Solutions Manual To Introduction To Diffential Equations With Dynamical Systems

Solutions Manual to
Introduction to Dierential
Equations with Dynamical
Systems
by Stephen L. Campbell and Richard Haberman
M. Ziaul Haque
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS
PRINCETON AND OXFORD
Copyright c 2008 by Princeton University Press
Published by Princeton University Press
41 William Street, Princeton, New Jersey 08540
In the United Kingdom: Princeton University Press
6 Oxford Street, Woodstock, Oxfordshire, 0X20 1TW
All Rights Reserved
This book has been composed in L
A
T
E
X
press.princeton.edu
Contents
Preface v
Chapter 1. First-Order Dierential Equations and Their Applications 1
1.1 Introduction to Ordinary Dierential Equations 1
1.2 Denite Integral and the Initial Value Problem 1
1.3 First-Order Separable Dierential Equations 3
1.4 Direction Fields 5
1.5 Eulers Numerical Method (Optional) 7
1.6 First-Order Linear Dierential Equations 10
1.7 Linear First-Order Dierential Equations with Constant Coe
cients and Constant Input 15
1.8 Growth and Decay Problems 20
1.9 Mixture Problems 23
1.10 Electronic Circuits 25
1.11 Mechanics II: Including Air Resistance 26
1.12 Orthogonal Trajectories (optional) 27
Chapter 2. Linear Second and Higher-Order Dierenial Equations 29
2.1 General Solution of Second-Order Linear Dierential Equations 29
2.2 Initial Value Problem (For Homogeneous Equation) 30
2.3 Reduction of Order 32
2.4 Homogeneous Linear Constant Coecient Dierential Equations
(Second Order) 35
2.5 Mechanical Vibrations I: Formulation and Free Response 39
2.6 The Method of Undetermined Coecients 45
2.7 Mechanical Vibrations II: Forced Response 58
2.8 Linear Electric Circuits 65
2.9 Euler Equation 68
2.10 Variation of Parameters (Second-Order) 70
2.11 Variation of Parameters (nth-Order) 75
Chapter 3. The Laplace Transform 82
3.1 Denition and Basic Properties 82
3.2 Inverse Laplace Transforms (Roots, Quadratics, & Partial Fractions) 86
3.3 Initial-Value Problems for Dierential Equations 94
3.4 Discontinuous Forcing Functions 98
3.5 Periodic Functions 109
3.6 Integrals and the Convolution Theorem 114
3.7 Impulses and Distributions 118
iv CONTENTS
Chapter 4. An Introduction to Linear Systems of Dierential Equations and
Their Phase Plane 121
4.1 Introduction 121
4.2 Introduction to Linear Systems of Dierential Equations 121
4.3 Phase Plane for Linear Systems of Dierential Equations 130
Chapter 5. Mostly Nonlinear First-Order Dierential Equations 142
5.1 First-Order Dierential Equations 142
5.2 Equilibria and Stability 142
5.3 One Dimensional Phase Lines 143
5.4 Application to Population Dynamics: The Logistic Equation 146
Chapter 6. Nonlinear Systems of Dierential Equations in the Plane 150
6.1 Introduction 150
6.2 Equilibria of Nonlinear Systems, Linear Stability Analysis of Equi
librium, and Phase Plane 150
6.3 Population Models 161
6.4 Mechanical Systems 178
Preface
This Student Solutions Manual contains solutions to the odd-numbered ex
ercises in the text Introduction to Dierential Equations with Dynamical
Systems by Stephen L. Campbell and Richard Haberman.
To master the concepts in a mathematics text the students must solve prob
lems which sometimes may be challenging. This manual has been written
focusing students needs and expectations. Instead of providing only the
answer with very few steps, I include a reasonably detailed solution with
a fair amount of detail when explaining the solution of the problem. The
solutions are self-explanatory and consistent with the notations and termi
nologies used in the text book. I hope this manual will help students build
problem-solving skills.
I would like to thank many people who have provided invaluable help, in
many ways, in the preparation of this manual. First, I take this opportunity
to thank Professor Richard Haberman for his generous expert help, construc
tive comments and accuracy checking. I would also like to thank Professor
Stephen L. Campbell for assembling the nal manuscript, Professor Peter
K. Moore for facilitating support process and Ms. Vickie Kearn of the pub
lishing company for her patience and support. Finally, I must appreciate
the patience of my wife, Rukshana, and my daughters, Zareen and Ehram
for their understanding and compromise of summer time that was slighted
because of my busy schedule.
M. Ziaul Haque
Southern Methodist University
Dallas, TX, 75275, U.S.A.
July, 2007.
Chapter One
First-Order Dierential Equations and Their
Applications
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS
There are no exercises in this section.
1.2 DEFINITE INTEGRAL AND THE INITIAL VALUE
PROBLEM
1-7. Substitute expression for x into the dierential equation
1. x = 2e
3t
+ 1. l.h.s. =
dx
= 6e
3t
.
dt
r.h.s. = 3x 3 = 3(2e
3t
+ 1) 3 = 6e
3t
. Hence l.h.s. = r.h.s.
3. x = t 1. l.h.s. =
dx
= 1. r.h.s =
x
=
t1
= 1. Hence l.h.s. = r.h.s.
dt t1 t1
5. x = e
t
2
. l.h.s. =
dx
= 2te
t
2
. r.h.s = 2tx = 2te
t
2
dt
dx
7. x = e
2t
. l.h.s. =
dt
= 2e
2t
.
r.h.s. = 2e
2t
x
2
= 2e
2t
(e
2t
)
2
= 2e
2t
dx t t
9.
dt
= 3e . Integrating we get, x = 3e + c.
11.
dx
= 5 cos 6t. Integrating we get, x =
5
sin 6t + c.
dt 6
dx
1
1
13.
dt
= 8 cos(t

2
). Use of denite integral gives x = 8
_
0
t
cos t

2
dt + c.
15.
dx
= ln(4 + cos
2
t). Use of denite integral gives
x
dt
=
_
0
t
ln(4 + cos
2
t)dt + c
dx 1
17.
dt
= t
4
; x(2) = 3. Integrating we get x =
5
t
5
+ c.
17 1 17
t = 2 = 3 =
32
+ c =
5
. So x = t
5

5
c =
5

5
.
19.
dx
=
ln t
; x(2) = 5. Use of denite integral gives
dt 4+cos
2
t
ln t
x = 5 +
_
t
dt.
2 4+cos
2
t
21.
dx
=
e
t
; x(1) = 3. dx =
e
t
dt. Use of denite integral gives
dt 1+t 1+t
t t
e e
x 3 =
_
t
dt = x = 3 +
_
t
dt.
1 1+t

1 1+t
d
2
x
23.
dt
2
= 15. Integrating we get
dx
= 15t + c
1
(
dx
dx
dt dt
= v
0
at t = 0 = c
1
= v
0
.)
= 15t + v
0
. Integrating again we get
dt
15
t
2
x =
2
+ v
0
t + c
2
(x = 0 at t = 0 = c
2
= 0.)
_
2 CHAPTER 1
v0
Car stops when
dx
= 0 = v
0
15t = 0 = t = (stopping time).
dt 15

So distance travelled is
v
0
= 15
10 m/sec.
2
0
2
0
2
0 15 1
v
15 2 15
75 =
1
v v
(
v0
)
2
+
15
x = = = =
2 15

2

25.
d
2
x
dx
= 2500t + c
1
(
dx
= 60 at t = 0
dt
2
dt dt
= c
1
= 60). So
dx
= 2500t + 60. Integrating again we get
2500
dt
x = t
2
+ 60t + c
2
(x = 0 at t = 0 = c
2
= 0.)
2
Car stops when
dx
= 0 =2500t + 60 = 0
dt
= t =
60
(stopping time). So distance travelled is
2500

2500 60 60
2
x =
2
(
2500
)
2
+
2500
= 0.72 km.
x
27.
d
2
dx
= 2500t + c
1
(
dx
= v
0
at t = 0
dt
2
dt dt
= c
1
= v
0
). So
dx
= 2500t + v
0
2500
t
2
dt
x =
2
+ v
0
t + c
2
(x = 0 at t = 0 = c
2
= 0)
Car stops when
dx
= 0 = v
0
2500t = 0
v0
dt

= t =
2500
(stopping time). So distance travelled is
2
0
2
0 2500 v0
v v
)
2
( km. + x = =
2 2500 2500 5000
29.
d
2
x
= 6t. Integrating we get
dx
dt
2
dt
= 3t
2
+ c
1
(
dx
dt
= 3t
2
+ 62. Integrating again we get
= 50 at t = 2
c
1
= 62). So
dx
dt
=
x = t
3
+ 62t + c
2
(x = 0 at t = 2 =
Car stops when
dx
= 0 =3t
2
+ 62 = 0
dt
c
2
= 116.)
_
62
= t = (stopping time). So distance travelled is
x

= t(62
3
t
2
) 116 =
_
62
(62
62
) 116
3 3
_
62
3
2
(
2
3
116 km. =
3
)62 116 = 2
_
62
3
dV
So
dy
31. (a) V =volume,
dt
= Q m
3
/h. Let snow depth be y.
dt
= c
y = ct + c
1
(y = 0 at t = 0 c
1
= 0). Thus y = ct. Now
consider the snowplow has moved x over the time t and the
approximate change in volume over this time is V. Hence
V x
V = w(x)y = wctx
t
= wct
t
. Now taking limit
as t 0 we get
dV
= Q

= wct
dx dx
=
Q
=
1
with
wc

dt dt

dt wct kt
k = .
(b)
dx
=
Q
1
1
. Separating the variables we get,
_
dx =
1
_
1
dt
dt kt k t
x =
k
ln t + a. At 11 A.M. t = 3 and x(3) = 0. So
0 =
k
1
ln 3 + a
1
a =
k
1
ln 3. Then at noon (t = 4),
x(4) =
1
ln 4 ln 3 =
1
ln
4
.
k k k 3
33.
d
2
y
= g = 9.8 m/sec
2
. Integrating we get
dt
2
dy
= 9.8t + c
1
(
dy
dy
= v
0
at t = 0 = c
1
= v
0
.) So
dt dt
= 9.8t + v
0
dt
y =
9
2
.8
t
2
+ v
0
t + c
2
(y = 0 at t = 0 = c
2
= 0.)
At maximum height
dy
= 0 = v
0
9.8t = 0
v0
dt

= t =
9.8
(time at maximum height). So maximum height is
=
1960 m/sec.
2
0
2
0
2
0
y =
9.8
2
(
v0
)
2
+
9.8
=
1
v
100 =
1
2
v v
= = v
0
9.8 2 9.8 9.8

FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 3
35.
d
2
y
= g = 9.8 m/sec
2
. Integrating we get
dt
2
dy
= 9.8t + c
1
(
dy
= 0 at t = 0 = c
1
= 0.)
dt dt

So
dy
= 9.8t. Integrating again we get y =
9.8
t
2
+ c
2
dt 2
(y = 200 at t = 0 = c
2
= 200). y =
9.8
t
2
+ 200. Now to fall,
2
9.8 9.8
_
400 20
y = 0. So 0 =
2
t
2
+ 200
2
t
2
= 200 = t =
9.8
=
9.8
sec.
37. Since x(t
0
) = x
0
, the general solution x =
_
t
f
_
t
_
dt + c becomes
0
x
0
=
_
t0
f
_
t
_
dt + c = c = x
0

_
t0
f
_
t
_
dt. Hence the solution is
0

0
x =
_
t
f
_
t
_
dt + x
0

_
t0
f
_
t
_
dt = x
0
+
_
t
f
_
t
_
dt.
0 0 t0
1.3 FIRST-ORDER SEPARABLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
dx x+1 dx dt
1.
dt
=
t
. Separating variables gives
_
x+1
=
_
t
. Integrating we get,
ln x + 1 = ln t + c
1
ln
|x+1|
= c
1

x+1 c1
t
|
x+1
|
c1
| |
|t|

= e
dx
t
t
= e = c x = ct 1.
3.
dt
= e . Separating variables gives
_
dx =
_
e
t
dt. Integrating we get,
x = e
t
+ c.
5.
dx
= tx + 4x + 3t + 12 = (x + 3) (t + 4) . Separating variables gives
dt
dx t
2
_
x+3
=
_
(t + 4) dt. Integrating we get, ln x + 3 =
2
+ 4t + c
1
2
| |
2
2
.
dx
|x + 3| = e
c1
e
t
2
+4t
x = ce
t
+4t
3 where c = e
c1
7.
dt
= 3. Separating variables gives
_
dx =
_
3dt. Integrating we get,
x = 3t + c.
dx 5
9.
dt
= x . Separating variables gives
_
x
5
dx =
_
dt. Integrating we get,

x
4
= t + c. Using x(2) = 1 we get,
1
= 2 + c c =
9
.
4 4 4
Substituting c we get x
4
= 9 4t x = (9 4t)
1/4
.
dx
11.
dt
= x
2
cos(t
2
). Separating variables gives x
2
dx = cos(t
2
)dt. Using
2
denite integrals we get,
_
x
x
2
dx =
_
t
cos(t )dt
1 0
2 2

1
+ 1 =
_
0
t
cos(t )dt
1
= 1
_
0
t
cos(t )dt
x x
1
x =
2
1
_
t
cos(t )dt
0
13.
dx
= t cos(x
1/2
). Separating variables gives
dx
= tdt. Using
dt cos(x
1/2
)
dx
denite integrals we get,
_
x
=
_
t
tdt
cos(x
1/2
)
2 1
2

_
2
x
dx
=
t

1
=
1
_
t
2
1
_
.
cos(x
1/2
) 2 2 2
du t
2
+1
15.
dt
=
u
2
+4
_ _
u
2
+ 4
_
du =
_ _
t
2
+ 1
_
dt.
4 CHAPTER 1
3 3
Integrating we get,
u
3
+ 4u =
t
3
+ t + c. Using u(0) = 1 we get,
1 13
+ 4 = c c = . Substituting c we obtain the solution as
u
3
3
+ 12u =
t
3
+ 3t
3
+ 13.
dx 2 2
17.
dt
= t
2
x + x + t
2
+1 =
_
x
2
+ 1
_ _
t
2
+ 1
_
dx
3
_
x
2
+1
=
_ _
t
2
+ 1
_
dt. Integrating we get, tan
1
(x) =
t
3
+ t + c
3
x = tan
_
t
3
+ t + c
_
. Using x(0) = 2 we get, c = tan
1
(2). Hence
_
t
_
the solution is x = tan
3
3
+ t + tan
1
(2) .
dx dx
19.
dt
= x (x 1) . Separating variables gives
_
x(x1)
=
_
dt. Using
partial fractions to the integral on the left we get,
1 A B
x(x1)
=
x
+
x1
1 = A (x 1) + Bx. Putting x = 0 and 1,
respectively, we have, A = 1 and B = 1. Hence
dx dx dx
_
x(x1)
=
_
x1

_
x
=
_
dt ln |x 1|
c
ln |x| = t + c
x1
ln

x1

= t + c = ke
t
where k = e . Solving this
x x

1
equation for x we obtain the general solution, x =
1ke
t
. Since x = 0
and x = 1 both satisfy the dierential equation they are also
solutions. The solution x = 1 corresponds to k = 0, however,
x = 0 is not included in the general solution for any nite k.
Hence the solutions are x =
1
and x = 0.
1ke
t
dx
2
dx
21.
dt
= (x 1) (x 2) . Separating variables gives
_
(x1)(x2)
2
=
_
dt.
Using partial fractions to the integral on the left we get,
1 A B C
(x1)(x2)
2
=
x1
+
x2
+
(x2)
2
2
1 = A (x 2) + B (x 1) (x 2) + C (x 1) . Putting x = 1
and 2, respectively, we have, A = 1 and C = 1. Then equating
the coecients of x
2
we have A + B = 0 B = 1. Hence
dx dx dx dx
_
(x1)(x2)
2
=
_
x1

_
x2
+
_
(x2)
2
=
_
dt. Integrating both
sides we obtain the solution, ln ln
1
= t + c. |x 1| |x 2|
x2
Since x = 1 and x = 2 both satisfy the dierential equation they
are also solutions. Hence the solutions are
ln ln
1
= t + c, x = 1 and x = 2. |x 1| |x 2|
x2
23. (tx + x) dt + (tx + t) dx = 0. Dividing by tx we get,
_
1 +
1
t
_
dt +
_
1 +
x
1
_
dx = 0. Now integrating we have,
t + ln t + x + ln x = c ln tx | | | |
x
| | = t x +
c
c
tx = e
c
e
t
e
x
te
t
xe

= c where c = e .
25.
_
t
2
4
_
dz +
_
z
2
9
_
dt = 0. Dividing by
_
t
2
4
_ _
z
2
9
_
dz dt
we get,
(z
2
9)
+
(t
2
4)
= 0. Now we use the formula
du 1 ua
_
u
2
a
2
=
2a
ln

u+a
(from integration table) to integrate and

1/4
get
1
ln
+
1
ln
= c ln

1/6
= c
z3 t2 z3 t2
6 z+3 4 t+2 z+3 t+2
_
1/4
_
z3
_
1/6
_
t2
_
1/4

c
_
z3
_
1/6
_
t2 c
= e

= e

z+3 t+2 z+3 t+2

6 4 4 2
_
z3
_ 1
c
_
t2
_

1
c
_
t+2
_ 1
z3
_
t+2
_ 3
z+3
= e
t+2
= e
t2

z+3
= c
t2
where c = (e
c
)
6
.
27. e
t+x
dt + e
2t3x
dx = 0. Dividing by e
x
e
2t
we get,
e
t
dt + e
4x
dx = 0. Now integrating we have, e
t e
4x
= c
4
e
4x
= 4e
t
4c 4x = ln (4e
t
4c)

1

x =
4
ln (4e
t
+ k) where k = 4c.
29. z = at + bx + c. Dierentiating with respect to t we get,
dz
= a + b
dx dz
= a + bf (z) which is a dierential equation
dt dt dt
in z and t and can be solved by separation of variables as

dz
_
=
_
dt.
a+bf (z)
31.
dx
= (t + 4x 1)
2
. Let z = t + 4x 1. Then
dx
= z
2
= f(z)
dt dt
and
dz
= 1 + 4
dx
= 1 + 4z
2
. Separating the variables we get,
dz 1
_
1+4
dt
z
2
=
_
dt.
dt
We use the substitution u = 2z dz =
2
du
du
to integrate the left hand side. This gives
1
2
_
1+u
2
=
_
dt
1
tan
1
(2z) = t + c
1
tan
1
(2t + 8x 2) = t + c.
dx z
33.
2
= e
t+x
(t + x)
1

1.
2
Let z = t + x. Then
dx
= e z
1
dt dt
1
z z
and
dz
= 1 +
dx
= 1 + e z
1
1 = e z
1
. Separating the
dt dt
variables we get,
_
ze
z
dz =
_
dt. We use integration by parts
to integrate the left hand side as u = z du = dz and dv = e
z
dz.
v = e
z
. Then
_
ze
z
dz =
_
udv =

uv
_
vdu = ze
z
+
_
e
z
dz = ze
z
e
z
. This gives e
z
(z + 1) = t + c.
Substituting z = t + x we get the solution as e
(t+x)
(t + x + 1)
= t + c e
tx
(t + x + 1) = t + c.
1.4 DIRECTION FIELDS
1.
2 0 2
0
2
x
t
6 CHAPTER 1
3.
2 0
2
0
2
t
x
5.
2
0 2
0
2
x
t
1.4.1 Existence and Uniqueness
1.
dx
=
x
= f (t, x) and f
x
=
1
are continuous for all (t, x) . So
dt 1+t
2
1+t
2
unique solution exists for all (t
0
, x
0
) .
dx 2
_
7/3
7 2
_
4/3
3.
dt
=
_
1 t
2
x = f (t, x) and f
x
=
3
_
1 t
2
x are
continuous for all (t, x) . So unique solution exists for all (t
0
, x
0
) .
dx
1/5
1
5.
dt
= (x + t) = f (t, x) is continuous for all (t, x) but f
x
=
5(x+t)
4/5
is not continuous for x + t = 0.So unique solution exists for all
(t
0
, x
0
) such that x
0
+ t
0
= 0.
dx cos t
cos t
7.
dt
=
x1
= f (t, x) and f
x
=
(x1)
2
are not continuous at x = 1.
So unique solution exists for all (t
0
, x
0
) such that x
0
= 1.
dx
9. =
_
1 t
2
2x
2
_
3/2
= f (t, x) and f
x
= 6x
_
1 t
2
2x
2
_
1/2
dt
are continuous for 1 t
2
2x
2
> 0. So unique solution exists for
all (t
0
, x
0
) such that t
2
0
+ 2x
0
2
< 1.
dx 1
11.
dt
=
t
1/3
= f (t, x) is not continuous at t = 0 although f
x
= 0 is
continuous everywhere. So unique solution exists for all (t
0
, x
0
)
such that t
0
= 0.
13. (a) Dierentiating t
2
+ x
2
= c wrt(with respect to) t we get,
2t + 2x
dx
= 0
dx t
. Hence t
2
+ x
2
= c denes
dt

dt
=
x
a solution.
(b) graph
(c) At x
0
= 0, as f (t, x) =
t
and f
x
=
t
are discontinuous at
x x
2
this point.
2 dx
15. (a) Dierentiating t + x = c wrt t we get, 1 + 2x
dt
= 0.
Hence t + x
2
= c denes a solution.
(b) graph
(c) Here
dx 1
= f (t, x) and f
x
=
1
are discontinuous at
2
dt
=
2x 2x
x
0
= 0. Hence the theorem fails to hold at this point.
17. (a) Dierentiating x = c sin t wrt t we get,
dx x cos t
= c cos t = c cos t = cx = x cot t.
dt x c sin t
Hence x = c sin t denes a solution.
(b) graph
(c) Here
dx
= x
cos t
= f (t, x) and f
x
=
cos t
are discontinuous
dt sin t sin t
when sin t = 0 t = n for n = 0, 1, 2, ...Hence the
theorem fails to hold at the point t
0
= n for n = 0, 1, 2, ...
19. (a) Dierentiating x =
1
wrt t we get,
dx 1 2
.
t+c dt
=
(t+c)
2
= x
Hence x =
1
denes a solution.
t+c
(b) graph
(c) Here
dx
= x
2
= f (t, x) and f
x
= 2x are continuous
dt
everywhere. Hence there is NO point where the theorem
fails to holds.
21. (a) For x = 1, l.h.s. is
dx
= 0 and r.h.s. = (x 1)
1/5
= 0.
dt
For x =
_
4
t + c
_
5/4
+ 1, l.h.s. is
dx
=
_
4
t + c
_
1/4
and
5 dt 5
r.h.s. = (x 1)
1/5
=
_
_
4
t + c
_
5/4
+ 1 1
_
1/5
=
_
4
t + c
_
1/4
.
5 5
(b) By separating the variables we get,
dx
= dt which, on
(x1)
1/5
integration, becomes x =
_
4
5
t + c
_
5/4
+ 1. Then using the
initial condition x
0
= 1 for any t
0
we get c =
4
t
0
and thus
5
one solution is x =
_
4
5
t
5
4
t
0
_
5/4
+ 1. Another solution is
clearly x = 1 because it satises the initial condition as
well as the dierential equation. So there are at least two
solutions through the point (t
0
, x
0
) with x
0
= 1.
(c) Graph
(d) Although f (t, x) = (x 1)
1/5
is continuous everywhere,
f
x
=
1
is not continuous at x
0
= 1. As a result,
(x1)
4/5
uniqueness does not hold and two solutions in part (b)
is not a surprise.
1.5 EULERS NUMERICAL METHOD (OPTIONAL)
1.
dx
= x t = f (t, x) , t
0
= 0, x
0
= 1, h = 0.5. We use recursive formula,
dt
8 CHAPTER 1
x
n+1
= x
n
+ hf (t
n
, x
n
) = x
n
+ 0.5 (x
n
t
n
), where t
n+1
= t
n
+ h
to approximate
x
1
= x
0
+ h (x
0
t
0
) = 1 + 0.5(1 0) = 1.5 at t
1
= 0.5
x
2
= x
1
+ h (x
1
t
1
) = 1.5 + 0.5(1.5 0.5) = 2 at t
2
= 1
x
3
= x
2
+ h (x
2
t
2
) = 2 + 0.5(2 1) = 2.5 at t
3
= 1.5
x
4
= x
3
+ h (x
3
t
3
) = 2.5 + 0.5(2.5 1.5) = 3 at t
4
= 2
So estimate for x(2) is x
4
= 3.
3.
dx
= tx
2
= f (t, x) , t
0
= 0, x
0
= 1, h = 1. We use recursive formula,
dt
x
n+1
= x
n
+ hf (t
n
, x
n
) = x
n
t
n
x
2
, where t
n+1
= t
n
+ h
n
to approximate
x
1
= x
0
ht
0
x
0
2
= 1 0 = 1 at t
1
= 1
x
2
= x
1
ht
1
x
2
1
= 1 1 = 0 at t
2
= 2
2
= 0.
5.
dx
= 2x 4t = f (t, x) , t
0
= 0, x
0
= 1, h = 0.5. We use recursive
dt
formula,
x
n+1
= x
n
+ hf (t
n
, x
n
) = x
n
+ 0.5 (2x
n
4t
n
) = 2 (x
n
t
n
) ,
where t
n+1
= t
n
+ h to approximate
x
1
= 2 (x
0
t
0
) = 2(1 0) = 2 at t
1
= 0.5
x
2
= 2 (x
1
t
1
) = 2(2 0.5) = 3 at t
2
= 1
x
3
= 2 (x
2
t
2
) = 2(3 1) = 4 at t
3
= 1.5
x
4
= 2 (x
3
t
3
) = 2(4 1.5) = 5 at t
4
= 2
4
= 5.
7.
dx
= sin x = f (t, x) , t
0
= 0, x
0
= 0, h = 0.5. We use recursive
dt
formula,
x
n+1
= x
n
+ hf (t
n
, x
n
) = x
n
+ 0.5 (sin x
n
) , where t
n+1
= t
n
+ h
to approximate
x
1
= x
0
+ 0.5 sin x
0
= 0 at t
1
= 0.5
x
2
= x
1
+ 0.5 sin x
1
= 0 at t
2
= 1
Similarly, x
i
= 0 at t
i
for all i = 0, 1, ..., 8.
8
= 0.
9. (a)
dx
= 20x = f (t, x) , t
0
= 0, x
0
= 1, h = 0.2.
dt
We use recursive formula,
x
n+1
= x
n
+ hf (t
n
, x
n
) = x
n
+ 0.2 (20x
n
) = 3x
n
.
Here x
n
= (3)
n
at t
n
= 0.2n, n = 0, 1, 2, ...
10
10
= (3) = 59049.
(b) x
n
oscillates wildly as n . x(2) = e
40
= 4.248 10
18
.
So x
10
= 59049 is not a very good approximation.
11. (a)
dx
= 20x = f (t, x) , t
0
= 0, x
0
= 1, h = 0.01.
dt
x
n+1
= x
n
+ hf (t
n
, x
n
) = x
n
+ 0.01 (20x
n
) = 0.8x
n
.
Here x
n
= (0.8)
n
at t
n
= 0.01n, n = 0, 1, 2, ...
200
200
= (0.8) = 4.1495 10
20
.
(b) In this case, x
n
0 as n , so the numerical solution behaves
like the actual solution x = e
20t
and the statement
x
200
x(2) = e
40
= 4.248 10
18
is not too bad.
9 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
13.
dx
= x
2
= f (t, x) , t
0
= 0, x
0
= 1, h = 0.2.
dt
x
n+1
= x
n
+ hf (t
n
, x
n
) = x
n
+ 0.2x
n
2
, where t
n+1
= t
n
+ h
to approximate
x
1
= x
0
+ 0.2x
0
2
= 1 + 0.2 = 1.2 at t
1
= 0.2
x
2
= x
1
+ 0.2x
1
2
= 1.2 + 0.288 = 1.488 at t
2
= 0.4
x
3
= x
2
+ 0.2x
2
2
= 1.488 + 0.443 = 1.9308 at t
3
= 0.6
x
4
= x
3
+ 0.2x
2
3
= 1.9308 + 0.7456 = 2.6764 at t
4
= 0.8
x
5
= x
4
+ 0.2x
4
2
= 2.6764 + 1.4326 = 4.109 at t
5
= 1
5
= 4.109.
For h = 0.1 use the same formula and procedure as above.
There are 11 points this time, that is 10 steps after initial step
and the estimates for x(1) is x
10
= 6.1289.
For h = 0.01 the estimates for x(1) is 30.3897 using software
and for h = 0.001 the estimates for x(1) is 193.1368 using
software.
15.
dx
= 1 2x + x
2
= f (t, x) , t
0
= 0, x
0
= 5, h = 0.2.
dt
x
n+1
= x
n
+ hf (t
n
, x
n
) = x
n
+ 0.2
_
1 2x
n
+ x
2
_
n
2
= x
n
+ 0.2 (x
n
1) , where t
n+1
= t
n
+ h to approximate
2
x
1
= x
0
+ 0.2 (x
0
1) = 5 + 7.2 = 2.2 at t
1
= 0.2
2
x
2
= x
1
+ 0.2 (x
1
1) = 2.488 at t
2
= 0.4
2
x
3
= x
2
+ 0.2 (x
2
1) = 2.931 at t
3
= 0.6
x
4
= x
3
+ 0.
2
2 (x
3
1) = 3.676 at t
4
= 0.8
x
5
= x
4
+ 0.
2
2 (x
4
1) = 5.109 at t
5
= 1
2
x
6
= x
5
+ 0.2 (x
5
1) = 8.486 at t
6
= 1.2
x
7
= x
6
+ 0.
2
2 (x
6
1) = 19.694 at t
7
= 1.4
x
8
= x
7
+ 0.
2
2 (x
7
1) = 89.591 at t
8
= 1.6
2
x
9
= x
8
+ 0.2 (x
8
1) = 1659.265 at t
9
= 1.8
2
x
10
= x
9
+ 0.2 (x
9
1) = 551627.57 at t
10
= 2
10
= 551627.57 and it seems to tend
to innity.
17.
dx
= 1 2x + x
2
= f (t, x) , t
0
= 0, x
0
= 5, h = 0.1.
dt
x
n+1
= x
n
+ hf (t
n
, x
n
) = x
n
+ 0.1
_
1
2
2x
n
+ x
n
_
= x
n
+ 0.1 (x
n
1)
2
, where t
n+1
= t
n
+ h to approximate
x
1
= x
0
+ 0.1 (x
0
1)
2
= 1.4 at t
1
= 0.1
2
x
2
= x
1
+ 0.1 (x
1
1) = 0.824 at t
2
= 0.2
x
3
= x
2
+ 0.1 (x
2
2
1) = 0.4913 at t
3
= 0.3
2
x
4
= x
3
+ 0.1 (x
3
1) = 0.2689 at t
4
= 0.4
x
5
= x
4
+ 0.1 (x
4
1)
2
= 0.1079 at t
5
= 0.5
x
6
= x
5
+ 0.1 (x
5
1)
2
= 0.0148 at t
6
= 0.6
x
7
= x
6
+ 0.1 (x
6
1)
2
= 0.1119 at t
7
= 0.7
x
8
= x
7
+ 0.1 (x
7
1)
2
= 0.1908 at t
8
= 0.8
_
_
_
10 CHAPTER 1
2
x
9
= x
8
+ 0.1 (x
8
1) = 0.2563 at t
9
= 0.9
x
10
= x
9
+ 0.1 (x
9
1)
2
= 0.3116 at t
10
= 1
x
11
= x
10
+ 0.1 (x
10
1)
2
= 0.359 at t
11
= 1.1
2
x
12
= x
11
+ 0.1 (x
11
1) = 0.4 at t
12
= 1.2
x
13
= x
12
+ 0.1 (x
1
2
2
1) = 0.436 at t
13
= 1.3
x
14
= x
13
+ 0.1 (x
13
1)
2
= 0.4678 at t
14
= 1.4
x
15
= x
14
+ 0.1 (x
14
1)
2
= 0.4961 at t
15
= 1.5
2
x
16
= x
15
+ 0.1 (x
15
1) = 0.5215 at t
16
= 1.6
x
17
= x
16
+ 0.1 (x
16
1)
2
= 0.5444 at t
17
= 1.7
2
x
18
= x
17
+ 0.1 (x
17
1) = 0.5652 at t
18
= 1.8
x
19
= x
18
+ 0.1 (x
18
1)
2
= 0.5841 at t
19
= 1.9
2
x
20
= x
19
+ 0.1 (x
19
1) = 0.6014 at t
20
= 2
20
= 0.6014.
1.6 FIRST-ORDER LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
1.6.1 Form of the General Solution
There are no exercises in this subsection.
1.6.2 Solutions of Homogeneous First-Order Linear Dierential
Equations
dx dx
1.
dt
= 3x. By separation we obtain
_
x
= 3
_
dt. Integration yields
ln x = 3t + c
1
x = e
c1
e
3t
x = ce
3t
, where c = e
c1
.
dx
| | | |
dx
3.
dt
= 2tx. By separation we obtain
_
x
=
_
2tdt. Integration yields
ln |x| = t
2
+ c
1
|x| = e
c1
e
t
2
x = ce
t
2
, where c = e
c1
.
dx dx 1
_
dt
5. 2t
dt
+ x = 0. By separation we obtain
_
x
=
2
. Integration
1
yields ln |x| = ln |t| + c
1
ln |x| + ln
t
1/2

= c
1

t
ln
xt
1/2

= c
1
c1 c1 c1
xt
1/2

= e
2
xt
1/2
= e x = ct
1/2
where c = e .
dx

7.

+ (cos t) x = 0

. By separation we obtain
_
dx
=
_
cos tdt.
dt x
Integration yields ln |x| = sin t + c
1
|x| = e
c1
e
sin t
x = ce
sin t
, where c = e
c1
.
dx
9.

