Domai n Refl ect omet ry:
Li nk Charact eri zat i on
Opt ical Time-Domain Reflect omet er
(wit h Power Met er, Visual Fault
Finder, and Laser Source)
Opt ical radar
Measures loss vs. dist ance
10 m - 200 km range
Key t ool in inst allat ion and
maint enance
MM and SM modules
Fusion
Splice
Bend Connector Crack Fiber
End
Mechanical
Splice
L
o
s
s
Distance
Bi t Error Rat i o
Bit error rat io,
BER = # of bit s received in error/ # of bit s received
Gives a good indicat ion of t he performance of a
component , link or ent ire net work
Typical BER spec: 1.0 10
-12
Tradeoff bet ween
minimum input power and
accept able bit error rat e
Larger t he power
less effect of dispersion,
less noise from opt ical amplifiers, et c.
P
i
(dBm)
BER
Measurement of Bi t Error Rat es:
The BERT
Pat t ern Generat or
Transmit t er
Receiver
Error Analyzer
Clock
Device Under Test
Pseudo Random Binary
Sequences provide known
pat t erns t hat simulat e random
dat a
Devices can be t est ed for BER
under various st ressful
condit ions such as clock-dat a
delays, long runs of 1 s or 0 s,
low power levels et c.
B
E
R
T
BERTs
86130 Bit alyzer (up t o 3.6 Gb/ s)
71612 HSBERT (up t o 12.5 Gb/ s)
81250 ParBERT (up t o 43 Gb/ s)
Pul se Paramet ers
Overshoot On Logic 1
b
1
80%
50%
20%
b
0
b
dark
Fall Time
Half-Period Of
Ringing Freq.
Pulse Width
Overshoot On Logic 0
Undershoot On Logic 0
Undershoot On Logic 1
Rise Time
Jitter
Eye Di agram Anal ysi s
St andard compliance verificat ion
(SONET / SDH, G-Et hernet , Fibre Channel, ..)
Mask
Pulse Paramet ers
Ext inct ion Rat io
Signal capt ure of pat t erns
causing bit errors
Eye-line measurement s
1 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 1 1
0 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1
Superimposed Bit Sequences
Eye Di agr ams
The Eye Di agram
Power
(mW)
Time (ns)
Di gi t al Communi cat i ons Anal yzer
A sampl i ng osci l l oscope for very hi gh rat es
Superimposed Bit Sequences
Ext inct ion Rat io,
level 0
level 1
=
P
P
E
Logic power levels, P
0
and P
1
Average Power,
) (
level 0 level 1 2
1

+ = P P P
avg
Power
(mW)
Time (ns)
Pulse widt h/ height
Rise/ fall t imes
Undershoot / overshoot
Ringing frequency
Mask Test s
On t he DCA
Defined masks allow
conformance t est ing
t o st andards
Mask hit s highlight
problems wit h many
signal paramet ers
The Agi l ent 86100
Di gi t al Communi cat i ons Anal yzer ( DCA)
20 GHz - 50 GHz - 500 GHz bandwidt h
Ji t t er
The short -t erm, (>10Hz), variat ions in t he t ime base of a signal
Jit t er Period
Ideal Clock
Jit t ery Clock
Jit t er Funct ion
Jit t er Ampl it ude
Charact eri zi ng Ji t t er
Jit t er can be measured eit her as RMS variat ions or peak-peak
Jit t er Tolerance = Amplit ude of applied sinusoidal jit t er t o t he
device under t est result ing in a cert ain Bit Error Rat e
Jit t er Transfer = Rat io of t he out put jit t er amplit ude
t o t he amplit ude of applied sinusoidal jit t er
Jit t er Generat ion/ Int rinsic Jit t er = Jit t er produced by t he device
under t est
Random Jit t er - sum of small random processes result ing in jit t er
Det erminist ic jit t er - dat a dependent jit t er, dut y cycle dist ort ion, et c
result ing in jit t er
Measurement of Ji t t er
The Agi l ent 71501 Ji t t er Anal ysi s Syst em
St at ist ical analysis on a DCA
build a hist ogram window around samples
Only measures jit t er generat ion
Limit ed t o 1 UI peak-peak
No jit t er spect rum info
Use a phase-det ect or t o compare phase of jit t ery
clock wit h ideal clock
Usually used for fixed rat es
Take FFT s of t ime-samples
Frequency agile
Ext ract eye-diagram informat ion
T
PP
T
rms
=
Dispersion
Compensator
Dispersion
Compensator
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
Other
Segment
LAN
Cross
Connect
(Switch)
Data
2
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Concl usi on
A wealt h of t echnologies have been developed for high speed
net working based on a few simple physical phenomena:
Reflect ion and refract ion (geomet ric opt ics)
Opt ic fibers
Int erference Opt ical Spect rum Analysis
high resolut ion dist ance measurement s
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