+
_
cos(t
1/2
)
_
x = 0. By separation we obtain
dx
_
dt
=
_
cos(t

1
2
)dt. Denite integration yields
t t
ln
x
|x| =
_
0
cos(s

1 1
2
)ds + c
1
|x| = e
c1
exp
_

_
0
cos(s

2
)ds
_
t
1
x = c exp cos(s

2
)ds , where c = e
c1
.
0
dx dx
11. = 5x. By separation we obtain
_
= 5
_
dt. Integration
dt x
yields ln |x| = 5t + c
1
x = e
c1
e
5t
= ce
5t
. Using the initial
condition x(0) = 9 we get, c = 9 and the solution is x = 9e
5t
.
dx dx
13.
dt
= 9x. By separation we obtain
_
x
= 9
_
dt. Integration
yields ln x = 9t + c
1
c1
e
9t
= ce
9t
. Using the initial | | x = e
27
condition x(3) = 7 we get, 7 = ce c = 7e
27
and the
solution is x = 7e
9t27
= 7e
9(t3)
.
dx sin t dx sin t
15.
dt
+
4+e
t
_
x
=
_
4+e
t
dt.
sin s
Denite integration yields ln |x| =
_
5
t
4+e
s
ds + c
1

_
sin s
_
x = c exp
_
5
t
4+e
s
ds . Using the initial condition x(5) = 10
_
sin s
_
we get, c = 10 and the solution is x = 10 exp
_
5
t
4+e
s
ds .
dx
+ t
2 dx 1
17.
dt
_
x
=
_
t
2
dt.
Integration yields ln |x| =
1
t
+ c
1
x = e
c1
e
1/t
= ce
1/t
.
Using the initial condition x(1) = 3 we get, 3 = ce
c = 3e
1
and the solution is x = 3e
(
1
t
1)
.
1.6.3 Integrating Factors for First-Order Linear Dierential Equa
tions
dx dx e
t
19. t
dt
+ x = e
t
dt
+
x
t
=
t
, p(t) =
1
t
. The integrating factor is
e
_
p(t)dt
= e
ln|t|
= t. Multiplying by integrating factor we get
dx t d t t
t
dt
+ x = e
dt
(xt) = e . Integration yields xt = e + c.
Using the initial condition x(1) = 1 we get, 1 = e + c
c = 1 e. Hence the solution is xt = e
t
+ 1 e x =
e
t
+1e
.
dx t t
21.

= 3e . By integration we obtain
_
dx = 3
_
e
t
dt

x = 3e
t
+ c.
dx 2t 1

2t
23.
_
dt
t
2
+ 1
_
dx
+ 2tx = 1 + x = , p(t) = .
dt

dt (t
2
+1)
_
(t
2
+1) (t
2
+1)
2t
dt
_
p(t)dt (t
2
+1)
The integrating factor e = e . Using the substitution
2t
u = t
2
+ 1 we have
_
(t
2
+1)
dt = ln
t
2
+ 1

and then the integrating
ln t
2
+1
factor is e
| |
=
t
2
+ 1

= t
2
+ 1 (since positive for real t).
Multiplying by integrating factor we get
d
_
t
2
+ 1
_
dx
+ 2tx = 1
_
x
_
t
2
+ 1
__
= 1. Integration yields
x
_
t
2
+ 1
_
dt
= t + c x

=
dt
t
+
c
.
dx

t
2
+1 t
2
+1
_
p(t)dt 4t
25.
dt
+ 4x = t, p(t) = 4. The integrating factor is e = e .
4t dx 4t d
e
dt
+ 4e x = te
4t
dt
_
xe
4t
_
= te
4t
. Integration yields
4t

xe =
_
te
4t
dt. We use integration by parts on the r.h.s. as
u = t du = dt and dv = e
4t
dt v =
1
e
4t
. Then
r.h.s.=
_
udv = uv
_
vdu =
1
te
4t 1
_4
e
4t
dt =
1
te
4t 1
e
4t
.
4 4 4 16
4t 1 1 4t 1

1
So xe =
4
te
4t

16
e + c x =
4
t
16
+ ce
4t
1
.
Using the initial condition x(0) = 0 we have, c =
16
.
1 1 1
Hence the solution is x =
4
t
16
+
16
e
4t
.
27. t
dx
= 2x
dx 2
x = 0, p(t) =
2
e
dt
= e
dt
2
_
t
= t
2
t
.
_
p(t)dt

1
dt
= e
2 ln t
t
12 CHAPTER 1
t
2 dx
dt
x

2
t
3
x = 0
d
dt
_
x
t
2
_
= c. Using the initial condition x(1) = 4 we have, c = 4.
t
2
Hence the solution is x = 4t
2
. This can also be done by
separation.
29. t
2 dx
+ tx = 1
dx
+
1
x = t
2
, p(t) =
1
. The integrating
dt dt t t
_
p(t)dt
_
1
dt ln t
factor is e = t. = e
t
= e
t
dx
+ x =
1 d
(xt) =
1
xt
dt
= ln t +
t
c

dt
x = t
1
ln
t
t + ct
1
.
31. t
dx
+ 3x = t

dx
+
3
x = 1, p(t) =
3
. The integrating
dt

dt
3
t
_
t
_
p(t)dt
1
dt 3 ln t
= t
3
factor is e = e
t
= e .
t
3 dx
+ 3t
2
x = t
3 d
_
t
3
x
_
= t
3
dt dt
4

t
3
x =
t
4
+ c x =
1
4
t + ct
3
.
One solution,
1
4
t, is continuous at (0, 0) . All other solutions
approaches as t 0.
dx dx 1

1
33. t x = t
_
2
p(t)dt
=

e

x
_
= t, p(t) = . The integrating
1
t
dt dt

t t
dt
= e
ln t
= t
1
factor is e .
t
1 dx
+ t
2
x = 1
d
_
t
1
x
_
dt dt
t
1
x = t + c x = t
2
+ ct.
All solutions are continuous and pass through (0, 0) .
x
t
dx
35.
dt
+ 2tx = 1, p(t) = 2t. The integrating factor is
2
_
p(t)dt
_
2tdt t
e = e = e . Multiplying by integrating factor
2 2 2 2
t
2
dx t d
_
t
_
t
we get e
dt
+ 2te
t
x = e
dt
e x = e . Denite
2 2 2 2 2
t s s
integration yields e x =
_
t
e ds + c x = e
t
_
t
e ds + ce
t
.
0

0
37.
dx
+ t
2
x = t, p(t) = t
2
dt
1 3
_
p(t)dt t
3
e = e . Multiplying by integrating factor we get
3 3 3 3
e
1
t
3
_
dx
+ t
2
x
_
= te
1
t
3
d
_
e
1
t
3
x
_
= te
1
t
3
.
dt dt

3 3
Denite integration yields e
1
t
3
x =
_
t
se
s
3
ds + c
0
s
3 3 3
x = e
t
3 _
t
se
3
ds + ce
t
3
.
0
39.
dx
+ e
t
x = 3, p(t) = e
t
dt
t
_
p(t)dt e
t t t t
e
e
_
dx
+ e
t
x
_
= 3e
e d
_
e
e
x
_
= 3e
e
.
dt dt

t s
e e
Denite integration yields e x = 3
_
t
e ds + c
0
t s t
e
x = 3e
e
_
t
e ds + ce
e
.
0
41.
dx
+ x =
1
, x(2) = 1, p(t) = 1. The integrating factor is
dt t+1
_
p(t)dt t
t t
e
t
_
dx
+ x
_
=
e d
(e
t
x) =
e
. Denite integration yields
dt t+1 dt t+1

s
t e
e x =
_
t
s+1
ds + c. Using initial condition we get,
2
e
s
2t
c = e
2
and the solution is x = e
t
_
t
s+1
ds + e .
2
43. 3t
dx
x = t sin t
dx 1
x =
1
sin t, x(5) = 0, p(t) =
1
.
dt dt 3t 3 3t

1
The integrating factor is e
_
p(t)dt
= e

3
ln t
= t
1/3
. Multiplying
1 1
by integrating factor we get t
1/3
_
dx
x
_
= t
1/3
sin t
dt 3t 3
d
_
t
1/3
x
_
=
1
t
1/3
sin t. Denite integration yields
dt
t
3
1
t
1/3
x =
_
3
s
1/3
sin sds + c. Using initial condition we get,
5
1
t
1/3
c = 0 and the solution is x =
3
_
t
s
1/3
sin sds.
5
dx t dx 1 1 e
t
1
45. 7t
dt
+ x = e
dt
+
7t
x =
7 t
, p(t) =
7t
. The integrating
1
factor is e
_
p(t)dt
= e
7
ln t
= t
1/7
. Multiplying by integrating factor
1 e
t
d e
t
we get t
1/7
_
dx
+ x
_
=
_
t
1/7
x
_
=
7t
6/7
. Denite
dt 7t 7t
6/7

dt
1
integration yields t
1/7
x =
_
t
7
s
6/7
e
s
ds + c
0
x =
7
1
t
1/7
_
t
s
6/7
e
s
ds + ct
1/7
.
0
dx 1 dt dt
47. = = x + t
dx
t = x, p(x) = 1. The integrating
dt x+t dx

factor e
_
p(x)dx
= e
x
. Multiplying by integrating factor we get
e
x
_
dt d
dx
t
_
= xe
x

dx
(te
x
) = xe
x
te
x
=
_
xe
x
dx + c. We use integration by parts on the r.h.s. as
u = x du = dx and dv = e
x
dx v = e
x
. Then
r.h.s.=
_
udv = uv
_
vdu = xe
x
+
_
e
x
dx = xe
x
e
x
.
So te
x
= xe
x
e
x
+ c t = x 1 + ce
x
.
14 CHAPTER 1
49. Let u = e
_
p(t)dt
be the integrating factor of
dx
+ p(t)x = f(t). If we
dt
introduce an arbitrary constant c
1
while we compute
_
p(t)dt then
new integrating factor is u
1
= e
_
p(t)dt+c1
= e
c1
e
_
p(t)dt
= c
2
e
_
p(t)dt
where c
2
= e
c1
> 0. Multiplying the dierential equation by this new
integrating factor we get, u
1
_
dx
+ p(t)x
_
= u
1
f(t)
d
dt

(u
1
x) = u
1
f(t) which, on integration, becomes
u
dt
1
x =
_
u
1
f(t)dt + c
3
c
2
e
_
p(t)dt
x = c
2
_
e
_
p(t)dt
f(t)dt + c
3
.
_
p(t)dt

Dividing by c
2
e we get x = e

_
p(t)dt
_
e
_
p(t)dt
f(t)dt
+
c
c2
3
e

_
p(t)dt
. Now writing
c
c
3
2
= c we have the same general solution
x = e

_
p(t)dt
_
f(t)e
_
p(t)dt
dt + ce

_
p(t)dt
as (23) .
51. Let u = e
_
p(t)dt
be the integrating factor of
dx
+ p(t)x = f(t). So
d
(ux) = u
dx
+ x
du
= u
dx
+ xp(t)u = u
_
dx
dt
+ xp(t)
_
. Now
dt dt dt dt dt
d
since k is a constant (kux) = k
d
(ux) = ku
_
dx
+ xp(t)
_
dt dt dt
which implies that ku is also an integrating factor of (19) as the
product
d
(kux) of l.h.s. of (19) and ku is easily integrable with
dt
respect to t.
53.
dx
+
_
sin t

x = q(t)
dx
+ p(t)x = q(t) where p(t) =
sin t
.
dt t dt t
_
p(t)dt
Multiplying this equation by the integrating factor e we get
e
_
p(t)dt
_
dx
+ p(t)x
_
= q(t)e
_
p(t)dt
d
_
xe
_
dt
p(t)dt
_
= q(t)e
_
p(t)dt
. Denite integral yields
dt
e
_
p(t)dt
x(t) = c +
_
t
q
_
t
_
e
_
p(t)dt
dt. Particular solution with
0
x
p
(0) = 0 gives c = 0. Then x
p
= e

_
p(t)dt
_
t
q
_
t
_
e
_
p(t)dt
dt
0

x
p
=
_
t
e
_
p(t)dt
e

_
p(t)dt
q
_
t
_
dt =
_
t
G
_
t, t
_
q
_
t
_
dt where
0 0
G
_
t, t
_
= e
_
p(t)dt
e

_
p(t)dt
= e
_
p(t)dt
_
p(t)dt
.
Using denite integrals yields
_
t t
_ _
t
_
G
_
t, t
_
= exp
_
p(s)ds
_
p(s)ds = exp
_
p(s)ds
0 0 t
_
t
_ _
t
_
sin s sin s
= exp
_
s
ds = exp
_
s
ds .
t
t
55.
dx
+ p(t)x = f(t). From the change of variable x = u(t)x
1
(t)
dt
we have
dx
=
du
x
1
+ u
dx1
. But since x
1
= e

_
p(t)dt
,
dt dt dt
dx1
= x
1
p(t). Thus
dx
=
du
x
1
ux
1
p. Plugging in the
dt dt dt
original equation we get,
du
x
1
ux
1
p + ux
1
p = f(t)
dt
du
e

_
p(t)dt
= f(t)
du
= e
_
p(t)dt
f(t). Integrating we get,
dt dt
u =
_
f(t)e
_
p(t)dt
dt.

Then x = e

_
p(t)dt
_
f(t)e
_
p(t)dt
dt.
Comparison: From the original equation, the integrating factor is
d
_
_
p(t)dt
_
_
p(t)dt
e
_
p(t)dt
and so
dt
e x = f(t)e . Integrating we get,
e
_
p(t)dt
x =
_
f(t)e
_
p(t)dt
dt x = e

_
p(t)dt
_
f(t)e
_
p(t)dt
dt.
1.7 LINEAR FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS AND CONSTANT INPUT
dx rt rt
1.
dt
8x = 0. Substituting x = e we get, re 8e
rt
= 0. Dividing
by e
rt
= 0, we have, r = 8. Thus the general solution is x = ce
8t
.
dx
rt rt rt
3. = 2x. Substituting x = e we get, re = 2e . Dividing
dt
by e
rt
2t
.
dx
rt
5.
dt
+ 7x = 0. Substituting x = e we get, re
rt
+ 7e
rt
= 0. Dividing
by e
rt
7t
.
dx
rt rt
7.
dt
+ x = 0. Substituting x = e we get, re + e
rt
= 0. Dividing
by e
rt
t
.
dx
rt rt
9.
dt
= 5x. Substituting x = e we get, re
rt
= 5e . Dividing
by e
rt
5t
.
dx
8
11.
dt
+ 3x = 8. Substituting x
p
= A we get, 3A = 8 A =
3
. Thus
8

rt
x
p
=
3
. Let the associated homogeneous solution be x
1
= e .
Then re
rt
+ 3e
rt
= 0. Dividing by
8
e
rt
= 0 , we have, r = 3.
Thus the general solution is x =
3
+ ce
3t
.
13.
dx
4x = 9. Substituting x
p
= A we get, 4A = 9 A =
9
.
dt 4
9

rt
Thus x
p
=
4
1
= e .
Then re
rt
4e
rt
= 0. Dividing by e
rt
= 0, we have, r = 4.
9
4t
4
+ ce .
15.
dx 4
x = 3. Substituting x
p
= A we get,
4
A = 3
15
.
dt

5 5
A =
4
Thus x
p
15
1
= e
rt
. =
4
Then re
rt

4
e
rt
= 0. Dividing by e
15
rt
= 0 ,
t
we have, r =
4
.
5 5
4
5
dx 2 4
+ ce .
4
2 4
17.
dt
+
3
x =
3
. Substituting x
p
= A we get,
Thus x
p
A = A = 2.
3 3

rt
2
= 2. Let the associated homogeneous solution be x
1
Then re
rt
+
3
2
e
rt
= 0. Dividing by e
rt
= 0 , we have, r =
2
t
= e .
.
3
Thus the general solution is x = 2 + ce
dx
3
.
19. = 2x + 18. Substituting x
p
= A we get, 2A + 18 = 0
dt
A = 9.
rt
= 9. Let the associated homogeneous solution be x
1
Then re
rt
= 2e
rt
. Dividing by e
rt
= 0, we have, r = 2.
2t
Thus the general solution is x = 9 + ce .
dx 17 17 17
21.
dt
= x
3
. Substituting x
p
= A we get, A
3
= 0 A =
3
.
17

rt
Thus x
p
=
3
1
= e .
Then re
rt
= e
rt
. Dividing by e
rt
= 0 , we have, r = 1.
17
+ ce
t
.
3
dx
23.
dt
+ 7x = 8e
4t
. Substituting x
p
= Ae
4t
we get,
4Ae
4t
+ 7Ae
4t
= 8e
4t
.
Dividing by e
4t
= 0, we have, 4A + 7A = 8 A =
3
8
. Thus
8
e
4t

rt
x
p
=
3
1
= e .
Thus x
p
= e .
16
25.
27.
29.
31.
33.
35.
37.
39.
41.
CHAPTER 1
Then re
rt
+ 7e
rt
= 0. Dividing by e
rt
= 0, we have, r = 7.
8
3
e
4t
+ ce
7t
.
dx
2x = 3e
5t
. Substituting x
p
= Ae
5t
we get,
dt
5Ae
5t
2Ae
5t
= 3e
5t
.
Dividing by e
5t
= 0, we have, 5A 2A = 3 A =
7
3
. Thus
3

rt
x
p
=
7
e
5t
1
= e .
Then re
rt
2e
rt
= 0. Dividing by e
rt
= 0 , we have, r = 2.
3
7
e
5t
+ ce
2t
.
dx
+4x = 3e
4t
. Substituting x
p
= Ae
4t
we get, 4Ae
4t
+ 4Ae
4t
= 3e
4t
.
dt
Dividing by e
4t
= 0, we have, 4A + 4A = 3 A =
8
3
. Thus
3 4t

rt
x
p
=
8
e . Let the associated homogeneous solution be x
1
= e .
Then re
rt
+ 4e
rt
= 0. Dividing by
3
e
rt
= 0 , we have, r = 4.
8
e
4t
+ ce
4t
.
dx
+ 3x = 3e
2t
. Substituting x
p
= Ae
2t
we get,
dt
2Ae
2t
+ 3Ae
2t
= e
2t
.
Dividing by e
2t
= 0, we have, 2A + 3A = 1 A = 1. Thus
= e
2t

rt
x
p
1
= e .
Then re
rt
+ 3e
rt
= 0. Dividing by e
rt
= 0 , we have, r = 3.
Thus the general solution is x = e
2t
+ ce
3t
.
dx
+7x = 3+5t. Substituting x
p
= At+B we get, A+7At+7B = 3+5t.
dt
Equating the coecients of t and 1 we have 7A = 5 A =
5
7
and
5 16 16
A + 7B = 3 7B = 3 = B =
5

16
7 7

49
Thus x
p
=
7
t +
49
.
dx
+2x = 14t. Substituting x
p
= At + B we get, A +2At +2B = 14t.
dt
Equating the coecients of t and 1 we have 2A = 14 A = 7 and
7
A + 2B = 0 2B = A = 7 B =
2
.
7
Thus x
p
= 7t
2
.
dx
+ x = 2t
2
+ 5t 8. Substituting x
p
= At
2
+ Bt + C we get,
dt
2At + B + At
2
+ Bt + C = 2t
2
+ 5t 8.
Equating the coecients of t
2
, t and 1 we have A = 2,
2A+B = 5 B = 52A = 1, and B +C = 8 C = 8B = 9
Thus x
p
= 2t
2
+ t 9.
dx
+ 3x = t
3
. Substituting x
p
= At
3
+ Bt
2
+ Ct + D we get,
dt
3At
2
+ 2Bt + C + 3At
3
+ 3Bt
2
+ 3Ct + 3D = t
3
.
Equating the coecients of t
3
, t
2
, t and 1 we have 3A = 1 A =
1
,
1 2

2
3
3A + 3B = 0 B = A =
3
, 2B + 3C = 0 C =
3
B =
9
,
1 2
C + 3D = 0 D =
3
C =
27
1

1 2 2
Thus x
p
= t
3
t
2
+
dx
3

3 9
t
27
.
+ 5x = t. Substituting x
p
= At + B we get, A + 5B + 5At = t.
dt
Equating the coecients of t and 1 we have 5A = 1 A =
1
and
1 1

5
A + 5B = 0 B =
5
A =
25
.
1 1
Thus x
p
=
5
t
25
.
dx
+ 2x = 3 sin 6t. Substituting x
p
= A sin 6t + B cos 6t we get,
dt
6A cos 6t 6B sin 6t + 2A sin 6t + 2B cos 6t = 3 sin 6t.
Equating the coecients of cos 6t and sin 6t we have
cos 6t : 6A + 2B = 0
sin 6t : 2A 6B = 3
Solving these equations for A and B (multiplying rst equation by 3
and adding with the second) we get A =
3
and B
9
20
=
20
.
Thus x
p
=
3
sin 6t
9
cos 6t.
20 20
43.
dx
5x = 2 cos t. Substituting x
p
= A cos t + B sin t we get,
dt
A sin t + B cos t 5A cos t 5B sin t = 2 cos t.
Equating the coecients of sin t and cos t we have
sin t : A 5B = 0
cos t : 5A + B = 2
Solving these equations for A and B (multiplying second equation
by 5 and adding with the rst) we get A =
5
and B =
1
.
13 13
Thus x
p
=
1
sin t
5
cos t.
13 13
45.
dx
+ 4x = 3 cos 2t + 5 sin 2t. Substituting x
p
= A cos 2t + B sin 2t
dt
we get, 2A sin 2t + 2B cos 2t + 4A cos 2t + 4B sin 2t
= 3 cos 2t + 5 sin 2t.
Equating the coecients of sin 2t and cos 2t we have
sin 2t : 2A + 4B = 5
cos 2t : 4A + 2B = 3
Solving these equations for A and B (multiplying rst equation by 2
13 1
and adding with the second) we get B =
10
and A =
10
.
Thus x
p
=
1
cos 2t +
13
sin 2t.
10 10
dx
47.
dt
+ 6x = cos t + sin 5t. Substituting x
p
= A cos t + B sin t + C sin 5t
+D cos 5t we get, A sin t + B cos t + 5C cos 5t 5D sin 5t + 6A cos t
+6B sin t + 6C sin 5t + 6D cos 5t = cos t + sin 5t.
Equating the coecients we have
cos t : 6A + B = 1
sin t : A + 6B = 0
cos 5t : 5C + 6D = 0
sin 5t : 6C 5D = 1
Solving the rst pair of equations for A and B (multiplying second
1 6
equation by 6 and adding with the rst) we get B =
37
and A =
37
.
Similarly, to solve the second pair of equations for C and D,
6
multiply the rst by 5 and the second by 6 and add to get C =
61
and D =
5
.
61
Thus x
p
=
6
cos t +
1
sin t +
6
sin 5t
5
cos 5t.
37 37 61 61
49.
dx
9x = 5 + 2 sin 3t. Substituting x
p
= A + B sin 3t + C cos 3t
dt
we get, 3B cos 3t 3C sin 3t 9A 9B sin 3t 9C cos 3t = 5+2 sin 3t.
Non-t : 9A = 5 A =
9
5
cos 3t : 3B 9C = 0
sin 3t : 9B 3C = 2
Solving last pair of equations for B and C (multiplying the rst
equation by 3 and adding with the second) we get
1 1 5 1 1
C =
15
and B =
5
. Thus x
p
=
9

5
sin 3t
15
cos 3t.
18
51.
53.
55.
57.
59.
61.
CHAPTER 1
dx
+ x = 2e
3t
+ sin t. Substituting x
p
= Ae
3t
+ B sin t + C cos t
dt
we get, 3Ae
3t
+ B cos t C sin t +Ae
3t
+B sin t + C cos t = 2e
3t
+sin t.
e
3t
: 3A + A = 2 A =
1

2
cos t : B + C = 0
sin t : B C = 1
Solving last pair of equations for B and C (adding ) we get
1 1 1
B =
2
and C = B =
2
.Thus x
p
=
2
_
e
3t
+ sin t cos t
_
.
dx
+ 3x = 8e
3t
. Substituting x
p
= Ae
3t
we get,
dt
3Ae
3t
+ 3Ae
3t
= 8e
3t
8e
3t
= 0 which is impossible
becasue e
3t
= 0 , t. So a simple exponential, Ae
3t
, does not
work as a particular solution becasue e
3t
is a solution of the
associated homogeneous equation.
Solve by the integrating factor method: The integrating factor
_
3dt 3t
is e = e . Multiplying the equation by the integrating factor
3t
_
dx d
we get e
dt
+ 3x
_
= 8
dt
_
xe
3t
_
= 8. Integrating we have
xe
3t
= 8t + c x = 8te
3t
+ ce
3t
.
Conjecture:
Notice that the particular solution part of this general solution is a
constant multiple of t times the exponential. This indicates that we
may nd a particular solution by substituting Ate
3t
, when simple
exponential forcing e
3t
is a solution of the associated
homogeneous equation.
dx
2x = 7e
2t
. Substituting x
p
= Ae
2t
we get,
dt
2Ae
2t
2Ae
2t
= 7e
2t
7e
2t
= 0 which is impossible
2t
becasue e = 0 , t. So a simple exponential, Ae

2t
, does not
work as a particular solution becasue e
2t
is a solution of the
associated homogeneous equation.
Substituting x = ve
2t
we get,
dv
e
2t
+ 2ve
2t
2ve
2t
= 7e
2t
dt
Dividing by e
2t
= 0 we have
dv
= 7 v = 7t + c. Thus
dt

the general solution is x = 7te
2t
+ ce
2t
.
We can make the same conjecture as in #53.
dx t rt
x = 4e . Let x
1
= e be the solution of the associated
dt
homogeneous equation. On substitution we get, re
rt
e
rt
= 0
r = 1. So x
1
= c
1
e
t
(similar to the forcing function).
So let x
p
= Ate
t
. Substituting this in the equation we get,
Ae
t
+ Ate
t
Ate
t
= 4e
t
t
A = 4. Thus the general
solution is x = 4te
t
+ ce .
rt dx
+ x = 5e
t
. Let x
1
dt
rt
+ e
rt
= 0
r = 1. So x
1
= c
1
e
t
So let x
p
= Ate
t
Ae
t
Ate
t
+ Ate
t
= 5e
t
solution is x = 5te
t
+ ce
t
.
dx 7t rt
7x = 8e . Let x
1
dt
rt
7e
rt
= 0
r = 7. So x
1
= c
1
e
7t
So let x
p
= Ate
7t
Ae
7t
+ 7Ate
7t
7Ate
7t
= 8e
7t
solution is x = 8te
7t
+ ce
7t
.

63.
dx
+ p(t)x = f(t), 0 t 2, f(t) = 0, x(0) = 2.
dt
For 0 t < 1, p(t) = 2 and so
dx
+ 2x = 0
dt
x(t) = c
1
e
2t
. Using x(0) = 2 we get c
1
= 2.
So
x(t) = 2e
2t
for 0 t < 1. For 1 t 2, p(t) = 1 and so
dx
+ x = 0 x(t) = c
2
e
t
. In order for x to be continuous
dt
at t = 1 we must have lim x(t) = x(1) 2e

2
= c
2
e
1
t 1

c
2
= 2e
1
. Thus the solution is
_
2e
2t
, 0 t < 1
x(t) =
2e
1
e
t
, 1 t 2
2
x
1
0 1 2
t
65.
dx
+ p(t)x = f(t), 0 t 2, p(t) = 0, x(0) = 0.
dt
For 0 t < 1, f(t) = 1 and so
dx
= 1 x(t) = t + c
1
.
dt
Using x(0) = 0 we get c

1
= 0. So x(t) = t for 0 t < 1.
For 1 t 2, f(t) = 1 and so
dx
x(t) = t + c
2
.
dt
= 1
In order for x to be continuous at t = 1 we must have
lim x(t) = x(1) 1 = 1 + c
2
c
2
= 2. Thus the solution is
t 1

_
t, 0 t < 1
x(t) =
2 t, 1 t 2
x
t
0 1
1
67.
dx
+ p(t)x = f(t), 0 t 2, x(0) = 2. For 0 t < 1,
dt
p(t) = 1, f(t) = 0 and so
dx
+ x = 0 x(t) = c
1
e
t
.
dt
Using x(0) = 2 we get c

1
= 2. So x(t) = 2e
t
for 0 t < 1.
For 1 t 2, p(t) = 0, f(t) = 1 and so
dx
= 1
dt

20 CHAPTER 1
x(t) = t + c
2
. In order for x to be continuous at t = 1 we
must have lim x(t) = x(1) 2e
1
= 1 + c
2
t 1

c
2
= 2e
1

1. Thus the solution is

_
2e
t
, 0 t < 1
x(t) =
t + 2e
1
1, 1 t 2
x
0 1 2
1
2
t
1.8 GROWTH AND DECAY PROBLEMS
The growth rate k of a population P (t) is given by
1 dP
= k
dP
= kP
P dt dt
whose solution with initial population P (0) is P (t) = P (0)e

kt
.
The population will be doubled when P (t) = 2P (0). Then
2P (0) = P (0)e
kt
e
kt
= 2 kt = ln 2 t =
ln 2
which is known as
k
doubling time, denoted by t
d
as =
ln 2
, and we will use this t
d
k
formula throughout this section.
1. In this problem, the growth rate is k = 1.5% = 0.015 and so
doubling time, t
d
=
ln 2
=
ln 2
46.2 years.
k 0.015
3. Using t
d
= 8 hours =
3
1
day in the doubling time formula we get,
1 ln 2
= k = 3 ln 2 2.08 = 208% per day.
3 k
5. Here, P (0) = 1500, t = 1 hour, P (1) = 2000. So P (t) = P (0)e

kt
2000 = 1500e
k
e
k
=
4
3
k = ln
_
4
3
_
. After 4 hour (i.e. t = 4),

3
P (t) = 1500e
4k

= 1500e
4 ln
(
4
)
= 1500
_
4
_
4
.
3
A B
10
0.02
Q c
5 0.01
0 100 200
0 100 200
t
t
7. t
d
=
ln 2
= 3 k =
ln 2
. Here, P (t) = 10P (0) and so
k 3

kt
10P (0) = P (0)e e
kt
= 10 kt = ln 10
ln 10 3 ln 10

t = = 9.97 years.
k ln 2
9. Let Q be the number of organisms.
Birth:
dQ
= k
1
Q, Death:
dQ
= k
2
Q, Addition:
dQ
= k.
dt dt dt
dQ

dt
= k
1
Q k
2
Q + k.
11. With the interest rate of 3% per year:
Doubling time, t
d
=
ln 2
=
ln 2
23.10 years.
k 0.03
With the 3% yield:
Yield = e
k
1 = 0.03 e
k
= 1.03 k = ln (1.03) . So, in this case
ln 2 ln 2
Doubling time, t
d
= =
ln(1.03)
23.45 years.
k
13. Here, the growth after one year is
e
k
1 = 0.064 e
k
= 1.064 k = ln (1.064) .
ln 2

Then t
d
=
ln(1.064)
11.17 years.
15. This is the case of exponential growth. So x(t) = x(0)e
kt
, k > 0.
The cost of living rose from x(0) = 10, 000 to x(1) = 11, 000 in one
year, that is, t = 1. So 11000 = 10000e
k
e
k
= 1.1
k = ln (1.1) 0.0953 = 9.53% per year.
17. Using the half-life formula T =
ln 2
= 16 days, we get k =
ln 2
.
k 16
At the end of t = 30 days, x(t) = 30 g. Then x(t) = x(0)e
kt
ln 2 ln 2

16 16
30 = x(0)e
(30)
x(0) = 30e
(30)
110.04 g.
19.
dx
= kx x(t) =

x(0)e
kt
. When t = 10 years, x(t) = 0.80x(0).
dt
So 0.80
1
x(0) = x(0)e
10k
e
10k
= 0.8 10k = ln (0.8)
k =
10
ln (0.8) .
ln 2 ln 2
(a) Half-life: T = = 10
ln(0.8)
31.063 years.
k
(b) x(t) = 0.15x(0). So 0.15x(0) = x(0)e
kt
e
kt
= 0.15
kt = ln (0.15) t =
1
ln (0.15) = 10
ln(0.15)
85.018 years.
k ln(0.8)
Thus it will take 85.018 10 = 75.018 additional years.
21. Newtons law of cooling
dT
= k (T Q
0
) has particular solution Q
0
dt
so the general solution is T (t) = Q
0
+ ce
kt
. Here Q
0
= 30.
Using the initial temperature T (0) = 200, we get 200 = 30 + c
c = 170. Thus T (t) = 30 + 170e
kt
. Again, using T (10) = 180,
15
we get, 180 = 30 + 170e
10k
170e
10k
= 150 e
10k
=
17
10k = ln
_
15
_
1
ln
_
15 ln 15ln 17

=
ln 17ln 15
.

17
k =
10 17
_
=
10 10
e
kt 1
(a) T will be 40
0
C if 40 = 30+170e
kt
170e
kt
= 10 =
17

kt = ln (17) t =
1
ln (17) =
10 ln(17)
226.4 minutes.
k ln 17ln 15
(b) T (t) = 30 + ce
kt
, where we previously had k =
ln 17ln 15
.
10
At t = 0, T = 200, so c = 170 and T (t) = 30 + 170e
kt
.
Now we solve this equation for t :
T (t) 30 = 170e
kt
ln (T 30) = ln (170) kt
1

10
t = [ln (T 30) ln (170)] = ln

_
T 30
_
.
k ln 15ln 17 170
23. Newtons law of cooling
dT
= k (T Q
0
) has particular solution
dt
Q
0
so the general solution is T (t) = Q
0
+ ce
kt
. Here Q
0
= 40.
Using the initial temperature T (0) = 100, we get 100 = 40 + c
c = 60. Thus T (t) = 40 + 60e
kt
. Again, using T (10) = 60,
e
10k 1
we get, 60 = 40 + 60e
10k
60e
10k
= 20 =
3
1
10k = ln
_
1
_
10k = ln 3 k = ln 3 0.1099.
3 10

22 CHAPTER 1
25. (a) Newtons law of cooling
dT
= k (T Q
0
) = k [T (20 + 10t)] .
dt
(b) Substituting k = 1 in the equation we get,
dT
= T + 20 + 10t
dt
dT rt

dt
+ T = 20 + 10t. Let T
1
=
rt
e be the solution of the
homogeneous equation. Then re + e
rt
= 0 r = 1. Thus
T
1
= ce
t
. Substituting T
p
= A + Bt we get,

B+ A + Bt = 20 + 10t. Equating the coecients of t and 1 we
have B = 10 and A + B = 20 A = 10. Thus the general
solution is T (t) = 10 + 10t + ce
t
. Using the initial temperature
T (0) = 40 we get, 40 = 10 + c c = 30. Hence the solution is
T (t) = 10 + 10t + 30e
t
.

27. (a) Let the amount invested be $A. The 6% interest rate will eect
the amount in excess of $500. So the amount of interest per year
will be $0.06 (A 500) . Thus the rate of change of money can
be written as the dierential equation
dA
= 0.06 (A 500) with
dt
initial condition A(0) = 2000.
(b)
dA
0.06A = 30. Let A
p
= 30 B = 500
dt
= B 0.06B
A
p
= 500 and A
h
= ce
0.06t
. So the general solution is
0.06t
A(t) = 500 + ce . Using initial condition A(0) = 2000 we get,
c = 1500. Thus A(t) = 500 + 1500e
0.06t
.
After 10 years the amount will be A(10) = $3233.18.
(c) The full amount earns interest when
dA
= 0.06A
dA
dt

0.06A = 0, a homogeneous equation with general solution
dt
A(t) = ce
0.06t
which becomes A(t) = 2000e
0.06t
for the initial
condition. After 10 years the amount will be A(10) = $3644.24
which is $411.06 more than that in part (b) .
29. Constant deposit rate is $B/day means $365B/year and 0.08P is the
amount of interest per year with 8% interest rate. So
dP dP
= 0.08P + 365B 0.08P = 365B. Let P
p
= A
dt dt

365 365

0.08A = 365B A =
0.08
B P
p
=
0.08
B and
0.08t

365 0.08t
P
h
= ce . So the general solution is P (t) = B + ce .
0.08
Using initial condition P (0) = 1000 we get, c = 1000 +
365
B.
365 0.08t
Thus P (t) = B +
_
1000 +
365
B
_
e .
0.08
0.08 0.08
(a) After t = 5 years P = $10, 000.
365 0.4
So 10000 = B +
_
1000 +
365
B
_
e
80(10

e
0.4
)
0.08 0.08
0.4 0.4
800 = 365B
_
e 1
_
+ 80e B =
1)
$3.79.
365(e
0.4
365 0.08t
(b) Solve 10000 = B(t) +
_
1000 +
365
B(t)
_
e for B(t) :
0.08t 0.08t
800 = B(t)
_
365e
0.08
365
_
+ 80e
0.08
0.08t 0.08t
B(t)
_
365e 365
_
= 800 80e
0.08t
B(t) =
_
800 80e
0.08t
_ _
365e 365
_
1
.
dQ
dQ
31. = 0.2Q + 400 cos (2t) 0.2Q = 400 cos (2t) .
dt dt
Substituting Q
p
= A cos (2t) + B sin (2t) we get
2A sin (2t) + 2B cos (2t) 0.2A cos (2t) 0.2B sin (2t)
= 400 cos (2t) .
Equating the coecients of cos (2t) and sin (2t) we have
cos (2t) : 2B 0.2A = 400
sin (2t) : 0.2B 2A = 0
Solving these equations for A and B (Multiplying the rst equation
by 0.2 and the second equation by 2 and adding and simplifying)
20 200
we get, A =
2
+0.01
and B =
2
+0.01
. Thus the particular solution is
=
1
(20 cos (2t) + 200 sin (2t)) . Q
p
2
+0.01
Q
1
= ce
0.02t
. So the general solution is
Q(t) =
1
(20 cos (2t) + 200 sin (2t)) + ce
0.02t
.
2
+0.01
20
Using the initial condition Q(0) = 100 we get c = 100 +
2
+0.01
.
Hence Q(t) =
1
(20 cos (2t) + 200 sin (2t))+
_
100 +
20
_
e
0.02t
.
2
+0.01
2
+0.01
1.9 MIXTURE PROBLEMS
1. (a) Let Q be the amount of salt in the tank of volume V = 300. This
volume is constant as water is owing in and out at the same
rate (2 gal/min). So the concentration of salt is C =
Q
. The
300
inow and outow rate of salt are 2(0.4) and 2
Q
300
, respectively.
Thus the rate of change in salt can be written as
dQ dQ Q
= 2(0.4) 2
Q
+ = 0.8. Substituting Q
p
= A
dt 300 dt 150

rt 1
t
we get, A = 120 and Q
1
= e Q
1
= e
t
r =
150

150
.
Thus Q(t) = 120 + ke

150
. Using initial condition
Q(0) = 300(0.2) = 60 we have, k = 60. Hence
t
Q(t) 2 1
t
150
. Q(t) = 120 60e

150
and C(t) =
300
=
5

5
e

(b) When does C(t) = 0.3?
t t
150
0.3 = 0.4 0.2e

150
=
1 t
= ln 2 e

2 150

t = 150 ln 2 104 minutes.
3. (a) Let Q be the amount of salt in the tank of volume V = 100. This
volume is constant as water is owing in and out at the same
Q
rate (5 L/h). So the concentration of salt is C =
100
. The
inow and outow rate of salt are 5(0.2) and 4
Q
(evaporated
100
water contains no salt so that Q = 0), respectively.
Thus the rate of change in salt can be written as
dQ dQ Q
= 5(0.2) 4
Q
+ = 1. Substituting Q
p
= A
dt 100 dt 25
t
we get, A = 25 and Q
1
= e
rt
r =
1
Q
1
= e

25
.
t

25
Thus Q(t) = 25 + ke

25
Q(0) = 100(0.1) = 10 we have, k = 15. Hence
Q(t) = 25 15e

t
and C(t) =
Q(t)
= 0.25 0.15e

t
25 25
.
100
(b) No. lim C(t) = 0.25 > 0.2.
t
5. (a) Let Q be the amount of iodine in the tank. Water is owing in
and out at a dierent rate and so the volume is changing as
dV
= 6 1 = 5 V (t) = 5t + 500 since the initial half-volume is
dt
Q
500 gal. Concentration of iodine is C =
5t+500
. The inow and
24 CHAPTER 1
outow rate of iodine are 0 (Pure water has no concentration) and
Q
1
5t+500
, respectively. Thus the rate of change in iodine can be
written as
dQ Q dQ dt
dt
=
5t+500

Q
=
5t+500

1
ln Q = ln (5t + 500) + k
1
Q(t) = k
2
(5t + 500)
1/5
5

= k (t + 100)
1/5
. Using initial condition Q(0) = 10 we have,
10 = k (100)
1/5
k = 10 (100)
1/5
.
_

100
_
1/5
Hence Q(t) = 10
t+100
. Since volume increases as t increases,
tank will overow when V = 1000. That is, tank overows when
5t + 500 = 1000 means at t = 100. So for 0 t 100,
_
100
_
1/5
Q(t)
Q(t) = 10
t+100
and C(t) =
5t+500
.
(b) Tank overows when t = 100. After overow, V = 1000 and
C =
Q
. During overow, mixture is leaving at the rate of 6 gal/min
1000
dQ 6Q
(as pure water is entering at this rate) and so for t 100,
dt
=
1000
.
3 3
500 500
Since it has constant coecients, Q(t) = c
2
e
t
= c
2
e
(t100)
.
In order for Q(t) to be continuous at t = 100 we must have
lim Q(t) = lim Q(t) 10
_
100
_
1/5
= c
2
t 100

t 100
+

200

Q(t)
So for t 100, Q(t) = 10 (2)
1/5
e
3(t100)/500
and C(t) = .
1000
7. Let Q be the amount of pollutant in the lake. Water is owing in
and out at a dierent rate and so the volume is changing as
dV
= 5 2 = 3 V (t) = 3t + 1000 since the initial volume is 1000
dt
Q
kL. Concentration of pollutant is C =
3t+1000
. The inow and
outow rate of pollutant are 5 7 and 2
Q
, respectively. Thus
3t+1000
the rate of change in pollutant can be written as
dQ
= 35
2Q
2
dt 3t+1000
dQ
+
2Q
= 35. The integrating factor is e
_
3t+1000
dt
= e
ln(3t+1000)
2/3
Q 3t+1000
= (3t + 1000)
2/3
. Multiplying by integrating factor and rearranging
d
2/3
we have
dt
_
Q (3t + 1000)
2/3
_
= 35 (3t + 1000)
2/3 2/3
Q (3t + 1000) = 35
_
(3t + 1000) dt + k
Q(t) = (3t + 1000)
2/3
_
7 (3t + 1000)
5/3
+ k
_
Q(0) = 2000 we have, 2000 = (10)
2
_
7 (10)
5
+ k
_

5
7 (10) + k = 200000 k = 500000. Thus
5/3
Q(t) = (3t + 1000)
2/3
_
7 (3t + 1000) 500000
_
= 7 (3t + 1000) 500000 (3t + 1000)
2/3
and
C(t) =
Q(t)
= 7 500000 (3t + 1000)
5/3
.
3t+1000
9. Let V
1
and V
2
be the volume of tank 1 and tank 2, respectively.
V
1
= (13 7) t + 150 = 6t + 150; V
2
= (7 28) t + 250 = 21t + 250
Let S
1
and S
2
be the amount of salt in tank 1 and tank 2, respectively.
Then
dS1
= 13 3 7
S1 dS1
= 39
7S1
dt V1

dt 6t+150
and
dS2
=
7S1 dS2
=
7S1 28S2
.
dt 6t+150
28
S
V2
2

dt 6t+150

21t+250
11. Let V
1
and V
2
be the volume of tank 1 and tank 2, respectively.
V
1
= (21 18) t + 230 = 3t + 230; Tank 2 receives brine at the
rate
1
(18) = 9 gal/s. So V
2
= (9 4) t + 275 = 5t + 275.
2
Let S
1
and S
2
be the amount of salt in tank 1 and tank 2, respectively.
Then
dS1
= 21 5 18
S1 dS1
= 105
18S1
dt V1

dt 3t+230
and
dS2
=
9S1 dS2
=
9S1 4S2
.
dt 3t+230
4
S
V2
2

dt 3t+230

5t+275
13. Let V
1
, V
2
and V
3
be the volume of tank 1, tank 2 and tank 3,
respectively. V
1
= (11 18) t + 100 = 7t + 100; V
2
= 200
(same rate of inow and outow).
V
3
= 300 (brine gets in and overow so that volume remains
the same). Let S
1
, S
2
and S
3
be the amount of salt in tank 1, tank 2
and tank 3, respectively. Then
dS1 dS1 18S1
dt
= 11 5 18
S
V1
1
dt
= 55
7t+100
dS2 18S1 dS2 18S1 18S2

= = and
dt 7t+100
18
S
V2
2

dt 7t+100

200
dS3 18S2
= .
dt 200
1.10 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
1. The dierential equation is L
di
+ Ri = e. In this problem,
dt
Ri = v = 2i R = 2, L = 1, e = 1. Substituting all these we get,
di
1
+ 2i = 1. Let i
p
= A. So 2A = 1 A = .
dt 2
1 rt
So i
p
=
2
. Taking i
1
= e we have r = 2 i
1
= ce
2t
.
Thus i (t) =
1
+ ce
2t
. At t = 0, i(0) =
1
+

c c = i(0)
1
.
2 2 2
Hence i (t) =
1
+
_
i(0)
1

e
2t

1
. Alternatively,
2 2
. As t , i(t)
2
1
for an equilibrium solution
di
= 0 so that 2i = 1 i = .
dt 2

di
+ Ri = e. In this problem,
dt
Ri = v = i, L = 1, e = sin t. Substituting all these we get,
di
+ i = sin t. Substituting i
p
= A sin t + B cos t in the dierential
dt
equation we get A cos t B sin t + A sin t + B cos t = sin t.
Equating the coecients of cos t and sin t we get:
cos t : A + B = 0
sin t : A B = 1
Solving these equations for A and B by adding we get,
A =
1
, B =
1
. Thus i
p
=
1
sin t
1
cos t. Taking
2 2 2 2
i
1
= e
rt
in the dierential equation we have, r = 1 i
1
= ce
t
.
Thus i (t) =
1
sin t
1
cos t + ce
t
. At t = 0, i(0) =
1
+ c
1
c = i(0) +
2
1
. Hence
2
i (t) =
1
sin t cos t +
_
i(0) +
2
1

e
t
.
2 2 2 2
di
+ Ri = e. For 0 t < 10,
dt
Ri = v = i R = 1, L = 1, e = 9. Substituting all these we get,
di
rt
+ i = 9. Let i
p
= A. So A = 9 i
p
= 9. Taking i
1
= e
dt
we have r = 1 i
1
= c
1
e
t
. So
i (t) = 9 + c
1
e
t
.
Using the initial condition i(0) = 0 we get 0 = 9 + c
1
c
1
= 9.
Thus for 0 t < 10, i (t) = 9 9e
t
.
For 10 t 20, Ri = v = i, L = 1, e = 0.
_
26 CHAPTER 1
Substituting all these we get,
di
+ i = 0. This is a homogeneous
dt
equation and, in fact, the homogeneous part of the above equation.
So i(t) = c
2
e
t
. In order for i(t) to be continuous at t = 10 we
must have lim i(t) = i(10) 9 9e
10
= c
2
e
10
t 10

10
c
2
= 9e 9. Thus the solution is
_
9(1 e
t
), 0 t < 10
i(t) =
9(e
10
1)e
t
, 10 t 20.
7. Capacitance, C = 0.5, Ri = v = 2i R = 2, voltage source
q
e = 6 sin t. In order to nd charge q we can use:
C
+ Ri = e
q
+ R
dq
= e (since i =
dq
)
q
+ 2
dq
= 6 sin t
dq
C dt dt

0.5 dt

+ q = 3 sin t. Substituting q
p
= A sin t + B cos t in this
dt
equation we get A cos t B sin t + A sin t + B cos t = 3 sin t.
Equating the coecients of cos t and sin t we get:
cos t : A + B = 0
sin t : A B = 3
Solving these equations for A and B by adding we get,
A =
3
2
, B =
2
3
. Thus q
p
=
3
2
sin t
3
2
cos t. Taking q
1
= e
rt
in the
dierential equation we have r = 1 q
1
= ce
t
. Thus
q (t) =
3
(sin t cos t) + ce
t
. At t = 0

, q(0) = 1 =
3
+ c
2 2
c = 1 +
3
=
2
5
. Hence q (t) =
3
(sin t cos t) +
5
e
t
.
2 2 2
1.11 MECHANICS II: INCLUDING AIR RESISTANCE
1. (a) The dierential equation is m
dv
= mg kv
dv
dt
1

20
dv
= 20 (980) 10v + v = 980. Substituting
dt dt 2
1

v
p
= A we get, A = 980 A = 1960. So v
p
= 1960.
2
1
= ce
t
. Thus v (t) = 1960 + ce
Using initial condition v(0) = 0 we have, c = 1960. Hence

t
rt
r =
2 2
v
1
= e v
1
.
2

_
1 e
t t
v (t) = 1960 + 1960e
(b) v (10) = 1960

_
e
5
= 1960
1
_
= 1946.79.
2 2
.
(c) lim v(t) = 1960.
t
dv
3. The dierential equation is m = mg kv
dt

70
dv
= 70 (980)
1
7v
dv
+
1
v = 980. Substituting
dt dt 10
v
p
= A we get, A = 980 A = 9800. So v
p
= 9800.
10
1
= ce
t
r =
10
. Thus v (t) = 9800 + ce
Using the condition v(5) = 12600 we have,

t
10
.
rt
v
1
= e v
1
10

1
2
12600 = 9800 + ce
c = 36931.36. So
v (0) = 9800 + 36931.36 = 27131.36.
5. (a) The dierential equation is m
dv
= mg + v
2
. Here, weight is
dt
mg = 32 so that m =
32
= 1. Then
dv
= 32 + v
2
g dt

dv
=
_
32 v
2
_ _
dv
=
_
dt. Integrating using tables gives
dt 32v
2
1 v+
32

v+
32 2
32c
2
32
ln
32
= t + c
v
32
= ke
2
32t
, where k = e .
1000+
32
Using the initial condition v(0) = 1000 we have k = .
v+
32
= ke
2
32t
_
1 ke
2
32t
_
1000
32
So
v
32
v =
32
_
1 + ke
2
32t
_
_
1+ke
2
32t
_
1000+
32
v(t) =
32
1ke
2
32t
, where k =
1000
32
.
(b) lim v(t) =
32.
t
1.12 ORTHOGONAL TRAJECTORIES (OPTIONAL)
1. x = t + c x t = c. Dierentiating with respect to (wrt) t:
dx

dx
1 = 0 = 1. The slope of the orthogonal family is thus
dt dt
dx

= 1. Integrating we have, x(t) = t + c
2
.
dt
t
x
dx dx x
3. xt = c. Dierentiating wrt t: x + t
dt
= 0
dt
=
t
.
The slope of the orthogonal family is thus
dx
=
t
2 2
dt x

x t 2
_
xdx =
_
tdt. Integrating we have,
2
=
2
+ c x t
2
= c
2
,
where c
2
= 2c.
t
x
x = t
c ln x
5. ln x = c ln t
ln t
= c. Dierentiating wrt t:
1 dx

1

x dt
ln tln x
t dx x ln x
(ln t)
2
= 0
dt
=
t ln t
. The slope of the orthogonal
t ln t
family is thus
dx

_
x ln xdx =
_
t ln tdt. Integration by
dt
=
x ln x

1 2 1 1
parts on both sides yields,
1
2
x
2
ln |x|
4
x =
2
t
2
ln |t| +
4
t
2
+ c
28 CHAPTER 1
2x
2
ln |x| x
2
= t
2
2t
2
ln |t| + c
2
, where c
2
= 4c.
7. x = t
2
+ c x t
2
= c. Dierentiating wrt t:
dx

dx
2t = 0 = 2t. The slope of the orthogonal family is thus
dt dt
dx 1
_
dx =
1
_
1
dt. Integration yields, x =
1
ln t
dt
=
2t
2

2 t 2
| | + c
2
.
9. t = (x c) x c =
t x
t = c. Dierentiating wrt t:
dx 1

dx 1
dt
2
t
= 0
dt
=
2
t
. The slope of the orthogonal family is
thus

dx
= 2

t
_
dx = 2
_
tdt. Integrating we have,
dt
4
t
3/2
x =
3
+ c
2
.
11. x = tan (t + c) tan
1
x = t + c. Dierentiating wrt t:
1 dx
= 1
1+x
2
dt
dx
= 1 + x
2
. The slope of the orthogonal family is thus
dt
1 dx
dt
=
1+x
_ _
1 + x
2
_
dx =
_
dt. Integrating we have,
3
2

x +
x
= t + c
2
.
3
13. x = c cos t. Dierentiating wrt t:
dx
= c sin t. Since c =
x
,
dt cos t
dx x
dt
=
cos t
sin t = x tan t. The slope of the orthogonal family is
1
thus
dx
= cot t
_
xdx =
_
cot tdt. Integrating we have,
2
dt x

x
2
= ln sin t + c x
2
= 2 ln sin t + c
2
, where c
2
= 2c. | | |
dx
|
x dx 2x
15. x = ct
2
. Dierentiating wrt t:
dt
= 2ct. Since c =
t
2
,
dt
=
t
. The
t
slope of the orthogonal family is thus
dx
_
2xdx =
_
tdt.
2
dt
=
2x

Integrating we have, x
2
=
t
2
+ c 2x
2
= t
2
+ c
2
, where c
2
= 2c.
17. x
3
+ t
2
= c. Dierentiating wrt t: 3x
2 dx
+ 2t = 0
dx 2t
2
.
dt
2
dt
=
3x
The slope of the orthogonal family is thus
dx
=
3x
3 dt 1
dt
3
2t
_
x
2
dx =
_
. Integrating we have, = ln t + c
2 t x 2
1 3 3
_
1
| |
x
=
_

2
ln |t| c
_
x =
_
c
2

2
ln |t| , where c
2
= c.
Chapter Two
Linear Second and Higher-Order Dierenial
Equations
2.1 GENERAL SOLUTION OF SECOND-ORDER LINEAR
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
1. x = sin t x

= cos t x

= sin t. So x

+ x = sin t + sin t = 0.
x = cos t x

= sin t x

= cos t. So x

+ x = 0.
Thus {sin t, cos t} is a set of solutions for the associated
homogeneous equation. Now x
p
= 1 x
p

= x
p

= 0
and so x

p
+ x
p
= 1 =r.h.s. Thus the general solution is
x(t) = 1 + c
1
sin t + c
2
cos t. Using the initial condition x(0) = 0
we have, 0 = 1 + c
2
c
2
= 1. Dierentiating the general
solution we get, x
(t) = c
1
cos t c
2
sin t. The initial condition
x
(0) = 0 gives c
1
= 0. Thus the solution of the initial value
problem is x(t) = 1 cos t.
3. x = e
t
x

= e
t
x

= e
t
. So x

3x

+ 2x = e
t t
+ 2e
t

2t

2t 2t
3e
= 0. For x = e , x

= 2e and x

= 4e . So x

3x

+ 2x
2t t
= 4e 6e
2t
+ 2e
2t
= 0. Thus
_
e , e
2t
_
is a set of solutions for
the associated homogeneous equation. Now x
p
= t +
2
3
x

p
= 1, x

= 0 and so x

p
3x

p
+ 2x
p
= 3 + 2t + 3 = 2
t =r.h.s.
p
Thus the general solution is x(t) = t +
3
2
+ c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
2t
.
Dierentiating this we get, x
(t) = 1 + c
1
e
t
+ 2c
2
e
2t
. Using the
initial conditions x(0) = 1 and x
(0) = 0 we have, 1 =
3
2
+ c
1
+ c
2
and 0 = 1 + c
1
+ 2c
2
. Solving these equations for c
1
and c
2
by
subtracting them we have c
2
=
2
1
and then c
1
= 0.
Thus the solution of the initial value problem is x(t) = t +
3
2

1
e
2t
.
2
5. x = e
t
cos t x

= e
t
cos t e
t
sin t
x

= e
t
cos t + e
t
sin t + e
t
sin t e
t
cos t. So x

+ 2x

+ 2x
= e
t
cos t + e
t
sin t + e
t
sin t e
t
cos t 2e
t
cos t
2e
t
sin t + 2e
t
cos t
= 0.
Similarly it can be shown that for x = e
t
sin t, x

+ 2x

+ 2x = 0.
Thus {e
t
cos t, e
t
sin t} is a set of solutions for the associated
p
= 3 x
p

= x

p
= 0 and so
x

p
+ 2x
p

+ 2x
p
= 6 =r.h.s. Thus the general solution is
x(t) = 3+c
1
e
t
cos t+c
2
e
t
sin t. Using the initial condition x(0) = 1
30 CHAPTER 2
we have, 1 = 3 + c
1
c
1
= 2. Dierentiating the general
solution we get, x
(t) = c
1
e
t
cos tc
1
e
t
sin tc
2
e
t
sin t+c
2
e
t
cos t.
Using x
(0) = 1 and c
1
= 2 we have, 1 = 2 + c
2
c
2
= 1.
Thus the solution of the initial value problem is
x(t) = 3 2e
t
cos t e
t
sin t.
7. x = sin t x

= cos t x

= sin t. So x

+ x = sin t + sin t = 0.
x = cos t

x

= sin
t x

= cos t. So x

+ x = 0.
Thus {sin t, cos t} is a set of solutions for the associated
p
= t sin t, x

p
= sin t + t cos t,
x

p
= cos t + cos t t sin t and so x

p
+ x
p
= 2 cos t t sin t + t sin t
= 2 cos t =r.h.s. Thus the general solution is
x(t) = t sin t + c
1
cos t + c
2
sin t. Using the initial condition x(0) = 1
we have, 1 = c
1
. Dierentiating the general solution we get,
x
(t) = sin t + t cos t c

1
sin t + c
2
cos t. Using x
(0) = 1 we have,
1 = c
2
. Thus the solution of the initial value problem is
x(t) = t sin t sin t + cos t.
9. (a) x = e
t
x

= e
t
x

= e
t
. So x

3x

+ 2x = e
t
3e
t
+ 2e
t

2t

2t 2t
= 0. For x = e , x

= 2e and x

= 4e . So x

3x

+ 2x
2t t
= 4e 6e
2t
+ 2e
2t
= 0. Thus
_
e , e
2t
_
is a set of solutions for
the associated homogeneous equation. x
p
= 2 cosh t x

= 2 sinh t,
p
x

p
= 2 cosh t. So x

p
3x

+ 2x
p
= 2 cosh t 6 sinh t + 4 cosh t =
p
6 (cosh t sinh t) = 6e
t
=r.h.s. The general solution is thus
x = c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
2t
+ 2 cosh t.
For x
p
= e
t
, x

p
= e
t
, x

= e
t
. So x

p
3x

+ 2x
p
=
p p
e
t
+ 3e
t
+ 2e
t
= 6e
t
=r.h.s. The general solution is thus
x = c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
2t
+ e
t
.
(b) Using the initial conditions x(0) = 4, x
(0) = 3 for the rst solution

we get, 4 = c
1
+ c
2
+ 2 and 3 = c
1
+ 2c
2
. Solving these equations for
for c
1
and c
2
we have c
1
= c
2
= 1. Thus the solution of the initial
value problem is x = e
t
+ e
2t
+ 2 cosh t = e
t
+ e
2t
+ e
t
+ e
t
= 2e
t
+ e
2t
+ e
t
.
Using the same initial conditions for the second solution we get,
4 = c
1
+ c
2
+ 1 and 3 = c
1
+ 2c
2
1. Solving these equations for
for c
1
and c
2
we have c
1
= 2, c
2
= 1.Thus the solution of the initial
value problem is x = 2e
t
+ e
2t
+ e
t
, which is the same as before.
2.2 INITIAL VALUE PROBLEM (FOR HOMOGENEOUS
EQUATION)
1. x
1
= sin t x
1

= cos t x

1
= sin t = x
1
x

1
+ x
1
= 0.
x
2
= cos t x
2

= sin t x

2
= cos t = x
2
x
2

+ x
2
= 0.
Thus x
1
and x
2
both are solutions of x

+ x = 0.
_
x
1
x
2
_ _
sin t cos t
_
The Wronskian is W [x
1
, x
2
] = det = det
x

1
x
2

cos t sin t
31 LINEAR SECOND AND HIGHER-ORDER DIFFERENIAL EQUATIONS
=
_
sin
2
t + cos
2
t
_
= 1 = 0 . Hence {sin t, cos t} is a fundamental
set of solutions.
3. Let x = t
r
. Then x

= rt
r1
, x

= r (r 1) t
r2
. So t
2
x

tx

+ x = 0
t
r
[r (r 1) r + 1] = 0 (r 1) (r 1) = 0 (since t
r
= 0)
r = 1(repeated). So we have two solutions: x = t which are the
_
t t
_
same. The Wronskian is W [x
1
, x
2
] = det = 0. They dont
1 1
form a fundamental set of solutions.
_
x
1
(1) x
2
(1)
_ _
1 0
_
5. (a) The Wronskian is W (1) = det = det
x

1
(1) x
2

(1) 1 1
= 0. Hence {x
1
, x
2
} is a fundamental set of solutions. = 1
(b) x
3
= c
1
x
1
+ c
2
x
2
x
3

= c
1
x
1

+ c
2
x

2
. Using all three sets of
initial conditions we have, 2 = x
3
(1) = c
1
x
1
(1) + c
2
x
2
(1) = c
1
and
0 = x

3
(1) = c
1
x
1

(1) + c
2
x

2
(1) = c
1
c
2
= 2 c
2
c
2
= 2.
Thus x
3
= 2x
1
+ 2x
2
.
_
x
1
(t
0
) x
2
(t
0
)
_ _
1 0
_
7. The Wronskian is W (t
0
) = det = det
x

1
(t
0
) x
2

(t
0
) 0 1
= 1 = 0 . Hence {x
1
, x
2
} is a fundamental set of solutions.
Now x
3
= c
1
x
1
+ c
2
x
2
x

3
= c
1
x

1
+ c
2
x

2
. Using all three sets
of initial conditions we have,
= x
3
(t
0
) = c
1
x
1
(t
0
) + c
2
x
2
(t
0
) = c
1
1 + c
2
0 = c
1
= x
3

(t
0
) = c
1
x

1
(t
0
) + c
2
x
2

(t
0
) = c
1
0 + c
2
1 = c
2
Thus x
3
= x
1
+ x
2
.
9. Let x
1
and x
2
be two solutions of Airys equation x

+ tx = 0,
so that x

1
+ tx
1
= 0 and x

2
+ tx
2
= 0.
Then the Wronskian is W (t) = det
_
x
x
1

1
x
x
2

2
_
= x
1
x

2
x
1

x
2
.
dW
dt
= x

1
x

2
+ x
1
x
2

x

1
x

2
x
1

x
2
= x
1
x
2

x

1
x
2
= x
1
(tx
2
) x
2
(tx
1
)
= 0
So W (t) is constant.
11. x
1
= sin t x

1
= cos t x

1
= sin t = x
1
x
1

+ x
1
= 0.
x
2
= cos t x
2

= sin t x

2
= cos t = x
2
x
2

+ x
2
= 0.
Thus x
1
and x
2

+ x = 0.
_
x
1
x
2
_ _
sin t cos t
_
1
, x
2
] = det = det
=
_
sin
2
t + cos
2
t
_
= 1 = 0 .
x

1
x
2

cos t sin t
t
_
0
t
p(s)ds
According to (13), W (t) = W (t
0
)e for the equation
x

+ p(t)x

+ q(t)x = 0. In this problem p(t) = 0 so that
W (t) = W (t
0
) =constant.
13. x
1
t
= e
t
x

1
= x

1
= e
t
= x
1
. Then l.h.s. = x

1
3x
1

+ 2x
1
e 3e
t
+ 2e
t
= 0 =r.h.s.
x
2
= e
2t
x

2
= 2e
2t
x

2
= 4e
2t
. Then
l.h.s.= x

2
3x
2

+ 2x
2
= 4e
2t
6e
2t
+ 2e
2t
= 0 =r.h.s.
Thus e
t
and e
2t

3x

+ 2x = 0.
32 CHAPTER 2
t 2t
The Wronskian is W (t) = det
_
e
t
e
2t
_
= 2e
3t
e
3t
= e
3t
.
e 2e
_
t
p(s)ds
0
)e
t
0
for the equation
x

+ p(t)x

+ q(t)x = 0. In this problem p(t) = 3 so that
W (t) = W (t
0
)e
3t3t0
= e
3t0
e
3t3t0
= e
3t
.
15. x
1
= t
1
x

1
= t
2
, x

1
= 2t
3
. Then
l.h.s. = t
2
x

1
+ 4tx

1
+ 2x
1
= 2t
1
4t
1
+ 2t
1
= 0 =r.h.s.
x
2
= t
2
x

2
= 2t
3
, x

2
= 6t
4
. Then
l.h.s. = t
2

x
2

+ 4tx

2
+ 2x
2
= 6t
2
8t
2
+ 2t
2
= 0 =r.h.s.
Thus t
1
and t
2
both are solutions of t
2
x

+ 4tx

+ 2x = 0.
_
t
1
t
2
_
The Wronskian is W (t) = det
t
2
2t
3
= 2t
4
+ t
4
= t
4
.
_
t
p(s)ds
0
)e
t
0
for the equation
x

+ p(t)x

+ q(t)x = 0. In this problem p(t) =
4
t
so that
_
t
_
4
W (t) = W (t
0
)e
4(ln tln t0)
= t
0
4
ln
t
0
= t
4
e .
2.3 REDUCTION OF ORDER
1. x
1
= t
1
x
1

= t
2
and x
1

= 2t
3
so that 2t
1
3t
1
+ t
1
= 0.
Let x = vx
1
= vt
1
and substitute this in the original equation to
get t
2
_
vt
1
_

+ 3t
_
vt
1
_

+ vt
1
= 0
t
2
_
v
t
1
2v
t
2
+ 2vt
3
_
+ 3t
_
v
t
1
vt
2
_
+ vt
1
= 0
v
t + v

= 0, since the v terms cancel. Writing w = v

and then
dw 1 dw dt
dividing by t we get
dt
+
t
w = 0. By separation,
_
w
=
_
t
,
which, on integration, yields ln |w| = ln t + c w = c
2
t
1
. But
w = v

, so that v

= c
2
t
1
. Now integrating again we get
v = c
2
ln t + c
1
. Thus the general solution is
x = vx
1
= vt
1
= c
2
t
1
ln t + c
1
t
1
. A fundamental set of solutions
would be
_
t
1
, t
1
ln t
_
.
3. x
1
= e
5t
x
1

= 5e
5t
and x

1
= 25e
5t
so that
25e
5t
50e
5t
+ 25e
5t
= 0. Substitute x = vx
1
= ve
5t
in the original equation to get
_
ve
5t
_

+10
_
ve
5t
_

+25ve
5t
= 0
_
v

e
5t
10v

e
5t
+ 25ve
5t
_
+10
_
v

e
5t
5ve
5t
_
+25ve
5t
= 0

v
e
5t
= 0, since the v (and v
) terms cancel v

= 0 since e
5t
= 0

.
Now integrating twice we get v = c
2
t + c
1
. Thus the general solution
is x = vx
1
= ve
5t
= c
2
te
5t
+ c
1
e
5t
. A fundamental set of solutions
would be
_
e
5t
, te
5t
_
.
5. x
1
= e
t
x
1

= e
t
and x

1
= e
t
, so te
t
(t 1) e
t
e
t
= 0.
Let x = vx
1
= ve
t
and substitute this in the original equation to
get t (ve
t
)

+ (t 1) (ve
t
)

ve
t
= 0
t (v
e
t
2v
e
t
+ ve
t
) + (t 1) (v
e
t
ve
t
) ve
t
= 0
_ _
tv
e
t
(t + 1) v
e
t
= 0,since the v terms cancel. Dividing by
te
t
= 0 we get, v

_
1 +
1
_
v

= 0. Now w = v

yields
t
dw

_
1 +
1
_
_
dw
=
_ _
1 +
1
_
dt, which,
dt t w t
on integration, yields ln |w| = t + ln |t| + c w = c
2
te
t
. But w = v

,
so that v

= c
2
te
t
. Now using integration by parts we get
v = c
2
(t 1) e
t
+ c
1
.
Thus the general solution is x = vx
1
= ve
t
= (c
2
(t 1) e
t
+ c
1
) e
t
= c
2
(t 1)+c
1
e
t
. A fundamental set of solutions would be {e
t
, t 1} .
7. x
1
= t x
1

= 1 and x

1
= 0 so that x
1

+ tx

1
x
1
= t t = 0.
Let x = vx
1
= vt and substitute this in the original equation to
get (vt)

+ t (vt)

vt = 0 (v
t + 2v
) + t (v
t + v) vt = 0
v
t +
_
2 + t
2
_
v

= 0, since the v terms cancel. Writing w = v

and
dw
+
_
2
then dividing by t we get
dt t
+ t
_
w = 0.
dw
By separation,
_
=
_ _
2
+ t
_
dt, which, on integration, yields
w t
2 2 1 1
1
w = c
2
e
2 ln|t|
t
2
+ c
2
= c
2
t
2
e
t t
ln |w| = 2 ln |t
But w = v

, so that v
|
2 2
.
= c
2
t
2
e
1
2
t
2
. Now integrating by
_
t
2 1
2
s
2
e
s
using denite integral we get, v = c
2
ds + c
1
.
1
_
t
s
2
e
2
2
2
1
s
Thus the general solution is x = vx
1
ds + c
1
t. = vt = c
2
t
1
_
t
s
2
e
1
2
s
A fundamental set of solutions would be ds . t, t
1
9. Let x = t
r
. Then x

= rt
r1
and x

= r (r 1) t
r2
. Substituting these
into t
2
x

3tx

+ 4x = 0 we get, r (r 1) t
r
3rt
r
+ 4t
r
= 0
r
2
4r + 4 = 0 (since t
r
= 0). Thus (r 2)
2
= 0 r = 2. So x
1
= t
2
is a solution. Let x = vx
1
= vt
2
and substitute this in the original
equation to get t
2
_
vt
2
_

3t
_
vt
2
_

+ 4vt
2
= 0
t
2
_
t
2
v

+ 4tv

+ 2v
_
3t
_
t
2
v

+ 2tv
_
+ 4vt
2
= 0

t
4
v

+ t
3
v

= 0,
since the v terms cancel. v

+
1
t
v

= 0. Writing w

= v

we get
dw
+
1
_
dw 1
dt ln w = ln t + c
dt t w
=
_
t
| | | |
w = c
2
e
ln|t|
= c
2
t
1
. But w = v

, so that v

= c
2
1
t
. Now integrating
again we get, v = c
2
ln t + c
1
x = vt
2
= (c
2
ln t + c
1
) t
2
= c
2
t
2
ln t + c
1
t
2
(i.e., the second solution is t
2
ln t).
11. Let x = t
r
. Then x

= rt
r1
and x

= r (r 1) t
r2
. Substituting
these into t
2
x

+ 7tx

+ 9x = 0 we get, r (r 1) t
r
+ 7rt
r
+ 9t
r
= 0
r
2
+ 6r + 9 = 0 (since t
r
= 0). Thus (r + 3)
2
= 0 r = 3.
So x
1
= t
3
1
= vt
3
and substitute this
in the original equation to get t
2
_
vt
3
_

+ 7t
_
vt
3
_

+ 9vt
3
= 0
t
2
_
t
3
v

6t
4
v

+ 12t
5
v
_
+ 7t
_
t
3
v

3t
4
v
_
+ 9vt
3
= 0,

since the v terms cancel, t
1
v

+ t
2
v

= 0 v

+
1
v

= 0.
dw 1

t
dw 1
Writing w = v

we get
dt
+
t
_
w
=
_
t
dt
ln |w| = ln |t| + c w = c
2
e
ln|t|
= c
2
t
1
. But w = v

, so that
34 CHAPTER 2
v

= c
2
1
t
. Now integrating again we get, v = c
2
ln t + c
1
. Thus the
general solution is x = vt
3
= (c
2
ln t + c
1
) t
3
= c
2
t
3
ln t + c
1
t
3
(i.e., the second solution is t
3
ln t).
13. Let x = sin (rt) . Then x

= r cos (rt) and x

= r
2
sin (rt) .
Substituting these into x

+ 4x = 0 we get,
_
4 r
2
_
sin (rt) = 0
2
= 0 (since sin (rt) = 0 as nontrivial solution). Thus 4 r
r = 2. So x
1
= sin (2t) is a solution. Let x = vx
1
= v sin (2t)
and substitute this in the original equation to get
(v sin (2t))

+ 4v sin (2t) = 0
(v

sin (2t) + 4v

cos (2t) 4v
sin (2t)) + 4v sin (2t) = 0, since the v

terms cancel, v

sin (2t) + 4v

cos (2t) = 0 v

+ 4
cos(2t)
v

= 0.
sin(2t)
Writing w = v

we get
dw
+ 4
cos(2t)
w = 0. By integrating factors,
dt sin(2t)
cos(2t)
sin(2t) 2
dt ln(sin(2t))) 1
we have w = ce
4
_
= ce
4(
1
= c
sin
2
(2t)
= c csc
2
(2t) .
But w = v

, so that v

= c csc
2
(2t) . Now using integration table we
get, v =
c
cot (2t) + c
1
= c
2
cos(2t)
+ c
1
. Thus the general solution
2 sin(2t)
is x = v sin (2t) =
_
cos(2t)
+ c
1
_
sin (2t) = c
1
sin (2t) + c
2
cos (2t) . c
2
sin(2t)
15. Let x = e
rt
x

= re
rt
and x

= r
2
e
rt
. Substituting these into
x

4x

+ 4

x = 0 we get,
_
r
2
4r + 4
_
e
rt
= 0 r
2
4r + 4 = 0
(since e
rt
= 0). Thus (r 2)
2
= 0 r = 2. So x
1
= e
2t
is a solution.
2t
Let x = vx
1
= ve and substitute this in the original equation to
get
_
ve
2t
_

4
_
ve
2t
_

+ 4ve
2t
= 0
v
e
2t
+ 4v
e
2t
+ 4ve
2t
4v
e
2t
8ve
2t
+ 4ve
2t
= 0, since the v
(and v
) terms cancel, v
e
2t
= 0 v

= 0(since e
2t
= 0).
Integrating twice we have, v = c
1
+ c
2
t. Thus the general solution is
x = ve
2t
= (c
1
+ c
2
t) e
2t
= c
1
e
2t
+ c
2
te
2t
.
17. Let x = e
rt
x

= re
rt
and x

= r
2
e
rt
x

+ 2x

+ x
= 0 we get,
_
r
2
+ 2r + 1
_
e
rt
= 0
r
2
+ 2r + 1 = 0 (since e
rt
= 0). Thus (r + 1)
2
= 0 r = 1.
So x
1
= e
t
1
= ve
t
and substitute this in
the original equation to get (ve
t
)

+ 2 (ve
t
)

+ ve
t
= 0
v
e
t
2v
e
t
+ ve
t
+ 2v
e
t
2ve
t
+ ve
t
= 0, since the v
(and v
) terms cancel, v

e
t
= 0 v

= 0(since e
t
= 0).
Integrating twice we have, v = c
1
+ c
2
t. Thus the general solution is
x = ve
t
= (c
1
+ c
2
t) e
t
= c
1
e
t
+ c
2
te
t
.
19. Let x = e
rt
x

= re
rt
and x

= r
2
e
rt
2 2 rt
x

4x = 0 we get,
_
r 4
_
e
rt
= 0 r 4 = 0 (since e = 0).
2t

2t
Thus r
2
= 4 r = 2. So x
1
= e is a solution. Let x = vx
1
= ve
and substitute this in the original equation to get
2t
_
ve
2t
_

4ve
2t
= 0 v
e
2t
+ 4v
e
2t
+ 4ve 4ve
2t
= 0, since the v
2t
terms cancel, v

e
2t
+ 4v

e
2t
= 0 v

+ 4v

= 0(since e = 0).
Writing w = v

we get
dw
+ 4w = 0. So w = ce
4t
. But w = v

, so
dt
that v

= ce
4t
. Now integrating again we get, v =
1
ce
4t
+ c
1
=
4
c
2
e
4t
+ c
1
LINEAR SECOND AND HIGHER-ORDER DIFFERENIAL EQUATIONS 35

2t 2t 2t
x = ve =
_
c
2
e
4t
+ c
1
_
e = c
1
e + c
2
e
2t
.
21. x
2
= vx
1
where v must be a non-constant function of t (otherwise x
2
is a scalar multiple of x
1
and so they are linearly dependent).
_
x
1
x
2
_ _
x
1
vx
1
_
1
, x
2
] = det = det
x

1
x

2
x

1
v

x
1
+ vx

1
= v

(x
1
)
2
+ vx
1
x

1
vx
1
x

= v

(x
1
)
2
= 0 (since v

= 0 as v is a
1
non-constant function of t and x
1
= 0 as a nontrivial solution). Hence
{x
1
, x
2
} forms a fundamental set of solutions.
2.4 HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR CONSTANT COEFFICIENT
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS (SECOND ORDER)
1. Substituting x = e
rt
into the equation x

+ x

6x = 0 we get
r
2
+ r 6 = 0 (r + 3) (r
2t
2) = 0 r = 2, 3.Thus the
general solution is x = c
1
e + c
2
e
3t
.
rt
into the equation x

+ x = 0 we get
r
2
+1 = 0 r = i. Thus the general solution is x = c
1
cos t+c
2
sin t.
rt
5. Substituting x = e into the equation x

+ 4x

+ 5x = 0 we get
r
2
+4r +5 = 0 r =
4
1620
= 2 i.Thus the general solution
2
is x = e
2t
(c
1
cos t + c
2
sin t) .
rt
into the equation x

3x

+ 2x = 0 we get
r
2
3r + 2 = 0 (r 1) (r 2) r = 1, 2.Thus the general
t 2t
solution is x = c
1
e + c
2
e .
rt
into the equation x

x

= 0 we get r
2
r = 0
r (r 1) = 0
rt
r = 0, 1.Thus the general solution is x = c
1
+c
2
e
t
.
11. Substituting x = e into the equation 3x

= 0 we get 3r
2
= 0
r = 0, a repeated root with multiplicity 2. Thus the general
solution is x = c
1
+ c
2
t.
rt
into the equation 3x

+ 2x

x = 0 we get
3r
2
+ 2r 1 = 0 (r + 1) (3r 1) = 0
1
r = 1,
1
. Thus
3
the general solution is x = c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
t
3
.
rt
into the equation x

+ x

2x = 0 we get
r
2
+ r 2 = 0 (r + 2) (r 1) = 0 r = 1, 2. Thus
t
+ c
2
e
2t t
the general solution is x = c
1
e . So x

= c
1
e 2c
2
e
2t
.
Using the initial conditions x(0) = 0 and x
(0) = 1 we get
c
1
+ c
2
= 0 and c
1
2c
2
= 1. Solving these equations for
c
1
and c
2
, we have c
1
=
1
3
and c
2
=
1
3
.
Hence x =
3
1
e
t
3
1
e
2t
.
rt
17. Substituting x = e into the equation 2x

+ 4x = 0 we get
2
2r
2
+ 4 = 0 r = 2 r = i
2. Thus the general solution

is x = c
1
cos
2t + c
2
sin
2t.
rt
into the equation 2x

+ 8x

+ 6x = 0 we get
2r
2
+ 8r + 6 = 0 r
2
+ 4r + 3 = 0 (r + 3) (r + 1) = 0
36 CHAPTER 2
r = 1, 3.Thus the general solution is x = c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
3t
.
So x

= c
1
e
t
3c
2
e
3t
. Using the initial conditions x(0) = 2
and x
(0) = 0 we get c
1
+ c
2
= 2 and c
1
3c
2
= 0.
Solving these equations for c
1
and c
2
, we have c
1
= 3 and
c
2
= 1. Hence x = 3e
t
e
3t
.
rt
into the equation x

+ 10x

+ 25x = 0 we
get, r
2
+ 10r + 25 = 0 (r + 5)
2
= 0 r = 5, repeated
twice. Thus the general solution is x = c
1
e
5t
+ c
2
te
5t
.
rt
into the equation x

14x

+ 49x = 0 we
get, r
2
14r + 49 = 0 (r 7)
2
= 0 r = 7, repeated
7t
twice. Thus the general solution is x = c
1
e + c
2
te
7t
.
rt
into the equation x

6x

+ 25x = 0 we get
r
2
6r + 25 = 0 r =
6
36100
= 3 4i.Thus the general
2
solution is x = e
3t
(c
1
cos 4t + c
2
sin 4t) .
rt
into the equation x

12x = 0 we get
2
r 12 = 0
+ c
r
2
e
=
12
t
12. Thus the general solution is
12t
x = c
1
e .
rt
into the equation x

+ 4x

+ 8x = 0 we get
r
2
+ 4r + 8 = 0 r =
4
2
1632
= 2 2i.Thus the general
solution is x = e
2t
(c
1
cos 2t + c
2
sin 2t) .
rt
into the equation x

+ 8x = 0 we get
r
2
+ 8 = 0 r =
8 =
8i.Thus the general

solution is x

= c
1
cos
8t + c
2
sin
8t.
rt
into the equation x

+ 6x

+ 7x = 0 we get
r
2
+ 6r + 7 = 0 r =
6
3628
= 3
2.Thus the general

(3+
2)t
2
(3
2)t
2t
solution is x = c
1
e + c
2
e = e
3t
_
c
1
e + c
2
e
2t
_
.
35. The Wronskian W [e
t
cos t, e
t
sin t]
_
e
t
cos t e
t
sin t
_
= det
e
t
( cos t sin t) e
t
( sin t + cos t)
= e
2t
_
sin t cos t + cos
2
t sin t cos t + sin
2
t
_
= e
2t
_
cos
2
t + sin
2
t
_
= e
2t
= 0 (since = 0).
t

So {e cos t, e
t
sin t} forms a fundamental set of solutions.
37. Repeated roots have b
2
4ac = 0 c =
b
2
, so that
b
2
ar
2
+ br + c = ar
2
+ br +
b
2
= a
_

r
2
+
b
4
r
a
+
2
_
= a
_
r +
b
_
2
.
4a a 4a 2a
So repeated root is r =
b
.
2a
39. Choose #21. This problem has a repeated root, r = 5. So one
solution is x
1
= e
5t
. Let x = vx
1
= ve
5t
and substitute this
in the original equation to get
_
ve
5t
_

+ 10
_
ve
5t
_

+ 25ve
5t
= 0
_
v
e
5t
10v
e
5t
+ 25ve
5t
_

+10
_
v
e
5t
5ve
5t
_
+ 25ve
5t
= 0
v

e
5t
= 0 v

= 0 since e
5t
= 0. Now integrating twice
we get v = c
2
t + c
1
x = vx
1
= ve
5t
= c
2
te
5t
+ c
1
e
5t
.
41. c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
2t
will be the general solution if r = 1 and r = 2 are
the roots of the characteristic equation. One such characteristic
equation would be (r + 1) (r + 2) = r
2
+3r +2 = 0. A corresponding
dierential equation is x

+ 3x

+ 2x = 0.
43. c
1
e
3t
+ c
2
te
3t
will be the general solution if r = 3 is a repeated (twice)
root of the characteristic equation. One such characteristic
equation would be (r 3)
2
= r
2
6r + 9 = 0. A corresponding

6x

+ 9x = 0.
45. c
1
sin 4t + c
2
cos 4t will be the general solution if r = 4i is a
complex root of the characteristic equation. One such characteristic
equation would be (r + 4i) (r 4i) = r
2
+ 16 = 0. A corresponding

+ 16x = 0.
47. c
1
sin 3t + c
2
cos 3t will be the general solution if r = 3i is a
equation would be (r + 3i) (r 3i) = r
2
+ 9 = 0. A corresponding

+ 9x = 0.
49. c
1
+ c
2
t will be the general solution if r = 0 is a repeated root
of the characteristic equation. One such characteristic
equation would be r
2
= 0. A corresponding

= 0.
51. c
1
e
t
sin t + c
2
e
t
cos t will be the general solution if r = 1 i is a
equation would be (r 1 i) (r 1 + i) = r
2
2r + 2 = 0. A
corresponding dierential equation is x

2x

+ 2x = 0.
2.4.1 Homogeneous Linear Constant Coecient Dierential Equa
tions (nth-Order)
rt
into the equation x

6x

+ 12x

8x = 0
we get, r
3
6r
2
+ 12r 8 = 0 (r 2)
3
= 0 r = 2 is a
repeated root of multiplicity 3.Thus the general solution is
x = c
1
e
2t
+ c
2
te
2t
+ c
3
t
2
e
2t
.
rt
into the equation x

5x

+ 4x = 0 we get,
4 2 2
r 5r
2
+ 4 = 0
_
r 1
_ _
r 4
_
= 0 r = 1, 2.
t

2t
+ c
4
e
2t
Thus the general solution is x = c
1
e + c
2
e
t
+ c
3
e .
rt
into the equation x

+ x

2x

= 0 we get,
r
3
+ r
2
2r = 0 r (r 1) (r + 2) = 0 r = 0, 1, 2.
+ c
3
e
2t
1
+ c
2
e
t
.
rt
into the equation x

+4x

+6x

+4x

+ x = 0
we get, r
4
+ 4r
3
+ 6r
2
+ 4r + 1 = 0 (r + 1)
4
= 0 r = 1
is a repeated root of multiplicity 4. Thus the general solution is
x = c
1
e
t
+ c
2
te
t
+ c
3
t
2
e
t
+ c
4
t
3
e
t
.
rt
into the equation x

3x = 0 we get, r 3 = 0
r = 3. Thus the general solution is x = c
1
e
3t
.
38 CHAPTER 2
rt
into the equation x

+ x

2x = 0 we get,
3 2
r + r 2 = 0 (r 1)
_
r
2
+ 2r + 2
_
= 0 r = 1, 1 i.
t

1
e + e
t
(c
2
cos t + c
3
sin t) .
rt
into the equation x

+4x

+8x

+8x

+4x = 0
we get, r
4
+ 4r
3
+ 8r
2
+ 8r + 4 = 0
_
r
4
+ 4r
3
+ 4r
2
_
+ 4r
2
+ 8r + 4 = 0
_
r
2
+ 2r
_
2
+ 4
_
r
2
+ 2r
_
+ 4 = 0
_
r
2
+ 2r + 2
_
2
= 0
r = 1 i is a repeated root of multiplicity 2. Thus the general
solution is x = e
t
(c
1
cos t + c
2
sin t) + te
t
(c
3
cos t + c
4
sin t) .
rt
into the equation x
(4)
4x
(3)
+6x
(2)
4x
(1)
+x = 0
we get, r
4
4r
3
+ 6r
2
4r + 1 = 0 (r 1)
4
= 0 r = 1
is a repeated root of multiplicity 4. Thus the general solution is
x = c
1
e
t
+ c
2
te
t
+ c
3
t
2
e
t
+ c
4
t
3
e
t
.
rt
into the equation x
(6)
3x
(4)
+ 3x
(2)
x = 0
we get, r
6
3r
4
+ 3r
2
1 = 0
_
r
2
_
3
3
_
r
2
_
2
.1 + 3
_
r
2
_
.1
2
1
3
= 0
2
_
r 1
_
3
= 0 r = 1, each repeated with multiplicity 3.
Thus the general solution is
x = c
1
e
t
+ c
2
te
t
+ c
3
t
2
e
t
+ c
4
e
t
+ c
5
te
t
+ c
6
t
2
e
t
.
rt
into the equation x
(4)
x = 0 we get, r
4
1 = 0
2 2
_
r 1
_ _
r
2
+ 1
_
= 0 r
2
= 1 and r = 1 r = 1, i.
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
t
+ c
3
cos t + c
4
sin t.
rt
into the equation x

+ 50x

+ 625x = 0
we get, r
4
+ 50r
2
+ 625 = 0
_
r
2
+ 25
_
2
= 0 r = 5i
repeated twice. Thus the general solution is
x = c
1
cos 5t + c
2
sin 5t + c
3
t cos 5t + c
4
t sin 5t.
rt
into the equation x

+ 3x

+ x

5x = 0 we
2
get, r
3
+3r + r 5 = 0 (r 1)
_
r
2
+ 4r + 5
_
= 0 r = 1, 2 i.
t

1
e + e
2t
(c
2
cos t + c
3
sin t) .
25. c
1
e
2t
+ c
2
te
2t
+ c
3
will be the general solution if r = 2 is a root
with multiplicity 2 and r = 0 is a simple root of the characteristic
2
equation. One such characteristic equation would be r (r 2)
= r
3
4r
2
+ 4r = 0. A corresponding dierential equation is
x

4x

+ 4x

= 0.
27. c
1
sin 5t + c
2
cos 5t + c
3
t sin 5t + c
4
t cos 5t will be the general solution
if r = 5i is a complex root with multiplicity 2 of the characteristic
2
equation. One such characteristic equation would be ((r 5i) (r + 5i))
=
_
r
2
+ 25
_
2
= r
4
+ 50r
2
+ 625 = 0. A corresponding dierential
equation is x

+ 50x

+ 625x = 0.
29. c
1
e
2t
+ c
2
te
2t
+ c
3
t
2
e
2t
will be the general solution if r = 2
is a root with multiplicity 3 of the characteristic equation. One such
characteristic equation would be (r + 2)
3
= r
3
+ 6r
2
+ 12r + 8 = 0.
A corresponding dierential equation is x

+ 6x

+ 12x

+ 8x = 0.
31. c
1
e
t
sin t + c
2
e
t
cos t + c
3
te
t
sin t + c
4
te
t
cos t will be the general
solution if r = 1 i is a complex root with multiplicity 2 of the
characteristic equation. One such characteristic equation would be
2
2
((r 1 i) (r 1 + i)) =
_
r 2r + 2
_
2
=
r
4
4r
3
+ 8r
2
8r + 4 = 0. A corresponding dierential
equation is x

4x

+ 8x

8x

+ 4x = 0.
33. c
1
sin t + c
2
cos t + c
3
t sin t + c
4
t cos t will be the general solution
if the roots of the characteristic equation is r = i repeated twice.
2
One such characteristic equation would be ((r i) (r + i)) =
_
r
2
+ 1
_
2
= r
4
+ 2r
2
+ 1 = 0. A corresponding dierential equation is
x

+ 2x

+ x = 0.
35. Since there are 6 roots, four real (repeated), two complex, the general
solution is a linear combination of 6 homogeneous solutions using
6 arbitrary constants:
x = e
8t
_
c
1
+ c
2
t + c
3
t
2
+ c
4
t
3
_
+ e
8t
(c
5
cos 7t + c
6
sin 7t) .
37. Since there are 9 roots, three real (repeated), one pair of complex
(repeated twice) and one pair of complex (simple), the general
solution is a linear combination of 9 homogeneous solutions
using 9 arbitrary constants:
x = c
1
+ c
2
t + c
3
t
2
+ e
4t
(c
4
cos 5t + c
5
sin 5t) + (c
6
+ c
7
t) cos 5t
+(c
8
+ c
9
t) sin 5t.
39. Since there are six complex roots (one pair repeated three times), the
general solution is a linear combination of 6 homogeneous solutions
using 6 arbitrary constants:
x = e
2t
__
c
1
+ c
2
t + c
3
t
2
_
cos t +
_
c
4
+ c
5
t + c
6
t
2
_
sin t

.
41. Since there are 8 complex roots (one pair repeated twice, other two
pairs simple), the general solution is a linear combination of
8 homogeneous solutions using 8 arbitrary constants:
x = e
2t
(c
1
cos 6t + c
2
sin 6t) + e
2t
(c
3
cos 6t + c
4
sin 6t)
+(c
5
+ c
6
t) cos 6t + (c
7
+ c
8
t) sin 6t.
2.5 MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS I: FORMULATION AND
FREE RESPONSE
2 2
1. The amplitude is R =
_
c
1
+ c
2
=
9 + 49 =
58. The phase

angle is given by tan =
c
c
2
1
=
7
3
, fourth quadrant. So
7
= tan
1
_

_
= 1.1659 radians. Thus x (t) =
58 cos (5t + 1.1659) .

3
2 2
_
c
1
+ c
2
=
3 + 1 = 2. The phase angle

is given by tan =
c
c
1
2
=
1
3
, rst quadrant. So
= tan
1
_
1
_
=

radians. Thus x (t) = 2 cos
_
14t

_
.
3
6 6
2 2
_
c
1
+ c
2
=
36 + 36 =
72 = 6
2.
The phase angle is given by tan =
c2
=
6
= 1,
3
second quadrant. So = tan
1
(1) +
c

1
=
6
+ = radians.
4 4
40 CHAPTER 2
3
Thus x (t) = 6
2 cos
_
5t
_
.
2 2
_
c
1
+
4
c
2
=

c2
is given by tan = =
1
, fourth quadrant. So
c1
3
= tan
1
_

1
3
_
=

6
radians. Thus x (t) = 2 cos
_
6t +

6
_
.
2 2
_
c
1
+ c =

c2
is given by tan = =
4
2
3
=
3, second quadrant. So
c1
2
= tan
1
_
3
_
+ =
3
+
4
=
3
radians.
2
Thus x (t) = 8 cos
_
2t
_
.
3
11. We determine the spring constant k from kL = mg where
98030
m = 30 gm, g = 980 cm/s
2
and L = 20 cm. So k =
20
= 1470.
The dierential equation is mx

+ kx = 0 30x

+ 1470x = 0
x

+ 49x = 0. Substituting x = e
rt
we have

r
2
+ 49 = 0

r = 7i. Hence the general solution is x (t) = c
1
cos 7t + c
2
sin 7t
x

(t) = 7c
1
sin 7t +7c
2
cos 7t. Using the initial conditions x (0) = 10
and x

(0) = 0 we get, c
1
= 10 and c
2
= 0. Thus the motion is
x = 10 cos 7t.
13. We determine the spring constant k from kL = mg where
m = 8 slugs, g = 32 ft/s
2
and L = 2 ft. So k =
8
2
32
= 128.
For spring-mass system m = 2 slugs, the dierential equation is
2x

+ 128x = 0 x

rt
we have
r
2
+ 64 = 0 r

= 8i. Hence the general solution
is x (t) = c
1
cos 8t + c
2
sin 8t x

(t) = 8c
1
sin 8t + 8c
2
cos 8t.
Using the initial conditions x (0) = 2 and x

(0) = 1 we get, c
1
= 2
and c
2
=
8
1
. Thus the motion is x = 2 cos 8t +
8
1
sin 8t.
15. Here m = 10. Frequency

= 5 cycles/sec = 10
_
k
= 10
k
= 100
2
2

k = 1000
2
lb/ft.
m 10

17. Here m = 16 g, k = 64 gm/s
2
. The dierential equation is
16x

+ 64x = 0 x

rt
we have
r
2
+ 4 = 0 r =
2i. Hence the general solution is

x (t) = c
1
cos 2t + c
2
sin 2t. So x (0) = c
1
and x

(0) = 2c
2
.
Now, phase, =

3
= tan
1
_
c
c
2
1
_
c
c
1
2
= tan
_

3
_
=
3
=
3c
1
and amplitude,
_
c

= 2 c
2
= 4

c
2
1
2
+ c
2
2
1
2
+ c
2
2
_
2
2

c
1
+
_
3c
1
= 4 4c
1
= 4 c
1
= 1 and then c
2
=
3.
Thus the initial conditions must be x (0) = 1 and x

(0) = 2
3.
19. (a) The dierential equation is mx

+ kx = 0 x

+
k
x = 0.
m
rt 2 k

_
k
Substituting x = e we have r +
m
= 0 r =
m
i.
_
k
_
k
Hence the general solution is x (t) = c
1
cos t + c
2
sin t
_
k
_
k
_
k
_
k
m m

x

(t) = c
1
sin t + c
2
cos t.
m m m m

(0) = 10 we get,
c
1
= 0 and c
2
= 10
_
m
k
. Thus x (t) = 10
_
m
sin
_
k
t .
k m
2 2
(b) The amplitude is R =
_
c
1
+ c = 10
_
m
.
2 k
(c) From part (b) the amplitude decreases as k increases.
(d) From part (b) the amplitude increases as m increases.
21. (a) The dierential equation is mx

+ kx = 0. x

+
k
x = 0.
m
rt 2 k

_
k
Substituting x = e we have r +
m
= 0 r =
m
i.
_
k
_
k
1
cos
m
t + c
2
sin
m
t
_
k
_
k
_
k
_
k
x

(t) = c
1
sin t + c
2
cos t.
m m m m

(0) = 1 we get, c
1
= 1
and c
2
=
_
m
. Thus the motion is x (t) = cos
_
k
t +
_
m
sin
_
k
t .
k m k m
2 2
_
c
1
+ c =
_
1 +
m
.
2 k
(c) From part (b) the amplitude decreases to 1 as k increases
and increases as m increases.
23. Multiplying mx

+ kx = 0 by x

we get, mx
x

+ kxx

= 0.
Now integrating this equation with respect to t we have
_
mx
dt +
_
kxx
dt =constant.
1 d
2
1 d
2
m
_
2 dt
(x
) dt + k
_
2 dt
(x) dt =constant
1
m (x
)
2
+
1
k (x)
2
=constant
1
2
mv
2
+
1
kx
2
2
=constant.
d
2
x rt
25.

2
+ 7x = 0
2
. Substituting x = e we have r
2
+ 7 = 0 r =
7i.
dt
2
1
cos
7t + c
2
sin
7t.
d
2
x rt 2
27.
dt
2
7x = 0. Substituting x = e we have r 7 = 0 r =
7.
1
e
7t
+ c
2
e
7t
.
d
2
x rt
29.
dt
2
+ 5x = 0. Substituting x = e we have r
2
+ 5 = 0 r =
5i.
1
cos
5t + c
2
sin
5t and
dx
(t) =
5c
1
sin
5t +
5c
2
cos
5t. Using the initial conditions

dt
x (0) = 2 and
dx
(0) = 3 we have, c
1
= 2 and c
2
=
3
.
dt
5
3
Thus x (t) = 2 cos
5t +
5
sin
5t. The amplitude is

2 2
_ _
29
R =
_
c
1
+ c
2
= 4 +
9
5
=
5
and phase angle is
_
3
= tan
1
_
c
c
2
1
= tan
1
_
2
5
_
= 0.59087.
Hence x (t) =
_
29
cos
_
5t 0.59087
_
.
5
31. Suppose
d
= c
1
(constant). The circle of radius r can be represented
dt
parametrically by x = r cos , y = r sin . Integrating the dierential
equation we have, = c
1
t + c
2
, where c
2
is constant. Thus x
component of the object satises a simple harmonic motion
x = r cos (c
1
t + c
2
) . Hence the number of cycles per second is
0
=
c1
(here
0
= c
1
). That is, c
1
=cycles per 2 seconds,
2 2
which is the circular frequency.
33. Here m = 10, k = 30, = 40. The dierential equation is
10x

+ 40x

+ 30x = 0 x

+ 4x

+ 3x = 0, x (0) = 3, x

(0) = 5.
42 CHAPTER 2
Substituting x = e
rt
we have r
2
+4r +3 = 0 (r + 1) (r + 3) = 0
r = 1, 3. Hence the general solution is x (t) = c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
3t
.
Also x

(t) = c
1
e
t
3c
2
e
3t
. Using initial conditions we get,
c
1
+ c
2
= 3
c
1
3c
2
= 5
Adding these equations we get c
2
= 1 and then c
1
= 2 . Thus
x (t) = 2e
t
+ e
3t
.
Here, the roots are real (and negative), so the system is overdamped.
35. Here m = 1, L = 20, kL = mg = 980 k =
980
= 49, = 0.
20
The dierential equation describing the motion is
x

+ 49x = 0, x (0) = 1, x

(0) = 7. Substituting x = e
rt
we have
r
2
+ 49 = 0 r = 7i. Hence the general solution is
x (t) = c
1
cos 7t + c
2
sin 7t. Also x

(t) = 7c
1
sin 7t + 7c
2
cos 7t.
Using initial conditions we get, c
1
= 1 and c
2
= 1. Thus
x (t) = cos 7t + sin 7t. This motion is harmonic.
37. Here L = 2
2
, k = 12, mg = kL = 32 m = 1, = 7.
3
The dierential equation describing the motion is

x

+ 7x

+ 12x = 0, x (0) = 1, x

(0) = 1. Substituting x = e
rt
we have r
2
+ 7r + 12 = 0 (r + 4) (r + 3) = 0 r = 4, 3.
1
e
4t
+ c
2
e
3t
. Also
x

(t) = 4c
1
e
4t
3c
2
e
3t
. Using initial conditions we get,
c
1
+ c
2
= 1; 4c
1
3c
2
= 1 c
1
= 2 and c
2
= 3. Thus
x (t) = 2e
4t
3e
3t
.
Here, the roots are real (and negative), so the system is overdamped.
39. Here k = 5, m = 1, = 4. The dierential equation describing the
motion is x

+ 4x

+ 5x = 0, x (0) = 2, x

(0) = 0. Substituting
x = e
rt
we have r
2
+ 4r + 5 = 0 r = 2 i. Hence the general
solution is x (t) = e
2t
(c
1
cos t + c
2
sin t) .
Also x

(t) = e
2t
((2c
1
+ c
2
) cos t (c
1
+ 2c
2
) sin t) .
1
= 2; 2c
1
+ c
2
= 0 c
2
= 4.
Thus x (t) = e
2t
(2 cos t + 4 sin t) .

Here, the roots are complex (with negative real part), so we have
a damped oscillation. The amplitude is
R =
_
c
2
1
+ c
2
2
=
4 + 16 =
20 and the phase angle is

= tan
1
_
c
c
2
1
_
= tan
1
(2) = 1.107.
Hence x (t) = e
2t
20 cos (t 1.107) .
41. (Refer to the equation (36) of the text) The general solution for the
critically damped motion is x (t) = c
1
e

t
+ c
2
te

t
2m 2m

t

2m
x

(t) =
_
(c
1
+ c
2
t) + c
2

e

. The mass may change
2m
direction at the point where the derivative is zero. So we solve

2m c1
2m
x

(t) = 0 for t. Since e
t
= 0,

(c
1
+ c
2
t) + c
2
= 0
2m
t =

c2
, which is just one number. If t < 0, this does not happen.
43. If <
4mk, then damped oscillation.

If >
4mk, then overdamped.

And if =
4mk, then critically damped.

For small m (0 < m <
4
k
2
) motion will be overdamped. As m is
increased, motion will be critically damped at m =
4
k
2
and motion
will be a damped oscillation if m is increased further (m >
4
k
2
).
_
k
45. Without damping: natural frequency,
0
=
m
=
k (since m = 1).
Now
0
= 5
k = 10 k = 100
2
.
2

With damping: pseudo frequency, =
4mk
2
=
4k
2
(as m = 1).
2m 2
So

= 4
4k
2
= 8 4k
2
= 256
2
2 2

2
= 400
2
256
2
= 144
2
= 12.
rt x
47. Substituting x = e in 2
d
2
+4
dx
+3x = 0, we have 2r
2
+4r +3 = 0
2
dt
2
dt
r = 1
2
i. Thus the general solution is
x (t) = e
t
_
c
1
cos
2
2
t + c
2
sin
2
2
t
_
.
Here, underdamped system since the roots are complex (with
negative real part).
rt x
d
2
+5
dx
+4x = 0, we have 3r
2
+5r +4 = 0
5
23
dt
2
dt
r =
6

6
i. Thus the general solution is
x (t) = e
t
_
c
1
cos
6
23
t + c
2
sin
6
23
t
_
.
Here, underdamped system since the roots are complex (with
negative real part).
rt x
d
2
+8
dx
+4x = 0, we have 3r
2
+8r +4 = 0
dt
2
dt
(r + 2) (3r + 2) = 0 r =
2
2,
3
2
x (t) = x (t) = c
1
e
2t
+ c
2
e
t
.
3
Here, overdamped system since the roots are real (and negative).
rt x
d
2
+ 12
dx
+ 4x = 0, we have
dt
2
dt
9r
2
+ 12r + 4 = 0 (3r + 2)
2
= 0
2
repeated twice. r =
3
2 2
3 3
Thus the general solution is x (t) = c
1
e
t
+ c
2
te
t
.
Here, critically damped system since the roots are repeated negative
real.
rt x
d
2
+ 4
dx
+ x = 0, we have 3r
2
+ 4r + 1 = 0
dt
2
dt
(r + 1) (3r + 1) = 0
3
1
1
r = 1,
3
x (t) = c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
t
.
Here, overdamped system since the roots are real (and negative).
57. For an overdamped spring-mass system, (Refer to the equation (34)
and (35) of the text) the general solution is x (t) = c
1
e
r1t
+ c
2
e
r2t
.
So x

(t) = r
1
c
1
e
r1t
+ r
2
c
2
e
r2t
. Using initial condition x (0) = 1
we get, c
1
+ c
2
= 1 c
2
= 1 c
1
and x

(0) = v
0
we get,
r
1
c
1
+ r
2
c
2
= v
0
r
1
c
1
+ r
2
(1 c
1
) = v
0

r2v0

c
1
(r
1
r
2
) = v
0
r
2
c
1
=
r1r2
and then
c
2
= 1 c
1
= 1 +
r2v0
=
r1v0
.
r1 r2 r1r2
So x

(t) = r
1
r2v0
e
r1t
+ r
2
r1v0
e
r2t
. Now local maximum or
r1r2 r1r2
minimum (if exists) occurs at t such that x

(t) = 0
44 CHAPTER 2
r
1
t 1
v
0
r
1
r2v0 r1t
= r
2
r1v0 r2 t
e
e
r
2
t
r2(r1v0)
v
r
1
0
e e = =
r1r2 r1r2

r1(r2v0) 1
r
2

(r1r2)t
1
v
r
1
0
_
1
v
r
1
0
_
e =
1
r
2
(r
1
r
2
) t = ln
1
r
2
v
0
v
0
v
0
1
_
1
r
1
_
t = ln v
0
.
(r1r2) 1
r
2
rt
in x

+ x

+ x = 0, we have r
2
+ r + 1 = 0
2
4
r = .
2
r1 t r2t r1t r2t
Then x (t) = c
1
e + c
2
e ; x

(t) = c
1
r
1
e + c
2
r
2
e where
1 1
r
1
=
_
+
2
4
_
and r
2
=
_

2
4
_
.
2 2
For > 2 :

(0) = 1 we get
c
1
+ c
2
= 1 c
2
= 1 c
1
and
r2+1
r
1
c
1
+ r
2
c
2
= 1 c
1
(r
1
r
2
) = 1 r
2
c
1
=
r1r2

and c
2
= 1 +
r2+1
=
r1+1
. Thus x

(t) =
r2+1
e
r1 t
+
r1+1
e
r2t
.
r1r2 r1r2 r1 r2 r1r2
In order to nd lim x

(t) we must nd limits of c
1
, c
2
, r
1
, and r
2
2
+
when 2
+
as they depend on .
lim =

lim
r2+1
= lim
+
2
42
. Using LHospitals Rule
2
+
c
1
2
+

r1 r2
2
+ 2
2
4

+
2
1
and then simplifying we get lim
2
4
=
2
. Similar procedure
2
+
1
produces lim c
2
= . It is obvious that lim r
1
= lim r
2
= 1.
2
2
+
2
+
2
+
1

Thus lim x

(t) =
2
1
e
t
+
2
e
t
= e
t
.
2
+
For = 2 :
2
4 = 0 critically damped. Then r
1
= r
2
=

= 1 and
2
x
2
(t) = c
1
e
t
+ c
2
te
t
. So x
2

(t) = c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
t
c
2
te
t
.
1
= 1 and c
1
+ c
2
= 1 c
2
= 0.
Hence x
2
(t) = e
t
. Thus lim x

(t) = x
2
(t) = e
t
for all t
0.
2
+
rt
in x

+
x

+ x = 0, we have r
2
+ r + 1 = 0
r =
2
4
.
r1 t r2t r1t r2t
Then x (t) = c
1
e + c
2
e ; x

(t) = c
1
r
1
e + c
2
r
2
e where
1 1
r
1
=
_
+
2
4
_
and r
2
=
_

2
4
_
.
2 2
For > 2 :

(0) = 1 we get
c
1
+ c
2
= 0 c
2
= c
1
.
1 1
r
1
c
1
+ r
2
c
2
= 1 c
1
(r
1
r
2
) = 1 c
1
= , c
2
= .
r1r2 r2 r1
t t
1 r1t 1 r2 t
2
t

_
e 2
2
4
e

2
2
4
_
Thus x

(t) =
r1r2
e +
r2 r1
e = e
2
4
.
t t
2
2
+
2
+
2
+ 4
lim x

(t) = lim e

t

lim
_
e 2
2
e

2
2
4
_
.

Let Q =
_
2
4. (If 2
+
_
, then Q 0).
t
2 t
2 t t
So lim
e 2
4
e

2
4
= lim
e 2
Q
e

2
Q
2
+
2
4
Q 0
Q

(This is of the form
0
0
. So use LHospitals Rule)
e + e
Q
t
2
t
2
Q
t
2
t
2
e
t
2

= te
t
. lim = t. Then lim x

(t) = t lim =
1
Q 0 2
+
2
+
For = 2 :

2
4 = 0 critically damped. Then r
1
= r
2
=
2

= 1 and
x
2
(t) = c
1
e
t
+ c
2
te
t
. So x
2

(t) = c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
t
c
2
te
t
.
1
= 0 and c
1
+ c
2
= 1 c
2
= 1.
Hence x
2
(t) = te
t
. Thus lim x

(t) = x
2
(t) for all t 0

.
2
+
2.6 THE METHOD OF UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS

1. Yes, because it is a constant coecients problem with polynomial times
sinusoidal forcing.
3. No, because forcing includes ln t which is not a polynomial.
sin t
| |
5. No, because
cos t
is not allowed as a sinusoidal forcing.
7. No, because it is not a constant coecients problem.
9. No, because forcing includes t
1
which is not a polynomial.
11. Yes, because it is a constant coecients problem and the second part
of forcing.function sinh 3t is
1
2
e
3t

2
1
e
3t
, a linear combination of
exponential functions.
rt
in the homogeneous part of x

+ 9x = t
3
+ 6
we get, r
2
+ 9 = 0 r = 3i. Thus x
h
= c
1
cos 3t + c
2
sin 3t. The
forcing function is a polynomial of degree 3, r = 0 is not a root
k = 0. So x
p
= A
0
+ A
1
t + A
2
t
2
+ A
3
t
3
, x

= A
1
+ 2A
2
t + 3A
3
t
2
,
p
x

p
= 2A
2
+6A
3
t. Substituting these in the original equation we have,
2A
2
+ 6A
3
t + 9
_
A
0
+ A
1
t + A
2
t
2
+ A
3
t
3
_
= t
3
+ 6
9A
0
+ 2A
2
+ (6A
3
+ 9A
1
) t + 9A
2
t
2
+ 9A
3
t
3
= t
3
+ 6
Equating the coecients of like powers of t gives
t
3
: 9A
3
= 1 A
3
=
9
1
t
2
: 9A
2
= 0

A
2
= 0
6 6 2
t : 6A
3
+ 9A
1
= 0 A
1
=
9
A
3
=
81
=
27
t
0
: 9A
0
+ 2A
2
= 6

A
0
=
6
=
2
2 6 1

9 3
Thus x
p
=
3
t + t
3
and the general solution is x = x
p
+ x
h
81 9
x =
2
3

2
t +
1
t
3
rt
+ c
1
cos 3t + c
2
sin 3t.

27 9
15. Substituting x = e in the homogeneous part of x

+ 8x

= 7t + 11
we get, r
2
+ 8r = 0 r (r + 8) = 0 r = 0, 8.
Thus x
h
= c
1
+ c
2
e
8t
. The forcing function is a polynomial of degree
1 and r = 0 is a root of multiplicity 1 k = 1.
So x
p
= t (A
0
+ A
1
t) = A
0
t + A
1
t
2
, x

p

= A
0
+ 2A
1
t, x

p
= 2A
1
.
Substituting these in the original equation we have,
2A
1
+8A
0
+ 16A
1
t = 7t + 11. Equating the coecients of like powers
of t gives
7
t
0
t : 16A
1
= 7 A
1
=
16
81
81 7
: 2A
1
+ 8A
0
= 11 A
0
=
64
Thus x
p
=
64
t +
16
t
2
and the general solution is x = x
p
+ x
h
81 7
t
2

x =
64
t +
16
+ c
1
+ c
2
e
8t
.
46 CHAPTER 2
rt

7x

+12x = 5e
2t
we get r
2
7r + 12 = 0 (r 3) (r 4) = 0 r = 3, 4.
3t 4t

t
Thus x
h
= c
1
e +c
2
e . The forcing function is of the form e , = 2
but r = 2 is not a root k = 0. So x
p
= Ae
2t
, x

p
= 2Ae
2t
,
x

p
= 4Ae
2t
. Substituting these in the original equation we have,
4Ae
2t
14Ae
5 2
2
t
t
+ 12Ae
2t
= 5e
2t
2Ae
2t
= 5e
2t
5
2t
A =
5
2
3
.
t 4t
Thus x
p
=
2
e and the general solution is x =
2
e + c
1
e + c
2
e .
x

= 5e
2t
+ 3c
1
e
3t
+ 4c
2
e
4t
. Using the initial conditions we get,
1 =
5
+ c
1
+ c
2
2
0 = 5 + 3c
1
+ 4c
2
Multiplying the rst equation by 4 and then subtracting the second
from it we have, c
1
= 1. Then c
2
=
2
1
. Thus x =
2
5
e
2t
e
3t

2
1
e
4t
.
rt

3x

+ 2x = 2e
t
we get r
2
3r + 2 = 0 (r 1) (r 2) = 0 r = 1, 2.
t 2t

t
Thus x
h
= c
1
e + c
2
e . The forcing function is of the form e , = 1
and r = 1 is a root with multiplicity 1 k = 1.
So x
p
= Ate
t
, x
p

= Ae
t
+ Ate
t
, x
p

= 2Ae
t
+ Ate
t
.
2Ae
t
+ Ate
t
3Ae
t
3Ate
t
+ 2Ate
t
= 2e
t
, since te
t
terms cancel
Ae
t
= 2e
t
A = 2. Thus x
p
= 2te
t
and the general solution is
x = x
p
+ x
h
= 2te
t
+ c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
2t
.
rt

2x

+ 5x = 4e
t
we get r
2
2r + 5 = 0 r =
2
420
r = 1 2i.
2
Thus x
h
= e
t
(c
1
cos 2t + c
2
sin 2t) . The forcing function is of the form
e
t
, = 1 but r = 1 is not a root k = 0.
So x
p
= Ae
t
, x
p

= Ae
t
, x

p
= Ae
t
. Substituting these in the original
equation we have Ae
t
2Ae
t
+ 5Ae
t
= 4e
t
t
4Ae
t
= 4e
t
A = 1.
Thus x
p
= e
t
and the general solution is x = e +e
t
(c
1
cos 2t + c
2
sin 2t) .
rt

9x = 5e
3t
we
get r
2
9 = 0 r = 3. Thus x
h
3t
+ c
2
e
3t
. The forcing
t
= c
1
e
function is of the form e , = 3 and r = 3 is a root with
multiplicity 1 k = 1. So x
p
= Ate
3t
, x

p
= Ae
3t
3Ate
3t
,
x

p
= 3Ae
3t
3Ae
3t
+9Ate
3t
equation we have, 3Ae
3t
3Ae
3t
+ 9Ate
3t
9Ate
3t
= 5e
3t
6Ae
3t
= 5e
3t
(since te
3t
terms cancel)
5
.
5
A =
6
Thus x
p
=
6
te
3t
x =
6
5
te
3t
+ c
1
e
3t
+ c
2
e
3t
.
rt

+2x

+5x = 3 sin t
we get, r
2
+ 2r + 5 = 0 r =
2
420
r = 1 2i.
2
Thus x
h
= e
t
(c
1
cos 2t + c
2
sin 2t) . Since sin t is not a homogeneous
solution, x
p
= A cos t + B sin t, x

= A sin t + B cos t,
p
x

p
= A cos t B sin t. Substituting these in the original equation
we have,
A cos t B sin t 2A sin t + 2B cos t + 5A cos t + 5B sin t = 3 sin t
Equating the coecients of like terms we have,
cos t : 4A + 2B = 0
sin t : 2A + 4B = 3
Multiplying the second equation by 2 and then adding we get,
3 3 3 3
10B = 6 B =
5
and then A =
10
. Thus x
p
=
10
cos t +
5
sin t
3 3
x =
10
cos t +
5
sin t + e
t
(c
1
cos 2t + c
2
sin 2t) .
x

=
3
sin t +
3
cos t + e
t
(2c
1
sin 2t + 2c
2
cos 2t)
10 5
e
t
(c
1
cos 2t + c
2
sin 2t)
Using the initial conditions we get,
1 =
3
+ c
1
c
1
=
13
and 1 =
3
+ 2c
2
c
1
c
2
=
17
.
3 3 17
Thus x
10
=

cos t +
10
sin t + e
t
5_
13
cos 2t +
sin 2t
_20
.
10 5 10 20
rt

+ 9x = 4 sin 3t
we get r
2
+ 9 = 0 r = 3i. Thus x
h
= c
1
cos 3t + c
2
sin 3t.
Since = 3 and r = i = 3i is a root of characteristic equation
with multiplicity 1, k = 1. So x
p
= t (A cos 3t + B sin 3t) ,
x

= A cos 3t + B sin 3t + t (3A sin 3t + 3B cos 3t) ,
p
x

= 3A sin 3t + 3B cos 3t 3A sin 3t + 3B cos 3t
p
+t (9A cos 3t 9B sin 3t)
= 6A sin 3t + 6B cos 3t 9At cos 3t 9Bt sin 3t.
6A sin 3t + 6B cos 3t 9At cos 3t 9Bt sin 3t + 9At cos 3t
+9Bt sin 3t = 4 sin 3t
6A sin 3t + 6B cos 3t = 4 sin 3t (since last 4 terms cancel)
cos 3t : 6B = 0 B = 0
2
sin 3t : 6A = 4 A =
3
.
2
Thus x
p
=
3
t cos 3t and the general solution is
x =
3
2
t cos 3t + c
1
cos 3t + c
2
sin 3t.
rt

+ x = cos 2t
we get r
2
+ 1 = 0 r = i. Thus x
h
= c
1
cos t + c
2
sin t.
Since = 2 but r = i = 2i is not a root of characteristic equation,
k = 0. So x
p
= A cos 2t + B sin 2t, x

= 2A sin 2t + 2B cos 2t,
p
x

= 4A cos 2t 4B sin 2t. Substituting these in the original
p
equation we have, 4A cos 2t 4B sin 2t + A cos 2t + B sin 2t = cos 2t
3B sin 2t 3A cos 2t = cos 2t.
cos 2t : 3A = 1 A =
3
1
sin 3t : 3B = 0 B = 0.
1
Thus x
p
=
3
cos 2t and the general solution is
x =
1
cos 2t + c
1
cos t + c
2
sin t x

=
2
sin 2t c
1
sin t + c
2
cos t.
3 3
Using the initial conditions we get, 0 =

1
+ c
1
c
1
=
1
; 2 = c
2
.
1 1
3

3
Thus x = cos 2t + cos t + 2 sin t.
3 3
rt

4x = te
3t
we get, r
2
4 = 0 r = 2 . Thus x
h
= c
1
e
2t
+ c
2
e
2t
. The forcing
function is of p(t)e
t
where p(t) is a rst degree polynomial, = 3
but r = 3 is not a root k = 0. So x
p
= (A
0
+ A
1
t) e
3t
,
48 CHAPTER 2
x

p
= A
1
e
3t
+ 3 (A
0
+ A
1
t) e
3t
= (3A
0
+ A
1
) e
3t
+ 3A
1
te
3t
,
x

p
= 3 (3A
0
+ A
1
) e
3t
+3A
1
e
3t
+9A
1
te
3t
= (9A
0
+ 6A
1
) e
3t
+9A
1
te
3t
.
(9A
0
+ 6A
1
) e
3t
+ 9A
1
te
3t
4 (A
0
+ A
1
t) e
3t
= te
3t
(5A
0
+ 6A
1
) e
3t
+ 5A
1
te
3t
= te
3t
te
3t
: 5A
1
= 1 A
1
=
5
1
e
3t
: 5A
0
+ 6A
1
= 0
6
6 1 3t
A
0
=
25
Thus x
p
=
_

25
+
5
t
_
e and the general solution is
6 3t 1 2t
x = x
p
+ x
h
=
25
e +
5
te
3t
+ c
1
e + c
2
e
2t
.
rt

4x

+ 3x = te
t
we get r
2
4r + 3 = 0 (r 1) (r 3) r = 1, 3 . Thus
t 3t

t
x
h
= c
1
e + c
2
e . The forcing function is of the form p(t)e
where p(t) is a rst degree polynomial, = 1 and r = 1 is a
root of homogeneous equation with multiplicity 1 k = 1.
So x
p
= t (A
0
+ A
1
t) e
t
=
_
A
0
t + A
1
t
2
_
e
t
,

t t t
x
p

= (A
0
+ 2A
1
t) e +
_
A
0
t + A
1
t
2
_
e =
_
A
0
+ (A
0
+ 2A
1
) t + A
1
t
2

e ,
t t
x

p
= (A
0
+ 2A
1
+ 2A
1
t) e +
_
A
0
+ (A
0
+ 2A
1
) t + A
1
t
2

e
t
=
_
2A
0
+ 2A
1
+ (A
0
+ 4A
1
) t + A
1
t
2

e .
Substituting these in the original equation we have
t t
_
2A
0
+ 2A
1
+ (A
0
+ 4A
1
) t + A
1
t
2

e 4
_
A
0
+ (A
0
+ 2A
1
) t + A
1
t
2

e
t t
+3
_
A
0
t + A
1
t
2
_
e = te
t
(2A
0
+ 2A
1
) e 4A
1
te
t
= te
t
(since t
2
e
t
terms cancel).

te
t
: 4A
1
= 1 A
1
=
4
1
=
_

e
1
4
t
t
:

1
4
2
t
A
0
+ 2A
1
= 0 A
0
= A
1
=
1
4
Thus x
p
t
2
_
x = x
p
+ x
h
=
4
1
rt
te
t

4
1
t
2
e
t
+ c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
3t
.

+ 16x = 3 cos 4t
we get r
2
+ 16 = 0 r = 4i. Thus x
h
= c
1
cos 4t + c
2
sin 4t.
Since = 4 and r = i = 4i is a root of characteristic equation with
multiplicity 1, k = 1. So x
p
x

p
x

p
= 8A sin 4t + 8B cos 4t + t (16A cos 4t 16B sin 4t) .
8A sin 4t + 8B cos 4t + t (16A cos 4t 16B sin 4t)
+16t (A cos 4t + B sin 4t) = 3 cos 4t
8A sin 4t + 8B cos 4t = 3 cos 4t (since last 4 terms cancel)
cos 4t : 8B = 3 B =
3

8
sin 4t : 8A = 0 A = 0.
3
Thus x
p
=
8
t sin 4t and the general solution is
x =
8
3
t sin 4t + c
1
cos 4t + c
2
sin 4t.
rt
in the homogeneous part of
x

2x

+ 5x = e
t
cos 3t we get r
2
2r + 5 = 0 r =
2
420

2
r = 1 2i. Thus x
h
= e
t
(c
1
cos 2t + c
2
sin 2t) . Since = 1 and
= 3 but r = 1 3i is not root of characteristic equation k = 0.
So x
p
= e
t
(A cos 3t + B sin 3t) ,

x

= e
t
(A cos 3t + B sin 3t) + e
t
(3A sin 3t + 3B cos 3t)
p
= [(A + 3B) cos 3t + (B 3A) sin 3t] e
t
,
x

= [(A + 3B) cos 3t + (B 3A) sin 3t] e
t
p
+[3 (A + 3B) sin 3t + 3 (B 3A) cos 3t] e
t
= [(6B 8A) cos 3t + (6A 8B) sin 3t] e
t
.
[(6B 8A) cos 3t + (6A 8B) sin 3t] e
t
2 [(A + 3B) cos 3t + (B 3A) sin 3t] e
t
+5e
t
(A cos 3t + B sin 3t) = e
t
cos 3t
[(6B 8A) 2 (A + 3B) + 5A] e
t
cos 3t+[(6A 8B) 2 (B 3A) + 5B]
= e
t
cos 3t
5Ae
t
cos 3t 5Be
t
sin 3t = e
t
cos 3t.
e
t
cos 3t : 5A = 1 A =
1
e
t
sin 3t : 5B = 0

B = 0
5
.
1
Thus x
p
=
5
e
t
cos 3t and the general solution is
x =
5
1
e
t
cos 3t + e
t
(c
1
cos 2t + c
2
sin 2t) .
rt

+ 4x

= 12t
2
+ e
t
we get r
2
+ 4r = 0 r (r + 4) = 0 r = 0, 4.
Thus x
h
= c
1
+ c
2
e
4t
. The rst forcing term is a second degree
polynomial and r = 0 is a root with multiplicity 1 k = 1.
The second forcing term is of the form e
t
with = 1 and r = 1 is
not a root. So x
p
= t
_
At
2
+ Bt + C
_
+ De
t
,
x

p
= 3At
2
+ 2Bt + C + De
t
, x

p
= 6At + 2B + De
t
.
6At + 2B + De
t
+ 12At
2
+ 8Bt + 4C + 4De
t
= 12t
2
+ e
t
.
e
t
: D + 4D = 1 D =
1
5
t
2
: 12A = 12

A = 1
3
t : 6A + 8B = 0 B =
4
t
0
: 2B + 4C = 0
C =
3
3 3 1
t
8
Thus x
p
= t
_
t
2
4
t +
8
_
+
5
3 3 1 t
x = x
p
+ x
h
= t
3
4
t
2
+
8
t +
5
e + c
1
+ c
2
e
4t
.
x

= 3t
2

3
t +
3
+
1
e
t
4c
2
e
4t
.
2 8 5
Using the initial conditions we get,
1 = c
1
+ c
2
+
5
1
3 1
1
=
+
1 =
3
8
+
5
1
4c
2
15+840 17
160
8 5
. Then from =
4
c
2
=
4 160

1 17 145 29
the rst equation we have, c
1
= 1
5
c
2
Thus x = t
3 3
t
2
+
3
t +
1
e
t
+
29 17
e
4t
.
4
rt
8 5 32

160

+ 2x

+ x = 3e
t
we get r
2
+ 2r + 1 = 0 (r + 1)
2
= 0 r = 1 with multiplicity 2.
+ = = = .
5 160 160 32
50 CHAPTER 2
Thus x
h
= c
1
e
t
+ c
2
te
t
. The forcing term is of the form e
t
with
= 1 and r = 1 is a root with multiplicity 2 k = 2.
So x
p
= At
2
e
t
, x

p
= 2Ate
t
At
2
e
t
,
x

p
= 2Ae
t
2Ate
t
2Ate
t
+ At
2
e
t
= 2Ae
t
4Ate
t
+ At
2
e
t
.
2Ae
t
4Ate
t
+ At
2
e
t
+ 4Ate
t
2At
2
e
t
+ At
2
e
t
= 3e
t
2Ae
t
= 3e
t
(since te
t
and t
2
e
t
terms cancel).

e
t
: 2A = 3 A =
3
3

2
Thus x
p
=
2
t
2
e
t
x =
3
2
t
2
e
t
+ c
1
e
t
+ c
2
te
t
.
rt
x

4x

+4x = te
t
e
t
+2e
3t
= (t 1) e
t
+2e
3t
we get, r
2
4r +4 = 0
(r 2)
2
= 0 r = 2 with multiplicity 2. Thus x
h
= c
1
e
2t
+c
2
te
2t
.
The rst forcing term is of the form p(t)e
t
where p(t) is a rst degree
polynomial, = 1 but r = 1 is not a root. The second forcing term
is of the form e
t
with = 3 but r = 3 is not a root k = 0.
So x
p
= (A
0
+ A
1
t) e
t
+ A
2
e
3t
,

x

p
= A
1
e
t
+ (A
0
+ A
1
t) e
t
+ 3A
2
e
3t
= (A
0
+ A
1
+ A
1
t) e
t
+ 3A
2
e
3t
,
x

p
= A
1
e
t
+ (A
0
+ A
1
+ A
1
t) e
t
+ 9A
2
e
3t
= (A
0
+ 2A
1
+ A
1
t) e
t
+ 9A
2
e
3t
equation we have, (A
0
+ 2A
1
+ A
1
t) e
t
+9A
2
e
3t
4 (A
0
+ A
1
+ A
1
t) e
t
12A
2
e
3t
+ 4 (A
0
+ A
1
t) e
t
+ 4A
2
e
3t
= te
t
e
t
+ 2e
3t
(A
0
2A
1
) e
t
+ A
1
te
t
+ A
2
e
3t
= te
t
e
t
+ 2e
3t

Equating the coecients of like terms we have
e
3t
: A
2
= 2
te
t
: A
1
= 1
e
t
: A
0
2A
1
= 1 A
0
= 2A
1
1 = 1.
3t
Thus x
p
= (1 + t) e
t
+ 2e and the general solution is
x = x
p
+ x
h
= (1 + t) e
t
+ 2e
3t
+ c
1
e
2t
+ c
2
te
2t
.
rt
x

+ 5x

+ 4x = 8t
2
+ 3 + 2 cos 2t =
_
8t
2
+ 3
_
+ 2 cos 2t
we get, r
2
+ 5r + 4 = 0 (r + 1) (r + 4) = 0 r = 1, 4.
Thus x
h
= c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
4t
. Here rst part of the forcing function is a
second degree polynomial and r = 0 is not a root. In the second part
= 2 and r = i = 2i is not a root k = 0.
So x
p
= A
0
+ A
1
t + A
2
t
2
+ B
1
cos 2t
+ B
2
sin 2t,
x

p
= A
1
+ 2A
2
t 2B
1
sin 2t + 2B
2
cos 2t,
x

p
= 2A
2
4B
1
cos 2t 4B
2
sin 2t.
2A
2
4B
1
cos 2t 4B
2
sin 2t +5 (A
1
+ 2A
2
t 2B
1
sin 2t + 2B
2
cos 2t)
+4
_
A
0
+ A
1
t + A
2
t
2
+ B
1
cos 2t + B
2
sin 2t
_
= 8t
2
+ 3 + 2 cos 2t
(2A
2
+ 5A
1
+ 4A
0
)+(10A
2
+ 4A
1
) t+4A
2
t
2
+10B
2
cos 2t10B
1
sin 2t
= 8t
2
+ 3 + 2 cos 2t
cos 2t : 10B
2
= 2 B
2
=
1

5
sin 2t : 10B
1
= 0 B
1
= 0
t
2
: 4A
2
= 8
A
2
= 2
t : 10A
2
+ 4A
1
= 0 A
1
= 5
t
0
: 2A
2
+ 5A
1
+ 4A
0
= 3 A
0
= 6
1
Thus x
p
= 6 5t + 2t
2
+ sin 2t and the general solution is
5
x = 6 5t + 2t
2
+
1
sin 2t + c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
4t
.
5
rt

+ 3x = t
2
+ 1
we get r + 3 = 0 r = 3. Thus x
h
= ce
3t
. Here the forcing
function is a second degree polynomial and r = 0 is not a root
k = 0. So x
p
= A
0
+ A
1
t + A
2
t
2
, x

p
= A
1
+ 2A
2
t.
A
1
+ 2A
2
t + 3
_
A
0
+ A
1
t + A
2
t
2
_
= t
2
+ 1
3A
0
+ A
1
+ (3A
1
+ 2A
2
) t + 3A
2
t
2
= t
2
+ 1

t
2
: 3A
2
= 1 A
2
=
1

3
t : 3A
1
+ 2A
2
= 0 A
1
=
2
9
t
0
: 3A
0
+ A
1
= 1
A
0
=
11
11 2 1

27
Thus x
p
=
27

9
t +
3
t
2
11 2 1
t
2
x =
27

9
t + + ce
3t
3
.
rt

+ 4x = sin 2t
we get, r
2
+ 4 = 0 r = 2i. Thus x
h
= c
1
cos 2t + c
2
sin 2t.
Since = 2 and r = 2i = i is a root with multiplicity 1, k = 1
and so x
p
x

p
x

p
+4t (A cos 2t + B sin 2t) = sin 2t
4A sin 2t + 4B cos 2t = sin 2t (since t cos 2t terms cancel)
cos 2t : 4B = 0 B = 0
1
sin 2
1
t : 4A = 1 A =
4
Thus x
p
=
4
t cos 2t and the general solution is
x =
4
1
t cos 2t + c
1
cos 2t + c
2
sin 2t.
rt
in the homogeneous part of 3x

2x = te
t
we get, 3r 2 = 0 r =
3
2
. Thus x
h
= ce
3
2
t
.
The forcing term is of the form p(t)e
t
where p(t) is a rst degree
polynomial, = 1 but r = 1 is not a root k = 0.
t

t
So x
p
= (A
0
+ A
1
t) e , x

p
= A
1
e
t
+ (A
0
+ A
1
t) e .
3A
1
e
t
+ 3 (A
0
+ A
1
t) e
t
2 (A
0
+ A
1
t) e
t
= te
t
(A
0
+ 3A
1
) e
t
+ A
1
te
t
= te
t

52 CHAPTER 2
te
t
: A
1
= 1
e
t
: A
0
+ 3A
1
= 0 A
0
= 3A
1
= 3.
t
Thus x
p
= (3 + t) e and the general solution is
2
x = x
p
+ x
h
= (3 + t) e
t
+ ce
3
t
.
rt
x

5x

+ 6x = t
5
+ 7t
3
+ 4t we get r
2
5r + 6 = 0
2t 3t
(r 2) (r 3) = 0 r = 2, 3. Thus e and e are independent

homogeneous solutions. Here forcing function is a fth degree
polynomial but r = 0 is not a root.
So the form is x
p
= A
0
+ A
1
t + A
2
t
2
+ A
3
t
3
+ A
4
t
4
+ A
5
t
5
.
rt

+9x

= t
3
we get
r
2
+ 9r = 0 r (r + 9) = 0 r = 0, 9. Thus 1 and e
9t
are
independent homogeneous solutions. Here forcing function is a third
degree polynomial and r = 0 is a root with multiplicity 1 k = 1.
So the form is x
p
= t
_
A
0
+ A
1
t + A
2
t
2
+ A
3
t
3
_
.

rt

+5x

+6x = 5e
4t
we get r
2
+ 5r + 6 = 0 (r + 2) (r + 3) = 0 r = 2, 3. Thus
e
2t
and e
3t
are independent homogeneous solutions. The forcing
term is of the form e
t
where = 4 but r = 4 is not a root
k = 0. So the form is x
p
= Ae
4t
.
rt 2t

4x = 5e we
get, r
2
4 = 0 (r + 2) (r 2) = 0 r = 2, 2. Thus e
2t
and e
2t
are independent homogeneous solutions. The forcing term is of the
form e
t
where = 2 and r = 2 is a root with multiplicity 1 k = 1.
So the form is x
p
= Ate
2t
.

rt

+6x

+9x = e
3t
we get r
2
+ 6r + 9 = 0 (r + 3)
2
Thus e
3t
and te
3t
are independent homogeneous solutions. The
forcing term is of the form e
t
where = 3 and r = 3 is a root
with multiplicity 2 k = 2. So the form is x
p
= At
2
e
3t
.
rt

+2x

+ x = t
3
e
t
we get r
2
+ 2r + 1 = 0 (r + 1)
2
Thus e
t
and te
t
forcing term is of the form p(t)e
t
where p(t) is a third degree
polynomial, = 1 and r = 1 is a root with multiplicity 2
p
= t
2
_
A
0
+ A
1
t + A
2
t
2
+ A
3
t
3
_
e
t
.

rt

7x

+12x = t
5
e
4t
we get r
2
7r + 12 = 0 (r 3) (r 4) = 0 r = 3, 4. Thus e
3t

and e
4t
are independent homogeneous solutions. The forcing term is
of the form p(t)e
t
where p(t) is a fth degree polynomial, = 4 and
r = 4 is a root with multiplicity 1 k = 1.
4t
So the form is x
p
= t
_
A
0
+ A
1
t + A
2
t
2
+ A
3
t
3
+ A
4
t
4
+ A
5
t
5
_
e .
rt

6x

+9x = t
4
e
3t
we get r
2
6r + 9 = 0 (r 3)
2
3t

Thus e and te
3t
forcing term is of the form p(t)e
t
where p(t) is a fourth degree
polynomial, = 3 and r = 3 is a root with multiplicity 2 k = 2.
3t
So the form is x
p
= t
2
_
A
0
+ A
1
t + A
2
t
2
+ A
3
t
3
+ A
4
t
4
_
e

.
rt
x

+ 3x

10x = t
2
e
2t
+ e
5t
we get, r
2
+ 3r 10 = 0
2t
(r 2) (r + 5) = 0 r = 2, 5. Thus e and e
5t
are independent
homogeneous solutions. Here the rst forcing term is of the form
p(t)e
t
where p(t) is a second degree polynomial, = 2 and r = 2
is a root with multiplicity 1 k = 1. So the form is
2t
x
p1
= t
_
A
0
+ A
1
t + A
2
t
2
_
e

.
The second forcing term is not a homogeneous solution k = 0.
So the form is x
p2
= Be
5t
. Combining them we get, the form to be
2t
x
p
= t
_
A
0
+ A
1
t + A
2
t
2
_
e + Be
5t
.
rt

+ 5x

= cos 5t
we get, r
2
+ 5r = 0 r (r + 5) = 0 r = 0, 5. Thus 1 and e
5t
are independent homogeneous solutions. Since the forcing function
cos 5t is not a homogeneous solution, k = 0.
So the form is x
p
= A cos 5t + B sin 5t.
rt
x

7x

+ 12x = t
2
sin 4t we get, r
2
7r + 12 = 0
3t 4t
(r 3) (r 4) = 0 r = 3, 4.Thus e and e are independent

homogeneous solutions. Here the forcing term is of the form p(t) sin t
where p(t) is a second degree polynomial, = 4 but r = i = 4i is
not a root k = 0.
So the form is x
p
=
_
A
0
+ A
1
t + A
2
t
2
_
cos 4t+
_
B
0
+ B
1
t + B
2
t
2
_
sin 4t.
rt

+ 25x = cos 5t
we get r
2
+25 = 0 r = 5i. Thus cos 5t and sin 5t are independent
homogeneous solutions. Here = 5 and r = i = 5i is a root with
multiplicity 1 k = 1. So the form is x
p
= t (A cos 5t + B sin 5t) .
rt
77. Substituting x = e in the homogeneous part of
x

2x

+ 5x = 3e
t
sin 2t we get, r
2
2r + 5 = 0 r =
2
420

2
r = 1 2i. Thus e
t
cos 2t and e
t
sin 2t are independent
homogeneous solutions. Here the forcing term is of the form e
t
sin t
with = 1, = 2 and r = + i = 1 +2i is a root with multiplicity
1 k = 1. So the form is x
p
= t (Ae
t
cos 2t + Be
t
sin 2t) .
rt

+9x = te
t
sin 2t
we get, r
2
+9 = 0 r = 3i. Thus cos 3t and sin 3t are independent
homogeneous solutions. Here the forcing term is of the form p(t)e
t
sin t
where p(t) is a rst degree polynomial and = 1, = 2 but
r = + i = 1 + 2i is not a root k = 0.
So the form is x
p
= (A
0
+ A
1
t) e
t
cos 2t + (B
0
+ B
1
t) e
t
sin 2t.
rt
x

+2x

+2x = t
2
e
t
sin t we get, r
2
+2r +2 = 0 r =
2
48

2

r = 1 i. Thus e
t
cos t and e
t
sin t are independent homogeneous
solutions. Here the forcing term is of the form p(t)e
t
sin t where
54 CHAPTER 2
p(t) is a second degree polynomial and = 1, = 1 and
r = + i = 1 + i is not a root k = 0.
So the form is x
p
=
_
A
0
+ A
1
t + A

2
t
2
_
e
t
cos t+
_
B
0
+ B
1
t + B
2
t
2
_
e
t
sin t.
rt
x

+ 2x

+ 2x = e
t
cos t + e
t
sin t we get, r
2
+ 2r + 2 = 0
r =
2
48
r = 1 i. Thus e
t
cos t and e
t
sin t are
independent homogeneous solutions. Here the rst forcing term is

of the form e
t
sin t with = 1, = 1 and r = + i = 1 + i
is a root with multiplicity 1 k = 1. For the second forcing term,
r = + i = 1 + i is not a root.
So the form is x
p
= A
1
te
t
cos t + B
1
te
t
sin t + A
2
e
t
cos t + B
2
e
t
sin t.
rt
x

x
t
= e
t
e
t
+ e
t
cos t we get, r
2
1 = 0 r = 1.
Thus e and e
t
are independent homogeneous solutions.
So for the rst and second forcing terms k = 1.
The third forcing term is of the form e
t
sin t with = 1, = 1 but
r = + i = 1 + i is not a root k = 0.
So the form is x
p
= Ate
t
+ Bte
t
+ Ce
t
cos t + De
t
sin t.
rt
x

+16x = t cos 4t +e
t
sin 4t +3e
4t
we get, r
2
+16 = 0 r = 4i.
Thus cos 4t and sin 4t are independent homogeneous solutions.
The rst forcing term is of the form p(t) sin t where p(t) is a rst
degree polynomial, = 4 and r = i = 4i is a root with multiplicity
1 k = 1. So the form is x
p1
= t [(A
0
+ A
1
t) cos 4t + (B
0
+ B
1
t) sin 4t] .
t
sin t where = 1, = 4
but r = + i = 1 + 4i is not a root k = 0.
So the form is x
p2
= A
2
e
t
cos 4t + B
2
e
t
sin 4t.
The third forcing term is of the form e
t
with = 4 but r = = 4
is not a root k = 0. So the form is x
p3
= A
3
e
4t
.
Now combining them we have the form as
x
p
= t [(A
0
+ A
1
t) cos 4t + (B
0
+ B
1
t) sin 4t] + A
2
e
t
cos 4t
+B
2
e
t
sin 4t + A
3
e
4t
.
rt
x

2x

+ 2x = t
3
e
t
sin t + e
t
cos t we get, r
2
2r + 2 = 0
2
48

r = r = 1 i. Thus e
t
cos t and e
t
sin t are independent
2
homogeneous solutions. The rst forcing term is of the form

p(t)e
t
sin t where p(t) is a third degree polynomial, = 1, = 1
and r = + i = 1 + i is not a root k = 0. So the form is
x
p1
=
_
A
0
+ A
1
t + A
2
t
2
+ A
3
t
3
_
e
t
cos
t+
_
B
0
+ B
1
t + B
2
t
2
+ B
3
t
3
_
e
t
sin t.
t
cos t where = 1, = 1
and r = + i = 1 + i is a root with multiplicity 1 k = 1.
So the form is x
p2
= t (Ce
t
cos t + De
t
sin t) .

x
p
=
_
A
0
+ A
1
t + A
2
t
2
+ A
3
t
3
_
e
t
cos t+
_
B
0
+ B
1
t + B
2
t
2
+ B
3
t
3
_
e
t
sin t
+Cte
t
cos t + Dte
t
sin t.
rt
x

+ 2x

+ x = te
t
sin 3t + e
t
cos 3t we get, r
2
+ 2r + 1 = 0
2
(r + 1) = 0 r = 1 with multiplicity 1. Thus e

t
and te
t
are
independent homogeneous solutions. The forcing term is of the form
p(t)e
t
cos t + q(t)e
t
sin t where p(t) is a polynomial of degree
zero, q(t) is a polynomial of degree one, = 1, = 3 and r = + i
= 1 + 3i is not a root k = 0. s = max (0, 1) = 1.
So the form is x
p
= (A
0
+ A
1
t) e
t
sin 3t + (B
0
+ B
1
t) e
t
cos 3t.
rt
x

+4x

+8x = t
2
e
2t
sin 2t + te
2t
cos 2t we get, r
2
+4r +8 = 0
r =
4
1632
r = 2 2i. Thus e
2t
cos 2t and e
2t
sin 2t are
independent homogeneous solutions. The forcing term is of the

form p(t)e
t
cos t + q(t)e
t
sin t where p(t) is a rst degree
polynomial, q(t) is a second degree polynomial, = 2, = 2 and
r = + i = 2 + 2i is a root with multiplicity 1 k = 1.
s = max (1, 2) = 2. So the form is
x
p
= t
__
A
0
+ A
1
t + A
2
t
2
_
e
2t
sin 2t +
_
B
0
+ B
1
t + B
2
t
2
_
e
2t
cos 2t

.
rt
x

+ 4x

+ 13x = t
3
e
2t
sin 3t we get r
2
+ 4r + 13 = 0
4
1652
r =
2
r = 2 3i. Thus e
2t
cos 3t and e
2t
sin 3t are independent
homogeneous solutions. The forcing term is of the form p(t)e
t
sin t
where p(t) is a third degree polynomial, = 2, = 3 and
r = + i = 2 + 3i is a root with multiplicity 1 k = 1.
So the form is
x
p
= t
_
A
0
+ A
1
t + A
2
t
2
+ A
3
t
3
_
e
2t
cos 3t+t
_
B
0
+ B
1
t + B
2
t
2
+ B
3
t
3
_
e
2t
sin 3t.
97. (a) Substituting x = e
rt

= t
3
+ 7t 2
we get, r
2
= 0 r = 0 with multiplicity 2. Thus 1 and t are
independent homogeneous solutions. The forcing term is a third
degree polynomial, and r = 0 is a root with multiplicity 2 k = 2.
So the form is x
p
= t
2
_
A
0
+ A
1
t + A
2
t
2
+ A
3
t
3
_
.
(b) Integrating x

= t
3
+ 7t 2 with respect to t we get,
x

=
1
t
4
+
7
t
2
2t + c
2
. Integrating this again with respect to t we
1
t
5 7
t
3
= t
2
_
1
t
3 7
get, x
4
=
20
2
+
6
t
2
+ c
2
t + c
1
+ t 1
_
+ c
2
t + c
1
.
20 6
The last two terms correspond to the homogeneous solution and
7
hence the particular solution is x
p
= t
2
_
1
t
3
+ t 1
_
.
20 6
rt
x

3
3
x

+ 3x

x = e
2t
we get, r
3
3r
2
+ 3r 1 = 0
(r 1) = 0 r = 1 with multiplicity 3. Thus
t

t t
x
h
= c
1
e + c
2
te
t
+ c
3
t
2
e . The forcing term is of the form e
with = 2 but r = 2 is not a root k = 0. So x
p
= Ae
2t
,
p p
, x

. Substituting these in x

= 2Ae
2t
, x

= 4Ae
2t
p
= 8Ae
2t
the original equation we have,
8Ae
2t
12Ae
2t
+ 6Ae
2t
Ae
2t
= e
2t
Ae
2t
= e
2t
A = 1.
2t
t t
Thus x
p
= e
2t
and the general solution is x = e +c
1
e +c
2
te
t
+c
3
t
2
e .
56 CHAPTER 2
rt

x

= sin t we
3 2
get, r r = 0 r
_
r 1
_
= 0 r = 0, 1.
t
Thus x
h
= c
1
+c
2
e +c
3
e
t
. Since sin t is not a homogeneous solution,
x
p
p

= A sin t + B cos t, x
p

= A cos t B sin t,
x

= A sin t B cos t. Substituting these in the original equation
p
we have,
A sin t B cos t + A sin t B cos t = sin t 2A sin t 2B cos t = sin t.
Equating the coecients of like terms
cos t : 2B = 0 B = 0
1
sin t : 2A = 1 A =
1

2
Thus x
p
=
2
cos t and the general solution is
x =
1
2
cos t + c
1
+ c
2
e
t
+ c
3
e
t
.
rt

+ x

= 3+2 cos t
we get, r
3
+ r = 0 r
_
r
2
+ 1
_
= 0 r = 0, i. Thus
x
h
= c
1
+ c
2
cos t + c
3
sin t. The rst forcing term is a constant and
r = 0 is a root k = 1. So x
p1
= At. The second forcing term
involves cos t which is also a homogeneous solution.
So x
p2
= Bt cos t + Ct sin t.
Combining them we get, x
p
= At + Bt cos t + Ct sin t,
x

p
= A + B cos t Bt sin t + C sin t + Ct cos t,
x

p
= B sin t B sin t Bt cos t + C cos t + C cos t Ct sin t
= 2B sin t + 2C cos t Bt cos t Ct sin t,
x

p
= 2B cos t 2C sin t B cos t + Bt sin t C sin t Ct cos t
= 3B cos t 3C sin t + Bt sin t Ct cos t.
3B cos t 3C sin t + Bt sin t Ct cos t + A + B cos t Bt sin t
+C sin t + Ct cos t = 3 + 2 cos t
A 2B cos t 2C sin t = 3 + 2 cos t
(since t cos t and t sin t terms cancel)
Equating the like terms we have,
cos t : 2B = 2 B = 1
sin
t
0
t : 2C = 0 C = 0
: A = 3
Thus x
p
= 3t t cos t and the general solution is
x = 3t t cos t + c
1
+ c
2
cos t + c
3
sin t
x

= 3 cos t + t sin t c
2
sin t + c
3
cos t
x

= sin t + sin t + t cos t c
2
cos t c
3
sin t
Using the initial conditions we have,
0 = c
1
+ c
2
0 = 3 1 + c
3
c
3
= 2
0 = c
2
c
2
= 0. Then c
1
= 0.
Thus x = 3t t cos t 2 sin t.
rt

16x = 5te
t
we get r
4
16 = 0 r
4
= 16 r
2
= 4 r = 2, 2i.
2t

Thus x
h
= c
1
e + c
2
e
2t
+ c
3
cos 2t + c
4
sin 2t. The forcing function
is of the form p(t)e
t
where p(t) is a rst degree polynomial, = 1,
and r = 1 is not a root k = 0. So x
p
= (A
0
+ A
1
t) e
t
= A
0
e
t
+A
1
te
t
x
p

= A
0
e
t
+ A
1
e
t
+ A
1
te
t
, x
p

= A
0
e
t
+ 2A
1
e
t
+ A
1
te
t
,
x

p
= A
0
e
t
+ 3A
1
e
t
+ A
1
te
t
, x

p
= A
0
e
t
+ 4A
1
e
t
+ A
1
te
t
.
A
0
e
t
+ 4A
1
e
t
+ A
1
te
t
16A
0
e
t
16A
1
te
t
= 5te
t
15A
0
e
t
+ 4A
1
e
t
15A
1
te
t
= 5te
t
.

te
t
: 15A
1
= 5 A
1
=
3
1
t

4 4
e : 15A
0
+ 4A
1
= 0 A
0
= A
1
.
4 t 1

15
=
45
Thus x
p
=
45
e
3
te
t
4 t 1

2t
x = e te
t
+
rt
c
1
e + c
2
e
2t
+ c
3
cos 2t + c
4
sin 2t.
45 3
x

5x

+ 4x = e
2t
e
3t
we get r
4
5r
2
+ 4 = 0
_
r
2
1
_ _
r
2
4
_
= 0 r
2
= 1, 4 r = 1, 2.
t

2t
Thus x
h
= c
1
e + c
2
e
t
+ c
3
e + c
4
e
2t
. The rst forcing function,
e
2t
, is also a homogeneous solution k = 1. So x
p1
= Ate
2t
.
3t
The second forcing function e is not a homogeneous solution

k = 0. So x
p2
= Be
3t
. Combining them we get,
x
p
= Ate
2t
+ Be
3t
.
x

p
= Ae
2t
+ 2Ate
2t
+ 3Be
3t
, x
p

= 4Ae
2t
+ 4Ate
2t
+ 9Be
3t
,
x

p
= 12Ae
2t
+ 8Ate
2t
+ 27Be
3t
p
= 32Ae
2t
+ 16Ate
2t
+ 81Be
3t
. , x

32Ae
2t
+ 16Ate
2t
+ 81Be
3t
5
_
4Ae
2t
+ 4Ate
2t
+ 9Be
3t
_
2t 3t
+4
_
Ate
2t
+ Be
3t
_
= e e
12Ae
2t
+ 40Be
3t
= e
2t
e
3t
(since te
2t
terms cancel).
e
2t
: 12A = 1 A =
1
3t

12
1
e : 40B = 1 B = .
40
1 1 3t
Thus x
p
=
12
te
2t
40
1 1 3t

t 2t
x =
12
te
2t
40
e + c
1
e + c
2
e
t
+ c
3
e + c
4
e
2t
.
rt
x

3x

+ 3x

x = t
2
e
t
3e
t
=
_
t
2
3
_
e
t
we get,
r
3
3r
t
2
+ 3r 1 = 0
t
(r 1)
3
Thus e , te
t
, and t
2
e are independent homogeneous solutions.
The forcing term is of the form p(t)e
t
where p(t) is a second degree
polynomial, = 1 and r = 1 is a root with multiplicity 3 k = 3.
So the form is x
p
= t
3
_
A
0
+ A
1
t + A
2
t
2
_
e
t
.
rt
x

4x

+ 6x

4x

+ x = t
3
e
t
+ t
2
e
t
we get,
r
4 3
+6r
2
4r +1 = 0 (r 1)
4
= 0 r = 1 with multiplicity 4r
t t

4. Thus e , te
t
, t
2
e
t
and t
3
e are independent homogeneous solutions.
The rst forcing term is of the form p(t)e
t
, where p(t) is a third
degree polynomial, = 1 and r = 1 is a root with multiplicity 4
p1
= t
4
_
A
0
+ A
1
t + A
2
t
2
+ A
3
t
3
_
e
t
.

The second forcing term is of the form p(t)e
t
, where p(t) is a second
58 CHAPTER 2
degree polynomial, = 1 but r = 1 is not a root k = 0.
So the form is x
p2
=
_
B
0
+ B
1
t + B
2
t
2
_
e
t
.

= t
4
_
A
0
+ A
1
t + A
2
t
2
+ A
3
t
3
_
e
t
+
_
B
0
+ B
1
t + B
2
t
2
_
e
t
x
p
.
rt
x

+ 2x

+ 2x

= 3e
t
cos t we get, r
3
+ 2r
2
+ 2r = 0
r
_
r
2
+ 2r + 2
_
= 0 r = 0, 1 i. Thus 1, e
t
cos t, and e
t
sin t
are independent homogeneous solutions. The forcing term is of the
form e
t
cos t where = 1, = 1 and r = + i is a root with
multiplicity 1 k = 1. So the form is x
p
= t (Ae
t
cos t + Be
t
sin t) .
rt
x

+ 4x

+ 8x

+ 8x

+ 4x = 7e
t
cos t we get
r
4
+ 4r
3
+ 8r
2
+ 8r + 4 = 0
_
r
4
+ 4r
2
+ 4
_
+
_
4r
3
+ 8r
_
+ 4r
2
= 0 (regrouping)
_
r
2
+ 2
_
2
+ 4r
_
r
2
+ 2
_
+ 4r
2
= 0 (perfect square form)
_
r
2
+ 2r + 2
_
2
= 0 r = 1i with multiplicity 2.Thus e
t
cos t,
e
t
sin t, te
t
cos t and te
t
sin t are independent homogeneous
solutions.. The forcing term is of the form e
t
cos t where = 1,
= 1 and r = + i is a root with multiplicity 2 k = 2.
So the form is x
p
= t
2
(Ae
t
cos t + Be
t
sin t) .

2.7 MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS II: FORCED RESPONSE
2.7.1 Friction is Absent( = 0)
1. The characteristic equation of mx

+ 4x = 13 cos t, by substituting
x = e
rt
, is mr
2
+ 4 = 0 which has pure imaginary roots r = i
_
4
.
m
_
4
Resonance occurs if =
m
. If forcing function has a frequency
_
4 1
of 20 Hz, then
2
= 20 = 40. So 40 =
m
m =
400
2
.
3. The characteristic equation of 36x

+ kx = 4 cos t, by substituting
rt 2
_
k
x = e , is 36r + k = 0 which has pure imaginary roots r = i .
36
_
k
36
of 22 Hz, then
2

= 22 = 44.
_
k

2
So 44 =
36
k = 36 (44) = 69696
2
.

+ 10x = F cos t, by substituting
x = e
rt
, is mr
2
_
10
.
m
_
10
m
between 10 and 70 Hz, then 10 <
2

< 70 20 < < 140
_
10 1 m 1

20 < < 140 < <
m

(140)
2
10 (20)
2

10 10

(140)
2
< m <
(20)
2
.
7. The characteristic equation of 15x

+8x = f(t), by substituting x = e
rt
,
is 15r
2
_
8
.
15
_
8
Resonance occurs if = .
15
1
_
8
Then the frequency of the forcing function is
2
=
2 15
.

+ 15x = F sin t by substituting
x = e
rt
, is mr
2
_
15
.
m
_
15
m
. The frequency of the forcing function

_
15 15 1
is
2
= 30 = 60. So 60 =
m
m =
(60)
2
=
240
2
gm.
11. Let =
+
t, =

t. Then = t and + = t.
2 2
Now using the given formula we have,
cos( ) = cos cos + sin sin and
cos( + ) = cos cos sin sin .
Subtracting we get, cos( ) cos( + ) = 2 sin sin
cos t cos t = 2 sin
_
+
t
_
sin
_

t
_
.

2 2
13. mg = kd, mx

= F
T
= k (x + d) + mg = kx, mx

+ kx = 0.

+ kx = F cos t, by substituting
rt 2
_
k
x = e , is mr + k = 0 which has pure imaginary roots r = i =
m
_
k
i
0
where
0
= . Thus x
h
= c
1
cos
0
t + c
2
sin
0
t. Since the
m
forcing term, cos t, is not a homogeneous solution (because =
0
),
x
p

p
x

p
= A
2
cos t B
2
sin t. Substituting these in the original
equation we have,
Am
2
cos t Bm
2
sin t + Ak cos t + Bk sin t = F cos t
_
Ak Am
2
_
cos t +
_
Bk Bm
2
_
sin t = F cos t.
cos t : Ak Am
2
= F A =
k
F
m
2
0
sin t : Bk Bm
2
= 0 B =
km
2
= 0 (since k = m
2
)
So x
p
=
k
F
m
2
cos t and thus the general solution is
x =
k
F
m
2
cos t + c
1
cos
0
t + c
2
sin
0
t
F
x

=
km
2
sin t c
1
0
sin
0
t + c
2
0
cos
0
t
Using the initial conditions
x(0) = x
0
=
k
F
m
2
+ c
1
c
1
= x
0

k
F
m
2
and x
(0) = 0 = c
2
0
c
2
= 0 (since
0
= 0).
F

_
F
_
Thus x =
km
2
cos t + x
0

km
2
cos
0
t
x =
k
F
m
2
(cos t cos
0
t) + x
0
cos
0
t.

+ kx = F sin t, by substituting
rt 2
_
k
m
60 CHAPTER 2
_
k
i
0
where
0
= . Thus x
h
= c
1
cos
0
t + c
2
sin
0
t. Since the
m
forcing term, sin t, is not a homogeneous solution (because =
0
),
x
p

p
x

= A
2
cos t B
2
sin t. Substituting these in the original
p
equation we have,
Am
2
cos t Bm
2
sin t + Ak cos t + Bk sin t = F sin t
_
Ak Am
2
_
cos t +
_
Bk Bm
2
_
sin t = F sin t.
0
cos t : Ak Am
2
= 0 A =
km
2
= 0 (since k = m
2
)
F
sin t : Bk Bm
2
= F B =
km
2
So x
p
=
k
F
m
2
sin t and thus the general solution is
x =
k
F
m
2
sin t + c
1
cos
0
t + c
2
sin
0
t
x

=
F
cos t c
1
0
sin
0
t + c
2
0
cos
0
t
km
2
Using the initial conditions x(0) = x
0
= c
1
and x
(0) = 0
F F
=
km
2
+ c
2
0
c
2
=
0 km
2
.
Thus x =
k
F
m
2
sin t + x
0
cos
0
t

0 k
F
m
2
sin
0
t
x =
k
F
m
2
_
sin t

0
sin
0
t
_
+ x
0
cos
0
t.

+ kx = F cos t by substituting
rt 2
_
k
m
_
k
i
0
where
0
= . Thus x
h
= c
1
cos
0
t + c
2
sin
0
t. Since the
m
forcing term, cos t, is a homogeneous solution (because =
0
),
x
p
= t (A cos t + B sin t) ,
x

p
= (A cos t + B sin t) + t (A sin t + B cos t) ,
x

p
= 2A sin t + 2B cos t t
_
A
2
cos t + B
2
sin t
_
.
m
_
2A sin t + 2B cos t t
_
A
2
cos t + B
2
sin t
_
+kt (A cos t + B sin t) = F cos t
Since k = m
2
, t cos t and t sin t terms cancel,
2Am sin t + 2Bm cos t = F cos t.
cos t : 2Bm = F B =
F

2m
sin t : 2Am = 0 A = 0.
F
So x
p
=
2m
t sin t and thus the general solution is
F
x =
2m
t sin t + c
1
cos
0
t + c
2
sin
0
t
x

=
F
sin t +
F
t cos t c
1
0
sin
0
t + c
2
0
cos
0
t
2m 2m
Using the initial conditions x(0) = 0 = c
1
and x
(0) = 0 = c
2
0
F
c
2
= 0 (since
0
= 0). Thus x =
2m
t sin t.
rt

+ 4x = 8 cos 5t
we have, r
2
+ 4 = 0 r = 2i. Thus x
h
= c
1
cos 2t + c
2
sin 2t.
Since the forcing term, cos 5t, is not a homogeneous solution (no
resonance) x
p

p
x

p
equation we have,
25A cos 5t 25B sin 5t + 4A cos 5t + 4B sin 5t = 8 cos 5t
21A cos 5t 21B sin 5t = 8 cos 5t
8
cos 5t : 21A = 8 A =
21
sin 5t : 21B = 0 B = 0.
So x
p
8
cos 5t and thus the general solution is =
21
8
x =
21
cos 5t + c
1
cos 2t + c
2
sin 2t.
rt

4x = 8 cos 5t
we have, r
2
4 = 0 r = 2. Thus x
h
= c
1
e
2t
+ c
2
e
2t
.
Since the forcing term, cos 5t, is not a homogeneous solution (no
resonance) x
p

p
x

p
equation we have,
25A cos 5t 25B sin 5t 4A cos 5t 4B sin 5t = 8 cos 5t
29A cos 5t 29B sin 5t = 8 cos 5t
cos 5t : 29A = 8
8
A =
29
sin 5t : 21B = 0 B = 0.
8
So x
p
=
29
cos 5t and thus the general solution is
8
cos 5t + c
1
e
2t
+ c
2
e
2t
. x =
29
rt

+ 4x = 3 cos 2t
we have, r
2
+ 4 = 0 r = 2i. Thus x
h
= c
1
cos 2t + c
2
sin 2t.
Since the forcing term, cos 2t, is a homogeneous solution
(resonance) x
p
x

p
x

p
+4t (A cos 2t + B sin 2t) = 3 cos 2t
Since t cos 2t and t sin 2t terms cancel, 4A sin 2t+4B cos 2t = 3 cos 2t.
Equating the like coecients of terms we have,
cos 2t : 4B = 3 B =
3

4
sin 2t : 4A = 0 A = 0.
3
So x
p
=
4
t sin 2t and thus the general solution is
x =
4
3
t sin 2t + c
1
cos 2t + c
2
sin 2t.
27. By substituting x = e
rt
, the characteristic equation of
mx

+ kx = F cos t is mr
2
+ k = 0 which has pure imaginary roots
_
k
_
k
r = i = i where = . Thus x
h
= c
1
cos t + c
2
sin t.
m m
Since the forcing term, cos t, is a homogeneous solution
x
p
= t (A cos t + B sin t) ,
x

= (A cos t + B sin t) + t (A sin t + B cos t) ,
x
p

p
= 2A sin t + 2B cos t t
_
A
2
cos t + B
2
sin t
_
.
m
_
2A sin t + 2B cos t t
_
A
2
cos t + B
2
sin t
_
62 CHAPTER 2
+kt (A cos t + B sin t) = F cos t
Since k = m
2
, t cos t and t sin t terms cancel,
2Am sin t + 2Bm cos t = F cos t.
cos t : 2Bm = F B =
F

2m
sin t : 2Am = 0 A = 0.
F
So x
p
=
2m
t sin tand thus the general solution is
F
x =
2m
t sin t + c
1
cos t + c
2
sin t.
2.7.2 Friction is Present( > 0) (Damped Forced Oscillations)
29. x

+ 6x

+ 25x = 3 cos 4t. The forcing term, cos 4t, cannot be a
homogeneous solution because = 6 > 0 is present. So
x
p
= A cos 4t + B sin 4t,
x

p
x

= 16A cos 4t 16B sin 4t.
p
16A cos 4t 16B sin 4t 24A sin 4t + 24B cos 4t + 25A cos 4t
+25B sin 4t = 3 cos 4t
(9A + 24B) cos 4t + (9B 24A) sin 4t = 3 cos 4t
cos 4t : 9A + 24B = 3 3A + 8B = 1
sin 4t : 9B 24A = 0 24A + 9B = 0.
Multiplying the rst equation by 8 and then adding we get,
73B = 8 B =
8
and then A =
9
B =
3
.
73
8
24 73.
So x
p
=
3
cos 4t + sin 4t. In order to nd this in amplitude-phase
73 73
form, we nd R =
_
_
3
_
2
+
_
8
_
2
=
73
,
73 73 73
8
73
= tan
1
_ _
= tan
1
_
8
3
_
= 1.212.
3
73
73
Then x
p
= cos (4t 1.212) .
73
31. x

+ 4x

+ 13x = 5 cos 2t. The forcing term, cos 2t, cannot be a
x
p
= A cos 2t + B sin 2t,
x

p
x

= 4A cos 2t 4B sin 2t.
p
4A cos 2t 4B sin 2t 8A sin 2t + 8B cos 2t + 13A cos 2t
+13B sin 2t = 5 cos 2t
(9A + 8B) cos 2t + (9B 8A) sin 2t = 5 cos 2t
cos 2t : 9A + 8B = 5
sin 2t : 8A + 9B = 0
Multiplying the rst equation by 8 and the second equation by 9
and then adding we get,
40 8 9 9
145B = 40 B =
145
=
29
and then A =
8
B =
29
.
So x
p
=
9
cos 2t +
8
sin 2t. In order to nd this in amplitude-phase
29 29
_
_
9
_
2
+
_
8
_
2
145
form, we nd R =
29 29
=
29
,
8
29
= tan
1
_ _
= tan
1
_
8
_
= 0.7266.
9
9
29
145
Then x
p
= cos (2t 0.7266) .
29
33. x

+ 8x

+ 41x = 3 sin t. The forcing term, sin t, cannot be a
x
p
= A cos t + B sin t,
x

p
x

= A cos t B sin t.
p
A cos tB sin t8A sin t+8B cos t+41A cos t+41B sin t = 3 sin t
(40A + 8B) cos t + (40B 8A) sin t = 3 sin t
cos t : 40A + 8B = 0 5A + B = 0 B = 5A
sin t : 8A + 40B = 3 8A 200A = 3 (substitution)
3 15 3 15
A =
208
. Then B =
208
. So x
p
=
208
cos t +
208
sin t.
In order to nd this in amplitude-phase form, we nd
R =
_
_

3
_
2
+
_
15
_
2
=
234
=
3
26
,
208 208 208 208
15
208 3
= tan
1
_
3
_
+ (Since < 0) = tan
1
(5) + = 1.7682.
3
26
208
208
Then x
p
= cos (t 1.7682) .
208
35. x

+ 3x

+ 2x = sin t. The forcing term, sin t, cannot be a
x
p
x

p
x

p
= A cos t B sin t.
A cos t B sin t 3A sin t + 3B cos t + 2A cos t + 2B sin t = sin t
(A + 3B) cos t + (B 3A) sin t = sin t
cos t : A + 3B = 0
sin t : 3A + B = 1.
1 3
10B = 1 B =
10
. Then A = 3B =
10
.
3 1
So x
p
=
10
cos t +
10
sin t. In order to nd this in amplitude-phase
form, we nd R =
_
_

3
_
2
+
_
1
_
2
=
10
,
10 10 10
1
= tan
1
_
10
_
+ (Since
3
< 0) = tan
1
_

1
_
+ = 2.8198.

10
3
10 3
10
Then x
p
= cos (t 2.8198) .
10
37. x

+ 2x

+ 2x = sin t. The forcing term, sin t, cannot be a
x
p
x

p
64 CHAPTER 2
x

p
= A cos t B sin t.
A cos t B sin t 2A sin t + 2B cos t + 2A cos t + 2B sin t = sin t
(A + 2B) cos t + (B 2A) sin t = sin t
cos t : A + 2B = 0
sin t : 2A + B = 1.
5B = 1 B =
1
5
. Then A = 2B =
2
5
. So x
p
=
2
5
cos t +
1
5
sin t.
In order to nd this in amplitude-phase form, we nd
2
_
2
_
2
5
R =
_
_
+
_
1
= ,
5 5 5
1
= tan
1
_

5
5
_
+ (Since
2
< 0) = tan
1
_

1
_
+ = 2.6779.
2
5 2
5
Then x
p
= cos (t 2.6779) .
5
39. x

+ 2x

+ x = sin t. The forcing term, sin t, cannot be a
x
p
x

p
x

p
= A cos t B sin t.
A cos t B sin t 2A sin t + 2B cos t + A cos t + B sin t = sin t
2B cos t 2A sin t = sin t
cos t : 2B = 0 B = 0
sin t :
1
2A = 1
A =
1
2
.
So x
p
=
2
cos t. In order to nd this in amplitude-phase form,
1
_
2
1 1
we nd R =
_
_
= , = tan
1
(0) + (Since < 0) = .
2 2 2
Then x
p
=
1
cos (t ) .
2
1
2
41. y =
_ _
2
. Let z =
0
.
2 4
2
2
1
2
+
2
0 0
Then y =
(1z)
1
2
+4
2
z
=
_
(1 z)
2
+ 4
2
z
_

2
1
.
y
1 2(1z)+4
2
=
1z2
2
.
3 3
2 2
=
2
[(1z)
2
+4
2
z] [(1z)
2
+4
2
z]
The critical point is z such that y

= 0 1 z 2
2
= 0
z = 1 2
2
.This will be a solution if the denominator is dened
(i.e. (1 z)
2
+ 4
2
z > 0). If <
2
then z = 1 2
2
> 0
2
and thus (1 z)
2
+ 4
2
z > 0. So z = 1 2
2
is a valid critical
point. Hence maximum occurs at
2
= z = 1 2
2
0
2

=
0
_
1 2
2
. If 0 then
0
.
43. From equation (30) in the text we have,

2m
=

k
=
2m

k
=
4m
2
=
4mk
.
k
m m m
Since
4mk is the damping coecient for the critically damped

motion, is the ratio of the damping coecient to the damping
coecient at the critical damping.
45. Graph
2.8 LINEAR ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
1. Substituting R = 3, L =
1
2
, C =
2
5
, e = 3 cos t in the equation
L
d
2
q
+ R
dq
+
1
q = e we have,
1 d
2
q
+ 3
dq
+
5
q = 3 cos t
dt
2
dt C 2 dt
2
dt 2
rt

q

+ 6q

+ 5q = 6 cos t. Substituting q = e in the homogeneous
part we get, r
2
+ 6r + 5 = 0 (r + 5) (r + 1) = 0 r = 1, 5.
Thus q
h
= c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
5t
. Since cos t is not a homogeneous
solution, q
p
= A cos t + B sin t, q

p
q
p

= A cos t B sin t. Substituting these in the original equation
we have,
A cos t B sin t 6A sin t + 6B cos t + 5A cos t + 5B sin t = 6 cos t
cos t : 4A + 6B = 6
sin t : 6A + 4B = 0 3A + 2B = 0
Multiplying the second equation by 3 and then subtracting from
6 3 9
the rst we get, 13A = 6 A =
13
and then B =
2
A =
13
.
6 9
Thus q
p
=
13
cos t +
13
sin t and the general solution is
6 9
q =
13
cos t +
13
sin t + c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
5t
.
6 9
i = q

=
13
sin t +
13
cos t c
1
e
t
5c
2
e
5t
.
Using the initial conditions q(0) = 0, i(0) = 1 we get,
6
0 =
13
+ c
1
+ c
2
1 =
9
13
c
1
5c
2
.
Adding them we get, 1 =
15
=
1
and then c
1
1
6 9
13
1
4c
2

1
c
2
26
=
2
.
Thus q = cos t + sin t e
t
+ e
5t
and
13 13 2 26
i =
6
sin t +
9
cos t +
1
e
t 5
e
5t
.
13 13 2

26
3. Substituting R =
3
2
, L = 1, C = 2, e =
3
2
in the equation
L
d
2
q
+ R
dq
+
1
q = e we have,
d
2
q
+
3 dq
+
1
q =
3
dt
2
dt C dt
2
2 dt 2 2
rt
2q

+ 3q

+ q = 3. Substituting q = e in the homogeneous
part of we get, 2r
2
+ 3r + 1 = 0 (2r + 1) (r + 1) = 0
1

1
t

2
r = 1,
2
. Thus q
h
= c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e

. Since the constant
forcing is not a homogeneous solution, q
p
= A, q
p

= 0, q
p

= 0.
Substituting these in the original equation we have, A = 3
Thus q
p
= 3 and the general solution is
1
2
.
i = q

= c
1
e
t

1
c
2
e

1
t
.
q = 3 + c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
t
2
2
Using the initial conditions q(0) = 2, i(0) = 4 we get,
2 = 3 + c
1
+ c
2
1 = c
1
+ c
2
4 = c
1

1
c
2
.
2
Adding them we get, 3 =
1
c
2
c
2
= 6 and then c
1
= 7.
2

66 CHAPTER 2
1 1
2 2
. Thus q = 3 7e
t
+ 6e
t
and i = 7e
t
3e
t
5. Substituting R = 0, C =
1
, e = sin t in the equation
10
L
d
2
q
+ R
dq 1 q
dt
2
dt
+
C
q = e we have, L
d
dt
2
2
+ 10q = sin t.
By substituting q = e
rt
, we obtain the characteristic equation
Lr
2
+ 10 = 0 r =
_
10
.
L
The forcing term has frequency between 20 and 30 i.e.
20 <

< 30 40 < < 60. Resonance occurs if
_
2
10

_
10 10 10
=
L
i.e. if 40 <
L
< 60
(60)
2
< L <
(40)
2
.
Hence resonance does not occur for L such that
L <
(60
10
)
2
or L >
(40
10
)
2
.
_
1, t
7. Substituting R = 2, L = 1, C =
1
2
, e =
0, t >
q
+ R
dq 1
in the equation L
d
dt
2
2
dt
+
C
q = e we have,
_
1, t
q

+ 2q

+ 2q = .
0, t >
Substituting q = e
rt
in the homogeneous part, we get r
2
+2r +2 = 0
r =
2
48
= 1 i. Thus q
h
= e
t
(c
1
cos t + c
2
sin t) .
2
For t , constant forcing, 1, is not a homogeneous solution. So
q
p
= A, q
p

= q
p

= 0. Substituting these in the original equation
we have, 2A = 1 A =
1
2
. So q
p
=
1
2
and the general solution
is q =
1
2
+ e
t
(c
1

cos t + c
2
sin t) .
i = q

= e
t
(c
1
cos t + c
2
sin t) + e
t
(c
1
sin t + c
2
cos t) .
Using the initial conditions q(0) = i(0) = 0 we get,
0 =
1
2
+ c
1
c
1
=
1
2
1
0 = c
1
+ c
2
c
2
= c
1
=
2
.
Thus q =
1
2
1
e
t
(cos t + sin t) and i = q

= e
t
sin t for t .
2
For t > , q

+ 2q

+ 2q = 0 q is just the homogeneous
solution. So q = e
t
(c
1
cos t +

c
2
sin t)
i = q

= e
t
(c
1
cos t + c
2
sin t) + e
t
(c
1
sin t + c
2
cos t) .
Using the initial conditions q( ) = q(
+
) we get,
1
+
1
e

c
1
1
e
1 1
(e

+ 1) and
2 2
= c
1
e

=
2

2
=
2
from i(
) = i(
1
+
), we have 0 = e

(c
1
c
2
) c
1
c
2
= 0
c
2
= c
1
=
1

2
(e

+ 1) .
Thus q = (e

+ 1) e
t
[cos t + sin t] for t > .
2
1 1
2
Hence the solution is q =
_
1
2
e
t
(cos t + sin t) , t ;
(e

+ 1) e
t
[cos t + sin t] , < t 2.
2
q
t
2
0.5
1
9. Substituting R = 0, e = 0 in the equation L
d
2
q
+ R
dq
+ q = e
dt
2
dt C
q 1 L 1 2
we have, L
d
dt
2
2
+
C
q = 0. Given that E =
2
i
2
+
2C
q
d
2
dE
=
L
2i
di
+
1
2q
dq
= L
dq q
+
1
q
dq
(since i =
dq
)
dt 2 dt 2C dt dt dt
2
C dt dt
=
dq
_
L
d
2
q
+
1
q
_
= 0 E is constant.
dt dt
2
C

11. Substituting R = 0, L = 9, C = 1, e = 4 cos 2t in the equation
L
d
2
q
+ R
dq
+
1
q = e, we have 9q

+ q = cos 2t. Substituting q = e
rt
dt
2
dt C
in the homogeneous part, we get 9r
2
+ 1 = 0 r =
3
i
.
t
Thus q
h
= c
1
cos
3
+ c
2
sin
3
t
. Since cos 2t is not a homogeneous
solution, q
p
= A cos 2t + B sin 2t, q

p
q
p

equation we have,
36A cos 2t 36B sin 2t + A cos 2t + B sin 2t = 4 cos 2t
cos 2t : 35A = 4
4
A =
35
4
sin 2t : 35
t
B = 0 B = 0.
q =
35
cos 2t + c
1
cos
3
+ c
2
sin
3
t
. If the free response,
c
1
cos
t
+ c
2
sin
3
t
, is absent then q =
4
cos 2t, i = q

=
8
sin 2t.
3 35 35
So the initial conditions are q(0) =
4
and i(0) = 0.
35
13. (a) The dierential equation is Lq

+
1
q = 0 q

+
1
q = 0.
C LC
rt 2 1

_
1
Substituting q = e we have r +
LC
= 0 r =
LC
i.
_
1
_
1
Hence the general solution is q (t) = c
1
cos
LC
t + c
2
sin
LC
t
_
1
_
1
_
1
_
1

q

(t) = c
1
sin t + c
2
cos t.
LC LC LC LC
Using the initial conditions q (0) = 0 and q

(0) = 10 we get,
_
1
_
1
_
1
c
1
= 0 and c
2
= 10
LC
. Thus q (t) = 10
LC
sin
LC
t .
2 2
_
c
1
+ c
2
= 10
LC.
(c) From part (b) the amplitude increases as C increases.
1 1
15. (a) The dierential equation is Lq

+
C
q = 0 q

+
LC
q = 0.
rt 2 1

_
1
Substituting q = e we have r +
LC
= 0 r =
LC
i.
_
1
_
1
Hence the general solution is q (t) = c
1
cos
LC
t + c
2
sin
LC
t
68 CHAPTER 2
_
1
_
1
_
1
_
1
q

(t) =
LC
c
1
sin
LC
t + c
2
cos
LC
t.
LC
Using the initial conditions q (0) = 1 and q

(0) = 1 we get, c
1
= 1
_
1
_
1
and c
2
=
LC. Thus the motion is q (t) = cos

LC
t+
LC sin
LC
t
.
2 2
_
c
1
+ c
2
=
1 + LC.
(c) From part (b) the amplitude increases as C and/or L increases.
17. Given that E = 1, R = 6, = 3, L = 1, C =
1
.
13
Plug these in the formula I =
_
(
1
E
to obtain
C
L
2
)
2
+R
2
2
I =
3
=
3
=
3
.
(139)
2
+369
16+324
340
2.9 EULER EQUATION
1. Let x = t
r
x

= rt
r1
x

= r (r 1) t
r2
. Substituting these in the
equation t
2
x

+ tx

x = 0, we have r (r 1) t
r
+ rt
r
t
r
= 0.
Dividing by t
r
= 0 yields the indicial equation r (r 1) + r 1 = 0
r
2
1 = 0 r = 1, 1. Thus the general solution is x = c
1
t + c
2
t
1
.
3. Let x = t
r

x

= rt
r1
x

= r (r 1) t
r2
. Substituting these in
+ t
r
the equation t
2
x

+3tx

+ x = 0, we have r (r 1) t
r
+3rt
r
= 0.
Dividing by t
r
= 0 yields the indicial equation r (r 1)+3r+1 = 0
2

r
2
+ 2r + 1 = 0 (r + 1) r = 1, 1. Thus the general
solution is x = c
1
t
1
+ c
2
t
1
ln t.
5. Let x = t
r
x

= rt
r1
x

= r (r 1) t
r2
the equation 4t
2
x

+8tx

+x = 0, we have 4r (r 1) t
r
+8rt
r
+t
r
= 0.
Dividing by t
r
= 0 yields the indicial equation 4r (r 1) + 8r + 1 =
2
1 1
0 4r
2
+ 4r + 1 = 0 (2r + 1)
2
. Thus the general
1

1
r =
2
,
2
solution is x = c
1
t

2
+ c
2
t

ln t.
7. Let x = t
r
x

= rt
r1
x

= r (r 1) t
r2
the equation t
2
x

+4tx

+2x = 0, we have r (r 1) t
r
+4rt
r
+2t
r
= 0.
Dividing by t
r
r
2
+ 3r + 2 = 0
(r + 1) (r + 2) r = 1, 2. Thus the general

solution is x = c
1
t
1
+ c
2
t
2
. x

= c
1
t
2
2c
2
t
3
. Using the initial
conditions we get,
1 = c
1
+ c
2
0 = c
1
2c
2
.
Adding them we have, c
2
= 1 c
2
= 1 and then c
1
= 2.
Thus x = 2t
1
t
2
.
9. Let x = t
r
x

= rt
r1
x

= r (r 1) t
r2
the equation t
2
x

+ tx

+4x = 0, we have r (r 1) t
r
+ rt
r
+4t
r
= 0.
Dividing by t
r
= 0 yields the indicial equation r (r 1) + r +4 = 0
r
2
+ 4 = 0 r
= 2i. Thus the general solution is

x = c
1
cos (2 ln t) + c
2
sin (2 ln t) .
11. Let x = t
r
x

= rt
r1
x

= r (r 1) t
r2
the equation t
2
x

+3tx

+8x = 0, we have r (r 1) t
r
+3rt
r
+8t
r
= 0.
Dividing by t
r
r
2
+ 2r + 8 = 0 r = 1 i
7. Thus the general solution is

x = t
1
_
c
1
cos
_
7 ln t
_
+ c
2
sin
_
7 ln t
_
.
13. Choose #3.
Let x = t
r
x

= rt
r1
x

= r (r 1) t
r2
the equation
t
2
x

+3tx

+

x = 0, we have r (r 1) t
r
+3rt
r
+ t
r
= 0.
Dividing by t
r
2

r
2
+ 2r + 1 = 0 (r + 1) r = 1, 1 (repeated roots). So one
solution is t
1
. Let the other solution be x = vt
1
. Then substituting
x, x

= v
t
1
vt
2
and x

= v
t
1
2v
t
2
+ 2vt
3
in the original
equation we have,
t
2
_
v
t
1
2v
t
2
+ 2vt
3
_
+ 3t
_
v
t
1
vt
2
_
+ vt
1
= 0. After
cancellation of v terms and simplication this yields tv

+ v

= 0.
Let w = v

. Then tw

+ w = 0. By separation,
dw dt
w t
ln |w| = ln t + c w = c
2
t
1
. Since w = v
, v

=
=
c
2
t
1
.

Integration yields v = c
2
ln t + c
1
x = vt
1
= (c
2
ln t + c
1
) t
1
= c
1
t
1
+ c
2
t
1
ln t.
1 ds 1 dx
= ks
dx ds dx
15. (i) t = ks s =
k
t
dt
=
k
. Now t
dt ds dt
= s
ds
and
t
2 d
2
x
= k
2
s
2 d
_
dx
_
= k
2
s
2 d
_
dx ds
_
ds
= k
2
s
2 d
2
x
k
1
2
= s
2 d
2
x
dt
2
dx dt ds ds dt dt ds
2
ds
2
.
x
So the Euler equation at
2 d
2
+ bt
dx
+ cx = 0 becomes
dt
2
dt
x
as
2 d
2
+ bs
dx
+ cx = 0.
ds
2
ds
(ii) In this case,
dx
=
dx ds
=
1 dx
and
dt ds dt k ds
d
2
x
=
d
_
dx
_
=
d
_
dx ds
_
ds
=
d
_
1 dx
_
1
=
1 d
2
x
dt
2
dx dt ds ds dt dt ds k ds k k
2
ds
2
.
So the constant coecient equation a
d
2
x
+ b
dx
+ cx = 0 becomes
dt
2
dt
a
1 d
2
x
+ b
1 dx
+ cx = 0 a
d
2
x
+ bk
dx
+ ck
2
x = 0.
k
2
ds
2
k ds

ds
2
ds
r1 r2
(iii) Substituting t = ks in c
1
t
r1
+ c
2
t
r2
we get, c
1
(ks) + c
2
(ks)
= c
1
k
r1
s
r1
+ c
2
k
r2
s
r2
= c
1
s
r1
+ c
2
s
r2
, where c
1
= c
1
k
r1
and c
2
= c
2
k
r2
are real constants.
(iv) Substituting t = ks in c
1
t
r1
+c
2
t
r2
ln t we get, c
1
(ks)
r1
+c
2
(ks)
r2
ln (ks)
= c
1
k
r1
s
r1
+ c
2
k
r2
s
r2
(ln k + ln s) . Note that the roots are repeated
so r
1
= r
2
and thus c
1
k
r1
s
r1
+c
2
k
r1
s
r1
(ln k + ln s) = c
1
s
r1
+c
2
s
r1
ln s,
where c
1
= k
r1
(c
1
+ c
2
ln k) and c
2
= c
2
k
r1
are real constants.
(v) Substituting t = ks in c
1
t

cos ( ln t) + c
2
t

sin ( ln t) we get,

c
1
(ks) cos ( ln (ks)) + c
2
(ks) sin ( ln (ks))
= c
1
k
s

cos ( ln k + ln s) + c
2
k
s

sin ( ln k + ln s)
= c
1
k
s

[cos ( ln k) cos ( ln s) sin ( ln k) sin ( ln s)]
+c
2
k
s

[sin ( ln k) cos ( ln s) + cos ( ln k) sin ( ln s)]
= c
1
s

cos ( ln s) + c
2
s

sin ( ln s) , where
c
1
= c
1
k

cos ( ln k) + c
2
k

sin ( ln k) and
c
2
= c
1
k

sin ( ln k) + c
2
k

cos ( ln k) are real constants.
17. Let x = t
r
x

= rt
r1
x

= r (r 1) t
r2
x

= r (r 1) (r 2) t
r3
x

= r (r 1) (r 2) (r 3) t
r4
the equation t
4
x

+ 6t
3
x

+ 7t
2
x

+ tx

x = 0, we have
r (r 1) (r 2) (r 3) t
r
+ 6r (r 1) (r 2) t
r
+ 7r (r 1) t
r
70 CHAPTER 2
+rt
r
t
r
= 0.
Dividing by t
r
= 0 yields the indicial equation
r (r 1) (r 2) (r 3)+6r (r 1) (r 2)+7r (r 1)+r 1 = 0
r
4
1 = 0 r
2
= 1, 1 r = 1, 1, i.
1
t+c
2
t
1
+c
3
cos (ln t)+c
4
sin (ln t) .
19. Let x = t
r
x

= rt
r1
x

= r (r 1) t
r2
x

= r (r 1) (r 2) t
r3
.
Substituting these in the equation t
3
x

+ tx

x = 0, we have
r (r 1) (r 2) t
r
+ rt
r
t
r
= 0.
Dividing by t
r
= 0 yields the indicial equation
r (r 1) (r 2) + r 1 = 0
r
3
3r
2
+ 3r 1 = 0 (r 1)
3
= 0 r = 1, 1, 1.
2
1
t + c
2
t ln t + c
3
t (ln t) .
2.10 VARIATION OF PARAMETERS (SECOND-ORDER)
In problems 21 and 23 we derive the solution obtained by variation of
parameters. In the other problems, the algebraic system of equations
(obtained from the variation of parameters)
v
1

x
1
+ v
2

x
2
= 0
v
1

x

1
+ v
2

x

2
= 0
will be solved for v
1

and v
2

by using the formulae v
fx2
and
1
=
W
fx1
v
2

=
W
where W [x
1
, x
2
] is the Wronskian of the independent
homogeneous solutions x
1
and x
2
and f is the forcing function.
rt

x = e
2t
we have
the characteristic equation r
2
1 = 0 r = 1, 1. So x
1
= e
t
and
x
2
= e
t
are homogeneous solutions. The Wronskian,
t
_
e e
t
_
W [e
t
, e
t
] = det
e
t
e
t
= 2e
t
e
t
= 2 = 0 . Thus {e
t
, e
t
}
is a fundamental set of solutions and here f = e
2t
.
Variation of parameters: x = v
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
.
So v
fx2
=
e
2t
e
t
=
1
e
t
and v

=
fx1 e
2t
e
t
1
e
3t
.
1
=
W 2 2 2 W
=
2
=
2
Integrating we have, v
1
=
2
1
e
t
+ c
1
and v
2
=
6
1
e
3t
+ c
2
.
t 1 3t
Thus x =
_
1
e + c
1
_
x
1
+
_
e + c
2
_
x
2
2 6

x =
1
2
e
2t
+ c
1
e
t
+
1
6
e
2t
+ c
2
e
t
x =
1
3
e
2t
+ c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
t
is the general solution.
Yes, the method of undetermined coecients could have been used
because of exponential forcing.
rt

+ x =
sin
1
t
we have
the characteristic equation r
2
+ 1 = 0 r = i. So x
1
= cos t and
x
2
= sin t are homogeneous solutions. The Wronskian,
_
cos t sin t
_
2
W [cos t, sin t] = det = cos t + sin
2
t = 1 = 0.
sin t cos t
Thus {cos t, sin t} is a fundamental set of solutions and here f =

1
.
sin t
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
.
So v
fx2 1
sin t = 1 and v

=
fx1
=
cos t
.
1
=
W
=
sin t 2 W sin t
1
= t + c
1
and v
2
= ln |sin t| + c
2
.
Thus x = (t + c
1
) x
1
+ (ln |sin t| + c
2
) x
2

x = (t + c
1
) cos t + (ln |sin t| + c
2
) sin t
x = sin t ln sin t t cos t + c
1
cos t + c
2
sin t is the general solution.
1
| |
No,
sin t
is not a right form of forcing function for using the method
of undetermined coecients.
rt

+ x = tan t we
have the characteristic equation r
2
+ 1 = 0 r = i. So x
1
= cos t
and x
2
= sin t are homogeneous solutions. The Wronskian,
_
cos t sin t
_
W [cos t, sin t] = det
sin t cos t
= cos
2
t + sin
2
t = 1 = 0 .
Thus {cos t, sin t} is a fundamental set of solutions and here f = tan t.
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
.
So v
fx2
= tan t sin t =
sin
2
t
and v

=
fx1
= tan t cos t =
1
=
W cos t 2 W
1cos
2
t
sin t. Integrating we have, v
1
=
_
cos t
dt =
_
sec tdt +
_
cos tdt
= ln |sec t + tan t| + sin t + c
1
and v
2
= cos t + c
2
.
Thus x = ( ln |sec t + tan t| + sin t + c
1
) x
1
+ ( cos t + c
2
) x
2
x = ( ln |sec t + tan t| + sin t + c

1
) cos t + ( cos t + c
2
) sin t
Since sin t cos t terms cancel
x = (cos t) ln |sec t + tan t| + c
1
cos t + c
2
sin t.
No, tan t is not a right form of forcing function for using the method
rt

+3x

+2x =
1+
1
e
2t
we have the characteristic equation r
2
+3r +2 = 0 (r + 1) (r + 2)
= 0 r = 1, 2. So x
1
= e
t
and x
2
= e
2t
are homogeneous
_
e
t
e
2t
_
solutions. The Wronskian, W
_
e
t
, e
2t

= det
e
t
2e
2t
= 2e
3t
+ e
3t
= e
3t
= 0 . Thus
_
e
t
, e
2t
_
is a fundamental set
of solutions and here f =
1+
1
e
2t
.
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
.
So v
fx2 1
2t
e
2t
=
e
t
and v

=
fx1
=
1
2t
e
t
2t
2t t
1
e
=
W
=
1+e e
3t
1+
=
e
_
e
2 W 1+e e
3t
t
) =
1+e
2t
. Integrating we have, v
1
1+e
dt (Substitution: u = e
2t
1
v
1
=
_
1+u
du = tan
1
u + c
1
= tan
1
(e
t
) + c
1
and
e
2t
2
1 du
v
2
=
_
1+e
2t
dt (Substitution: u = 1 + e
2t
) v
2
=
2
_
u
1 2t 1
=
2
ln u + c
2
(since u = 1 + e > 0 ) v
2
=
2
ln
_
1 + e
2t
_
+ c
2
.
Thus x =
_
tan
1
(e
t
) + c
1

x
1
+
1
_

1
2
ln
_
1 + e
2t
_
+ c
2

x
2
x =
_
tan
1
(e
t
) + c
1

e
t
+
_

2
ln
_
1 + e
2t
_
+ c
2

e
2t
x = e
t
tan
1
(e
t
)
1
e
2t
ln
_
1 + e
2t
_
+ c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
2t
is the general
2
solution.
No,
1+
1
e
2t
rt

6x

+9x = e
3t
t
3
2
_ _ _
_ _
_
_ _
_
72 CHAPTER 2
2
6r + 9 = 0 (r 3)
2
= 0
3t

r = 3, 3. So x
1
= e and x
2
= te
3t
are homogeneous
_
e
3t
te
3t
_
3t
solutions. The Wronskian, W
_
e , te
3t

= det
3e
3t
e
3t
+ 3te
3t
6t 3t
= e
6t
+ 3te
6t
3te
6t
= e = 0. Thus
_
e , te
3t
_
is a fundamental set
3t
3
2
of solutions and here f t = e .
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
.
3t 3t 3 5 3 3
So v
1

=
fx2
W
= e
3t
t
fx1 3t te e
and v
2

e
= t
=
_
t
5
t = t
2 2 2 2
= = e .
6t 6t
W e
7
2
1
=
_
t
dt + c
1
and t =
2 2
7
3 5
dt =
2
t + c
2
.
2 2
v
2
5
+ c
1
x
1
+
_
2
7 5
2
Thus x = t t + c
2
2 2
x
2
7 5
_
3t
_
2
7 5
2
te
3t
t + c
1
+ t + c
2
2 2
x = e
7 5

7 7
2 3t 2 3t
+ c
1
e
3t
+ c
2
te
3t
t + t x =
4
2 2
e e
7 5

2
3
2
7
e
3t
+ c
1
e
3t
+ c
2
te
3t
is the general solution. t x =
35
No, e
3t
is not a right form of forcing function for using the method t
rt
in the homogeneous part of 4x
+4x
+x = t
2
e
t
2
we have the characteristic equation 4r
2
+4r +1 = 0 (2r + 1)
2
= 0
are homogeneous
t
= te
t
2
r =
1 1
2
,
2
. So x
1
= e
and x
2
2
_
= det
t
2
te
t
2
e
t
2
t
2
, te
solutions. The Wronskian, W t t

1 1
e
te

_
is a fundamental
2 2
2 2
t
2
, te
t
2
= e
t

1
te
t
+
1
te
t
= e
t
2 2
e
= 0. Thus
set of solutions and here f = t
2
e
t
2
.
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
.
t
te
t
fx2
= t
2
W
= t
1
and
2
So v
1

e
=
2
e
t
t
e
t
fx1
= t
2
W
= t
2
2
v
2

= e
2
.
e
t
t t
t
t
1
=
_
t
1
dt = ln t + c
1
and
v
2
=
_
t
2
dt = t
1
+ c
2
.
Thus x = ( ln t + c
1
) x
1
+
_
t
1
x = ( ln t + c
1
) e
+
_
t
1

+ c
2
_
x
2
_
te
t
+ c
2
2 2
t
1
ln t t
t
ln t e
x = e
te
+ c
1
e
+ c
2
te
2
t
2 2 2
t
2
t
+ c
1
e
+ c
2
te
2 2 2
t
2
t
t
2
t
x = e
x = e
x = e
t
ln t + (c
1
1) e
ln t + c
1
e
+ c
2
te
(where c
1
t
2
+ c
2
te
= c
1
1)
2 2
No, t
2
e
t
2
rt

x

6x = e
2t
2
r 6 = 0
(r 3) (r + 2) = 0 r = 3, 2. So x
1
= e
3t
and x
2

= e
2t
are
3t
homogeneous solutions. The Wronskian, W
_
e , e
2t

=
t
2
3t
t t t 3t
det
_
3
e
e
3t
e
2
e
2
t
2t
_
= 2e 3e = 5e = 0 . Thus
_
e , e
2t
_
is
a fundamental set of solutions and here f = e
2t
.
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
.
fx2
= e
2t e
2t
1
e
5t fx1
= e
2t e
3t
1
So v
1

=
W 5e
t
1
=
5
and v
1
2

e
=
5t
W 5e
t
=
5
.
1
=
5
_
e
5t
dt =
25
+ c
1
and
1 1
v
2
=
5
_
dt =
5
t + c
2
.
1 1
Thus x =
_
e
5t
+ c
1
_
x
1
+
_
t + c
2
_
x
2
1
25
3t 1
5

1 1 3t 1

3t 1
x =
_

25
e
e
2t
5t
+
te
c
1
_
2
e
t
+c
+
1
e
_

+
5
c
t
2
+
e
c
2
2
t
_
e
2t
te
2t
+c
1
e
_
e
2t
x =
25
1

5
3t
=
5
1
+
_
c
2

25
x =
5
te
2t
+ c
1
e + c
2
e
2t
, (where c
2
= c
2

25
)
Yes, the method of undetermined coecients could have been used
because of exponential forcing.
15. The fundamental set is
_
t, t
2
_
and dividing the equation by t
2
we
have the forcing function f = t. The Wronskian, W
_
t, t
2

= det
_
t t
2
_
1 2t
= 2t
2
t
2
= t
2
. Let x
1
= t and x
2
= t
2
.
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
.
So v
fx2
= t and v

=
fx1
= 1. Integrating we have,
1
=
W 2 W
v
1
=
2
1
t
2
+ c
1
and v
2
= t + c
2
.
1 1
Thus x =
_
t
2
+ c
1
_
x
1
+(t + c
2
) x
2
=
_
t
2
+ c
1
_
t +(t + c
2
) t
2
x =
1
t
3
+ t
3
2
+ c
1
t + c
2
t
2
x =
1
t
3
+ c
1
t
2
+ c
2
t
2

2 2
17. The fundamental set is
_
1, t
1
_
and dividing the equation by t
2
we
have the forcing function f = t
3
. The Wronskian,
W
_
1, t
1

= det
_
1
1
2
_
= t
2
. Let x
1
= 1 and x
2
= t
1
.
0
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
.
So v
1
fx2
= t
2
and v
2

=
fx1
= t
1
. Integrating we have, =
W W
v
1
= t
1
+ c
1
and v
2
= ln t + c
2
.
Thus x =
_
t
1
+ c
1
_
x
1
+( ln t + c
2
) x
2
= t
1
+c
1
+( ln t + c
2
) t
1
x = t
1
t
1
ln t + c
1
+ c
2
t
1
19. Let x
1
(t) and x
2
(t) be the homogeneous solutions of x

+px

+qx = f.
If the Wronskian is W [x
1
, x
2
] (t) and the variation of parameters is
x = v
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
then denite integral yields
f (t)x2(t) x2(t)
v
1

=
W [x1,x2](t)
v
1
=
_
t
W [x1,x2](t)
f(t)dt
0
f(t)x1(t) x1(t)
and v
2

=
W [x1,x2](t)
v
2
=
_
t
W [x1,x2](t)
f(t)dt. Since we have
0
used denite integrals, we do not have any arbitrary constants of
integration and the particular solution is thus x
p
= v
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
t t

x2(t) x1 (t)
x
p
= x
1
(t)
_
0
W [x1,x2 ](t)
f(t)dt + x
2
(t)
_
0
W [x1,x2](t)
f(t)dt
74 CHAPTER 2
x2(t)x1(t)x1(t)x2(t)
x
p
=
_
t
f(t)dt.
W [x1,x2](t)
0
2
rt

x = e
t
2
1 = 0 (r 1) (r + 1) = 0
t

r = 1, 1. So x
1
= e and x
2
= e
t
are homogeneous
_
e
t
e
t
_
solutions. The Wronskian, W [e
t
, e
t
] = det
t
e e
t
= 1 1 = 2 = 0 . Thus {e
t
, e
t
} is a fundamental set
2
of solutions and here f = e
t
.
1
e
t
+ v
2
e
t
.
So x

= v
1
e
t
v
2
e
t
+ v
1

e
t
+ v
2

e
t
. We set v
1

e
t
+ v
2

e
t
= 0
such that x

= v
1
e
t
v
2
e
t
x

= v
1
e
t
+ v
2
e
t
+ v
1

e
t
v
2

e
t
.
Substituting this in the original equation, we have
2
v
1
e
t
+ v
2
e
t
+ v
t
2
e
t t
= e
t
1
e
2
v

v
1
e v
2
e
t
v
1

e
t
v
2

e
t
= e
t
.
Now we solve the system of equations
v
1

e
t
+ v
2

e
t
= 0
2
v
1

e
t
v
2

e
t
= e
t
for v
1

and v
2

. Adding them yields 2v
1

e
t
= e
t
2
v
1

=
1
e
t
e
t
2
and v
2

e
t
= v
1

e
t
=
1
2
e
t
2
t
v
2

=
1
2
e
t
e
t
2
.

2
1
2
Denite integral yields, v
1
=
2
_
e
s
e
s
ds + c
1
and
0
2
v
2
=
2
1
_
t
e
s
e
s
ds + c
2
.
0
t t
_
1
_
e
s
e
s
_
t
_
1
_
s
e
s
_
e
t
2 2
Thus x =
2
ds + c
1
e +
2
e ds + c
2
0

0

2 2
x =
2
1
e
t
_
t
e
s
e
s
ds + c
1
e
t
2
1
e
t
_
t
e
s
e
s
ds + c
2
e
t
0

0

2
x =
_
0
t
_
2
1
e
ts

2
1
e
(ts)

e
s
ds + c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
t

2
t
x =
_
t
sinh (t s) e
s
ds + c
1
e + c
2
e
t
0
rt 1

+ 5x

+ 6x =
t+1
2
+ 5r + 6 = 0
= e
2t

= e
3t
(r + 2) (r + 3) = 0 r = 2, 3. So x
1
and x
2

W
_
e
2t
, e
3t

= det
_
e
2
e
2
t
2t
e
3
e
3
t
3t
_
= e
5t
= 0 .
1
Thus
_
e
2t
, e
3t
_
is a fundamental set of solutions and here f =
t+1
.
1
e
2t
+ v
2
e
3t
.
So x

= 2v
1
e
2t
3v
2
e
3t
+ v
1

e
2t
+ v
2

e
3t
. We set
v
1

e
2t
+ v
2

e
3t
= 0 such that x

= 2v
1
e
2t
3v
2
e
3t
x

= 4v
1
e
2t
+ 9v
2
e
3t
2v
1

e
2t
3v
2

e
3t
.
Substituting this in the original equation, we have
4v
1
e
2t
+ 9v
2
e
3t
2v
1

e
2t
3v
2

e
3t
10v
1
e
2t
15v
2
e
3t
+6v
1
e
2t
+ 6v
2
e
3t
=
1
1
e
2t
3v
2

e
3t
=
1
.
t+1
2v
t+1
Now we solve the system of equations
v
1

e
2t
+ v
2

e
3t
= 0
2v
1

e
2t
3v
2

e
3t
=
1
t+1
for v
1

and v
2

. Multiplying the rst equation by 2 and adding with
the second yields v
2

e
3t
=
1 1
e
3t
and then
1
e
2t
2
e
3t 1
t+1
1
v
2

2t
=
t+1
v

= v

=
t+1
v
1

=
t+1
e . .
2s 3s
e e
1
=
_
t
s+1
ds + c
1
and v
2
=
_
t
s+1
ds + c
2
.
0 0
2s 3s
e e
Thus x =
_
_
0
t
s+1
ds + c
1
_
e
2t
+
_

_
0
t
s+1
ds + c
2
_
e
3t

2s 3s
e e
x = e
2t
_
t
ds + c
1
e
2t
e
3t
_
t
ds + c
2
e
3t
0
s+1
0
s+1

1
x =
_
t
_
e
2(st)
e
3(st)

s+1
ds + c
1
e
2t
+ c
2
e
3t
is the general
0
solution.
25. Substituting x = t
r
, x

= rt
r1
, x

= r (r 1) t
r2
in the
homogeneous part of t
2
x

+ tx

2
x = e
t
and then dividing by t
r
= 0
we have r (r 1) + r 1 = 0 r 1 = 0 r = 1, 1.
So x
1
= t and x
2
= t
1
W
_
t, t
1

= det
_
1
t
1
2
_
= t
1
t
1
= 2t
1
= 0 .
t
Thus
_
t, t
1
_
is a fundamental set of solutions and here f = e .
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
.
So v
fx2 t t
1
=
1
e
t
and v

=
fx1
= e
t t 1
t
2
e
t
.
1
=
W
= e
2t
1
2 2 W 2t
1
=
2
1 t 1 2
1
=
2
e + c
1
and v
2
=
2
_
t
s e
s
ds.
0
t
t 1 2
Thus x =
_
2
1
e + c
1

t +
_

2
_
0
s e
s
ds + c
2
_
t
1

1 1 2
x =
2
te
t
+ c
1
t
2
_
t
t
1
s e
s
ds + c
2
t
1
0
1 1 2
x =
2
te
t

2
_
0
t
t
1
s e
s
ds + c
1
t + c
2
t
1
2.11 VARIATION OF PARAMETERS (NTH-ORDER)
The algebraic system of equations in this section (obtained from the
variation of parameters)
v
1

x
1
+ v
2

x
2
+ ... + v
n

x
n
= 0
v
1

x

1
+ v
2

x
2

+ ... + v
n

x

n
= 0
... ... ... ...
76 CHAPTER 2
v
1

x
(
1
n1)
+ v
2

x
(
2
n1)
+ ... + v
n

x
(
n
n1)
= 0
will be solved for v
1

, v
2

, ..., v
n

by using the formulae
v

= (1)
n+i f Wi
where W [x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
] is the
i an W [x1,x2 ,...,xn ]
Wronskian of the independent homogeneous solutions x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
,
f is the forcing function and a
n
= 0 is the coecient of the
nth-derivative term.
rt

x

= e
2t
,
3 2
we have the characteristic equation r r = 0 r
_
r 1
_
= 0
r = 0, 1, 1. So x
1
= 1, x
2
= e
t
and x
3
= e
t
are
homogeneous solutions. The Wronskian,
t
_
1 e e
t
_
W [1, e
t
, e
t
] = det
_
0 e
t
t
e
t
_
= 2 = 0 . Thus {1, e
t
, e
t
}
0 e e
t
is a fundamental set of solutions. Here f = e
2t
, n = 3, a
3
= 1.
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
+ v
3
x
3
.
_
e
t
e
t
_
2t e
So v
1

= (1)
3+1
e
det
_
t
e
t
_
= e
2t
_
2
_
= e
2t
1 2 2
v
1
=
2
1
e
2t
+ c
1
.
_
1 e
t
_
2t
v
2

= (1)
3+2
e
1
det
_
0
2
e
t
_
= e
2t
_
e
2
t
_
=
2
1
e
t
v
2
=
1
e
t
+ c
2
.
2
_
1 e
t
_
det
_
t
_
2t 0 e
v
3

= (1)
3+3
e
=
1
e
2t
e
t
=
1
e
3t
1 2 2 2
v
3
=
6
1
e
3t
+ c
3
.
Thus x =
_

1
e
2t
+ c
1
_
1 +
_
1
e
t
+ c
2
_
e
t
+
_
1
e
3t
+ c
3
_
e
t
x =
1
2
e
2t
+ c
2
1
+
1
2
e
2t
+ c
2
e
t
2
+
1
6
e
2t
+ c
3
e
t
6
1 2t t

x =
6
e + c
1
+ c
2
e + c
3
e
t
rt

x

= t,
4
r
3
= 0 r
3
(r
t
1) = 0
r = 0, 0, 0, 1. So x
1
= 1, x
2
= t, x
3
= t
2
and x
4
= e are
homogeneous solutions. The Wronskian,
t
_
1 t t
2
e
_
_
1 2t e
_
t
W
_
1, t, t
2
, e
t

= det
_
0
0
0
1 2
2
t
e
e
t
_
= det
_
0
0
2
0
e
e
t
t
_
t
0 0 0 e
t
= 2e
t
= 0.
Thus
_
1, t, t
2
, e
t
_
is a fundamental set of solutions.
Here f = t, n = 4, a
4
= 1.
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
+ v
3
x
3
+ v
4
x
4
.
_
t t
2
e
t
_
t
det
1 2t e

_
t
_
So v
1

= (1)
4+1
1
t
0 2 e
=
t
_
e
t
_
t
2
2t + 2
_
2e
t
2e
t
1 t
4 3
t
2
=
2
_
t
3
2t
2
+ 2t
_
v
1
=
8 3

2
+ c
1
. +
t
_
1 t
2
e
t
_
t
det
0 2t e

_
0 2 e
t
_
v
2

= (1)
4+2
1
t
2e
t
=
2e
t
t
2e
t
(t 1) = t
2
t
3 2
v
2
=
t

t
+
_
c
2
.
t
_
3 2
1 t e
t
det
0 1 e

_
0 0 e
t
_
v
3

= (1)
4+3
1
t
=
t
e
t
=
2
t
2e
t
2e
t
2
v
3
=
t
4
+ c
3
.
_
1 t t
2
_
det
0 1 2t
_ _
v
4

= (1)
4+4
t
0 0 2
=
t
2 =
t
1 2e
t
2e
t
e
t
v
4
= te
_
t
t
4
e
t
3
t
+ c
t
4
2
.
_
t
3
t
2
_ _
t
2
_
Thus x =
8
+
3

2
+ c
1
_
1 +
3

2
+ c
2
t +
4
+ c
3
t
2
+(te
t
e
t
+ c
4
) e
t
4 3
t t
+ c
1
+ c
2
t + c
3
t
2
+ c
4
e
t
is the general solution, x =
24

6
where c
1
= c
1
1, c
2
= c
2
1, c
3
= c
3

2
1
.
at bt ct
_
e e e
_
5. W = det
_
ae
at
be
bt
ce
ct
_
. Factoring out e
at
, e
bt
and e
ct
from
a
2
e
at
b
2
e
bt
c
2
e
ct
the rst, second and third column, respectively, we get
_
1 1 1
_
W = e
at
e
bt
e
ct
det
_
a b c
_
. Subtracting second column
a
2
b
2
c
2
from the third and, next, rst column from the second to get
_
1 0 0
_
W = e
(a+b+c)t
det
_
a
2
b
2
b a
2 2
c b
_
. Factoring out b a,
a a c b
2
and c b from the second and third column, respectively, we get
_
1 0 0
_
W = (b a) (c b) e
(a+b+c)t
det
_
a 1 1
_
a
2
b + a c + b
= (b a) (c b) e
(a+b+c)t
(c + b b a)
= (b a) (c a) (c b) e
(a+b+c)t
.
rt

2x

x

+2x = e
t
,
3
2r
2
r + 2 = 0
t
(r 1) (r + 1) (r 2) = 0 r = 1, 1, 2. So x
1
= e , x
2
= e
t
and
2t

x
3
= e are homogeneous solutions. The Wronskian, using Exercise
t 2t
5, is W
_
e , e
t
, e
2t

= e
(11+2)t
(1 1) (2 1) (2 + 1) = 6e = 0.
t
Thus
_
e , e
t
, e
2t
_
Here f = e
t
, n = 3, a
3
= 1.
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
+ v
3
x
3
.
78 CHAPTER 2
_
e
t
e
2t
_
t
So v
1

= (1)
3+1
e
1
det
_
e
6
t
e
2t
2e
2t
_
=
6
1
e
t
[2e
t
+ e
t
] =
2
1
v
1
=
2
t
+ c
1
.
_
t 2t
_
e e
det
_
t 2t
_
3+2
e 1 3t 1 2t
v
2

= (1)
1
t e
6e
2e
=
_
2e e
3t

=
6
e
2t
6e
t
=
1
e
2t
+ c
2
. v
2
12
_
e
t
e
t
_
t e
v
3

= (1)
3+3
e
det
_
t
e
t
_
1
[1 1] =
1
e
t
1 6e
2t
=
6e
t
3
v
3
=
3
1
e
t
t
+ c
3
.
t
+
_
1 2t 1 2t
Thus x =
_
+ c
1
_
e e + c
2
_
e
t
+
_
e
t
+ c
3
_
e
t t
2
t 1 t
12
1 t 2t
3

x =
2
t
e + c
1
e +
12
e + c
2
e
t

3
e + c
3
e
x =
2
e
t
+ c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
t
+ c
3
e
2t
is the general solution,
where c
1
= c
1
+
1 1
.
12

3
rt

+2x

x

2x = 1,
3
+ 2r
2
r 2 = 0
(r 1) (r + 1) (r + 2) = 0 r = 1, 1, 2. So x
1
= e
t
, x
2
= e
t
and x
3
= e
2t
are homogeneous solutions. The Wronskian, using
t
Exercise 5, is W
_
e , e
t
, e
2t

= e
(112)t
(1 1) (2 1) (2 + 1)
t
= 6e
2t
= 0 . Thus
_
e , e
t
, e
2t
_
Here f = 1, n = 3, a
3
= 1.
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
+ v
3
x
3
.
_
e
t
e
2t
_
So v
1

= (1)
3+1
1
det
_
e
t
2e
2t
_
1
_
2e
3t
+ e
3t

1 6e
2t
=
6e
2t
=
6
1
e
t
v
1
=
_
6
1
e
e
t
t
+ c
e
1
.
2t
_
2
= (1)
3+2
1
det
_
e
t
2e
2t
_
=
1
e
t
] =
1
e
t
v

1 6e
2t
6e
2t
[2e
t
2
v
2
=
2
1
e
t
+ c
2
_
.
t
_
e e
t
1 2t
v
3

= (1)
3+3
1
1
det
_
e
t
6e
2t
e
t
_
=
6e
2t
[1 1] =
1
3
e
v
3
=
1
e
2t
+ c
3
.
6
1 t 1 t 2t
Thus x =
_

6
e
t
+ c
1
_
e +
_

2
e + c
2
_
e
t
+
_
1
6
e + c
3
_
e
2t
x =
1
+ c
1
e
t 1
+ c
2
e
t
+
1
+ c
3
e
2t

6 2 6
1 t

+ c
3
e
2t

x =
2
+ c
1
e + c
2
e
t
rt
+3x
3x = e
t
,
3
+ 3r
2
r 3 = 0
t
(r 1) (r + 1) (r + 3) = 0 r = 1, 1, 3. So x
1
= e , x
2
= e
t
= e
3t
and x
3
t
Exercise 5, is W
_
e , e
t
, e
3t

= e
(113)t
(1 1) (3 1) (3 + 1)
t
= 16e
3t
t
= 0 . Thus
_
e , e
t
, e
3t
_
Here f = e , n = 3, a
3
= 1.
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
+ v
3
x
3
.
_
e
t
e
3t
_
t
3+1
e
det
_
e
t
3e
3t
_
1
So v
1

= (1)
1 16e
3t
=
16e
4t
_
3e
4t
+ e
4t

=
1
8
=
1
8
t + c
1
. v
1
_
e
t
e
3t
_
det
v
2

= (1)
3+2
e
t
_
e
t
3e
3t
_
=
1
_
3e
2t
e
2t

=
1
e
2t
1 16e
3t
16e
4t
4
v
2
=
8
1
e
2t
+ c
2
_
.
e
t
e
t
_
det
_
t
_
t e
v
3

= (1)
3+3
e
1 16e
3
e
t
t
=
16e
1
4t
[1 1] =
8
1
e
4t
1 4t
v
3
=
32
e + c
3
.
t 1 2t 4t
Thus x =
_
1
t + c
1
_
e e + c
2
_
e
t
+
_
1
e + c
3
_
e
3t
8
+
_

8 32
t

x =
te
+ c
1
e
t 1
e
t
+ c
2
e
t
+
1
e
t
+ c
3
e
3t
8
t

8 32

x =
te
8
+ c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
t
+ c
3
e
3t
is the general solution, where
1 1
. c
1
= c
1
+
_
32
e
t
8
te
t
t
2
e
t
_
13. W = det
_
e
t
e
t
+ te
t
2te
t
+ t
2
e
t
_
.
2
e
t
2e
t
+
2
te
t
2e
t
+ 4te
t
+
2
t
2
e
t
Factoring out e
t
from the rst, second and third column,
_
1 t t
2
_
respectively, we get W = e
t
e
t
e
t
det
_
1 + t 2t + t
2
_
2
2 +
2
t 2 + 4t +
2
t
2
(expanding with respect to the second column)
_ _
1 t t
2
_ _
1 0 t
2
__
= e
3t
_
det
_
t 2t + t
2
_
+ det
_
1 2t + t
2
__
.
2
t 2 + 4t +
2
t
2
2
2 2 + 4t +
2
t
2
The rst determinant is zero since its second column equals the rst
column after factoring out t. Then
_
1 0 t
2
_
W = e
3t
det
_
1 2t + t
2
_
2
2 2 + 4t +
2
t
2
(expanding with respect to the last column)
_ _
1 0 t
2
_ _
1 0 0
__
= e
3t
_
det
_
1 t
2
_
+ det
_
1 2t
__
2
2
2
t
2
2
2 2 + 4t
The rst determinant is zero since its third column equals the rst
column after factoring out t. Then
_
1 0 0
_
W = e
3t
det
_
1 2t
_
= e
3t
(2 + 4t 4t) = 2e
3t
.
2
2 2 + 4t
rt

+ 3x

+ 3x

+ x
= t
3
e
t
, we have the characteristic equation r
3
+ 3r
2
+ 3r + 1 = 0
(r + 1)
3
= 0 r = 1, 1, 1. So x
1
= e
t
, x
2
= te
t
and
x
3
= t
2
e
t
80 CHAPTER 2
Exercise 13, is W
_
e
t
, te
t
, t
2
e
t

= 2e
3t
= 0 . Here f = t
3
e
t
,
n = 3, a
3
= 1. Variation of parameters: x = v
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
+ v
3
x
3
.
_
te
t
t
2
e
t
_
So v
1

= (1)
3+1
t
3
e
t
det
_
e
t
te
t
2te
t
t
2
e
t
_
=
1
_
t
2
e
2t
_
1 2e
3t
2t
3
e
2t
=
2
1
t
v
1
=
2
1
ln t + c
1
.
_
e
t
t
2
e
t
_
3+2
t
3
e
t
1
v
2

= (1)
det
_
e
t
2te
t
t
2
e
t
_
_
2te
2t
_
1 2e
3t
=
2t
3
e
2t
1 1
=
t
2
v
2
=
t
+ c
2
.
_
e
t
te
t
_
det
3+3
t
3
e
t
1 1
v
3

= (1)
_
e
t
e
t
te
t
_
=
_
e
2t
_
=
1 2e
3t
2t
3
e
2t
2t
3
1
v
3
=
4t
2
+ c
3
.
+
_
1 1
_
t
2
Thus x =
_
1
ln t + c
1
_
e
t
+ c
2
_
te
t
+
_

4t
2
+ c
3
e
t
2 t
x =
1
2
1
(ln t) e
t
+ c
1
e
t
+ e
t
+ c
2
te
t

1
4
e
t
+ c
3
t
2
e
t

x =
2
(ln t) e
t
+ c
1
e
t
+ c
2
te
t
+ c
3
t
2
e
t
is the general solution,
where c
1
= c
1
+ 1
1
.
4
rt

6x

+ 12x

8x
2t 3
= t
2
7
e , we have the characteristic equation r 6r
2
+ 12r 8 = 0
(r 2)
3
= 0 r = 2, 2, 2. So x
1
= e
2t
, x
2
= te
2t
and
= t
2 2t

x
3
e are homogeneous solutions. The Wronskian, using
2t 6t
7
2t
2
e Exercise 13, is W
_
e , te
2t
, t
2
e
2t

= 2e = 0 . Here f = t ,
n = 3, a
3
= 1. Variation of parameters: x = v
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
+ v
3
x
3
.
_
te
2t
t
2
e
2t
_
7
2t
det
_
e
2t
+ 2te
2t
2te
2t
+ 2t
2
e
2t
_
So v
1

= (1)
3+1
t 2 e
1 2e
6t
t 2 1
11
1
13
=
2e
7
4t
_
t
2
e
4t
_
=
2
t
2
v
1
=
13
t
2
+ c
1
.
_

e
2t
t
2
e
2t
_
2
= (1)
7
2t
det
_
2e
2t
2te
2t
+ 2t
2
e
2t
_
7
_
2te
4t
_
v

3+2
t 2
1
e
2e
=
2
t
e
2
6t 4t
9 11
2
2 2
= t v
2
=
11
t
_
+
e
c
2
2
t
.
te
2t
_
3+3
t 2 e
2t
t 2 1
7
2
v
3

= (1)
7
det
_
2e
2t
e
2t
+ 2te
2t
_
=
7
_
e
4t
_
= t
1 2e
6t
2e
4t
2
1
9
2
v
3
=
9
t + c
13
3
.
11 9
Thus x =
_
1
t + c
1
_
e
2t
+
_
2
t
2
+ c
2
_
te
2t
+
_
1
t
2
+ c
3
_
t
2
e
2t
13
2

11 9

2 2 2
x =
1
t
13
e
2t
+ c
1
e
2t 2
t
13
e
2t
+ c
2
te
2t
+
1
t
13
e
2t
+ c
3
t
2
e
2t
13 11 9
13

8 2t 2t 2t
2
x =
1287
t e + c
1
e + c
2
te
2t
+ c
3
t
2
e is the general solution.
19. Let x
1
= e
t
, x
2
= te
t
and x
3
= t
2
e
t
. The Wronskian, using Exercise
t 3t t
13, is W
_
e , te
t
, t
2
e
t

= 2e = 0 . Here f = e , n = 3, a
3
= 2.
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
+ v
3
x
3
.
_
te
t
t
2
e
t
_
det
_
e
t
+ te
t
2te
t
+ t
2
e
t
_
So v
1

= (1)
3+1
e
t
1
_
t
2 2t
_
=
1
2
t
2 1
t
2
3
e
3t
=
2t
e v
1
= + c
1
.
4e 4 12

_
_
_ _
_
e
t
t
2
e
t
_
t t
3+2
e 1
v
2

= (1)
t
det
_
e 2te
t
+ t
2
e
_
_
2te
2t
_
1 1
=
2
t v
2
=
2
4
t
2
+ c
2
.
2e
3t
=
4e
2t

_
e
t
te
t
_
3+3
t
v
3

= (1)
e
det
_
e
t
e
t
+ te
t
_
=
1
_
e
2t
_
=
1
2 2e
3t
4e
2t
4
1
v
3
= t + c
3
.
t 1 t
Thus x =
4 _
1
+ c
1
+ c
2
_
te
t
t + c
3
e
12
t
3
_
e +
_

4
t
2
+
_
4
1
_
t
2
1
t
3 t t 1
t
3 t 1
t
3 t t

x =
12
e + c
1
e
4
e + c
2
te
t
+
4
e + c
3
t
2
e
1
t
3 t t t
x =
12
e + c
1
e + c
2
te
t
+ c
3
t
2
e is the general solution.
1
2
21. Let x
1
= 1, x
2
= t and x
3
_
. The Wronskian is = t
_
1
2
1 t t
W
_
1, t, t
1 3 1
2
1
4
t
1
=
_
t
_
= = 0. 0 1
2 2
2
3
2
0 0
1
4
t
Here f = t
3
, n = 3, a
3
= t
2
.
1
x
1
+ v
2
x
2
+ v
3
x
3
.
_ _
1
2
t t
_ _
det
1
2
_
= 2t
3
1
1
t
2
3 5 1
3+1
t 1
So v
1

= (1) = 4t t
2 2
3
t
2
2 1
t
2
4
v
1
=
1
t
4
+ c
1
.
2
_ _
1
2
1 t
_ _
det
1
2
_
1
_
= 2t
2
0
1
t
2
3
2
= (1)
3+2
t
v
2
=
3
2
t
3
+ c
2
.
_
5 1
2
v

t
= 4t
2
3
t
2
2 1
t
2
4
_
1 t
det
_
0 1
_
3
3+3
t
t
2
5 5
v
3

= (1) = 4t (1) = 4t
2 2
3
1
t
2
4
7
2
8
t + c
3
. v
3
=
Thus x =
_
1
7
_
1 +
_
2
3
t
3
+ c
2
_
t +
7 1
8
t
4
+ c
1
t + c
3
t
2 2
2 7

+ c
3
t
1
2
1
1
t
4 2
t
4 8
t
4 t
2
+ c
1
+
3
+ c
2
t
7
e x =
1
t
4
is the general solution. + c
1
+ c
2
t + c
3
t
2
x =
42
Chapter Three
The Laplace Transform
3.1 DEFINITION AND BASIC PROPERTIES
1. Graph.
f (t) is not piecewise continuous because lim f (t) does not exist.
t 2
+
3. Graph.
lim f (t) = 1, lim f (t) = 0 and f (1) =

1
2
. So f (t) is not continuous
t 1

t 1
+

at t = 1, however, it is piecewise continuous because lim f (t) and
t 1

lim f (t) exist.
t 1
+
_
1, 0 t 1,
5. f (t) =
0, t > 1.
e
st
e
st
f (t) dt =
1
e
st
dt+
e
st
dt =
1 1
L [f (t)] =
_
0
_
0
_
1
0
s
|
0
=
s
(1 e
s
) .
_
t, 0 t < 1, _
7. f (t) = 2 t, 1 t 2,
_
0, t > 2
L [f (t)] =
_
e
st
f (t) dt =
_
1
te
st
dt +
_
2
(2 t) e
st
dt +
_
0 e
st
dt
0 0 1 2
=

1
s
te
st

s
1
2
e
st
0
1
+

2
s
e
st
+
1
s
te
st
+
s
1
2
e
st
1
2
=
1
s
e
s
s
1
2
e
s
+
s
1
2

2
s
e
2s
+
s
2
e
2s
+
s
1
2
e
2s
+
2
s
e
s 1
e
s
s
1
2
e
s
s
=
1
2
_
1
2e
s
+ e
2s
_
.

s
9. L [sin bt] =
_
e
st
sin btdt = lim
_
a
e
st
sin btdt. Using an integration
0
a
0
a
a
e
st
table, we get
_
e
st
sin btdt =
(s sin bt b cos bt)
s
2
+b
2
0
0
=
e
sa
(s sin ba b cos ba) +
b
s
2
+b
2
s
2
+b
2
.
_
e
sa
b
_
b
Then L [sin bt] = lim (s sin ba b cos ba) + =
s
2
+b
2
s
2
+b
2
s
2
+b
2
.
e
st e
at
e
at
1
_
e
st at
dt
e
st
e
at
dt
_
11. L [sinh at] =
_
e
st
sinh atdt =
_
dt =
_
e
_
2 2
1
0
_
1
0
1
_
1
_
s+as+
0
a
_
a
0
=
2
(L [e
at
] L [e
at
]) =
1
2 sa

s+a
=
2 (sa)(s+a)
=
s a
2
.
2
ibt
13. L [sin bt] =

_
e
st
sin btdt =
_
e
st e e
ibt
dt =
1
_
_
e
st
e
ibt
dt
_
e
st
e
ibt
dt
_
2i 2i
0 0 0 0
=
1 ibt

L
_
e
ibt
_
=
1
_
1 1
_
=
1
_
s+ibs+ib
_
2i
_
L
_
e
2i sib

s+ib 2i (sib)(s+ib)
THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM 83
b
=
2
+b
2
.
s
2t
15. L [3 cosh 2t] = 3
_
e
st e +e
2t
dt =
3
_
_
e
st
e
2t
dt +
_
e
st
e
2t
dt
_
2 2
=
3
_
L
_
e
0
3
_
1
+
1
0
_
=
3
_
s+2+
0
s2
_
=
s
2
3s
2
2t

L
_
e
2t
_
=
2 s2 s+2 2 (s2)(s+2) 4
.
17. L [5 sin 6t] = 5
6
=
30
.
s
2
+6
2
s
2
+36
19. L [t + 3] . Linearity implies L [t] + L [3] =
1
+
3
2
.
s s
s
21. L [2 + cos 5t] . Linearity implies L [2] + L [cos 5t] =
2
+ .
s s
2
+25
3t
23. L [sinh 3t] =
_
e
st e e
3t
dt =
1
_
_
e
st
e
3t
dt
_
e
st
e
3t
dt
_
2 2
1
0
1
_
1
0
1
_
1
_
s
0
+3s+3
_
3
=
2
_
L
_
e
3t

L
_
e
3t
_
=
2 s3

s+3
=
2 (s
3
3)(
=
s+3)
=
s
2
9
.
2 6
25. L
_
2e
t
+ 6e
3t

. Linearity implies 2L [e
t
] + 6L
_
e
s+1
+
s3
.
27. L [3t 1 + cosh 2t] . Note cosh 2t =
1
e
2t
+
1
e
2t
. Linearity implies
1 3 1 1 1 1 1
3L [t] L [1] +
1 2t

+
2 2
+ +
s s 2 2 s+2
=
s
3
2
1
s
+
s
2
s
2
.
L
_
e
2
L
_
e
2t

=
2

s2
29. L
_
7t
3

+ 11t + 8
4
. Linearity implies 7L
_
t
3

+ 11L [t] + L [8]
7(3!) 11 8 42 11 8
=
s
3+1
+
s
2
+
s
=
s
4
+
s
2
+
s
.
3(4!) 4(3!)
31. L
_
3t
4
+ 4t
3

. Linearity implies 3L
_
t
4

+ 4L
_
t
3

= +
s
4+1
s
3+1
=
72
5
+
24
4
.
s s
33. We apply shifting theorem L [e
ct
f (t)] = F (s c) with c = 3 and
f (t) = sin 5t, so that F (s) = L [f (t)] = L [sin 5t] =
5
s
2
+25
.
So F (s 3) =
(s3)
5
2
+25
.
ct
f (t) = cos 7t, so that F (s) = L [f (t)] = L [cos 7t] =
s
.
s
2
+49
So F (s 4) =
(s
s
4)
2
4
+49
.
ct
f (t) = sin 5t, so that F (s) = L [f (t)] = L [sin 5t] =
5
.
s
2
+25
So F (s + 3) =
(s+3)
5
2
+25
.
ct
f (t) = cos 7t, so that F (s) = L [f (t)] = L [cos 7t] =
s
s
2
+49
.
So F (s + 4) =
s+4
.
(s+4)
2
+49
ct
6!
f (t) = t
6
, so that F (s) = L [f (t)] = L
_
t
6

=
7
.
s
So F (s 2) =
(s
6!
2)
7
.
ct
6!
f (t) = t
6
, so that F (s) = L [f (t)] = L
_
t
6

=
s
7
.
So F (s + 2) =
6!
(s+2)
7
.
ct
f (t) = t
5
+ t
3
+ 1, so that F (s) = L [f (t)] = L
_
t
5

+ L
_
t
3

+ L [1]
=
s
5!
6
+
s
3!
4
+
1
s
. So F (s 3) =
(s
5!
3)
6
+
(s
6
3)
4
+
1
.
47. f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] = L
1
_
s
1

L
1
_
1
s

= t 1.
s3
2
84 CHAPTER 3
49. f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] = L
1
_
1
_
=
1
3
L
1
_
3
_
=
1
sin 3t.
s
2
+9 s
2
+3
2
3
1
51. f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] = L
1
_
1+s

= L
1
_
1
+

= L
1
_
1

+ L
1
_
1
2 2 2
s s s s s
= t + 1.
53. f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] = L
1
_
3 7
+
19
_
s

s
2
s
2
+1
= L
1
_
3

+ L
1
_
19
_
s

L
1
_
s
7
2
s
2
+1
= 3L
1
_
1

7L
1
_
1!

+ 19L
1
_
1
_
= 3 7t + 19 sin t.
s s
2
s
2
+1
55. f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] = L
1
_
3s+7
_
= L
1
_
3s
_
+ L
1
_
7
_
s
2
+16 s
2
+16 s
2
+16
= 3L
1
_
s
_
+
7
4
L
1
_
4
_
= 3 cos 4t +
7
sin 4t.
s
2
+4
2
s
2
+4
2
4
57. f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] = L
1
_
5
+
7
_
= L
1
_
5
_
+ L
1
_
7
_
s+3 s5 s+3 s5
1 1 5t
= 5L
1
_
s+3
_
+ 7L
1
_
s5
_
= 5e
3t
+ 7e .
1 1
59. f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] = L
1
_
s
6

= L
1
_
1

=
5!
L
1
_
5!

= t
5
.
2
_
2
s
6
3
_
2
s
6
5!
61. f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] = L
1
_
=
3
L
1
_
= sin 3t.
s
2
+9 s
2
+3
2
3
3 3 9! 3
t
9
63. f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] = L
1
_
s

=
9!
L
1
_
s

=
9!
.
10 9+1
3
_
_
3
_
3 1
_
65. f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] = L
1
_
2s
2
+7
= L
1
2(s
2
+
7
)
=
2
L
1
_
s
2
+
7
2 2
3
_
2
_

2
7
_
3
_
2
_
7
=
2 7
L
1
_
7
_
2
=
2 7
sin
2
t.
s
2
+
2
67. Let F (s 4) =
(s
1
4)
3
F (s) =
s
1
3
.
1 2! 1
So f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] = L
1
_
s
1
3

=
2
L
1
_
s
2+1

= t
2
.
2
Now L
1
_
1
_
= L
1
[F (s 4)] and the shifting theorem (14)
(s4)
3
with c = 4 yields L
1
[F (s 4)] = e
4t
f (t) =
1
t
2
e
4t
.
2
69. Let F (s 5) =
(s5)
F (s) =
s
=
s
(s5)
2
+9

s
2
+9 s
2
+3
2
.
s
So f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] = L
1
_ _
= cos 3t.
s
2
+3
2
Now L
1
_
(s5)
_
= L
1
[F (s 5)] and the shifting theorem
(s5)
2
+9
(14) with c = 5 yields L
1
[F (s 5)] = e
5t
f (t) = e
5t
cos 3t.
7 7 7 4
71. Let F (s 7) =
(s7)
2
+16
F (s) =
s
2
+16
=
4 s
2
+4
2
.
So f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] =
7
4
L
1
_
4
_
=
7
sin 4t.
s
2
+4
2
4
Now L
1
_
7
_
= L
1
[F (s 7)] and the shifting theorem
(s7)
2
+16
1
[F (s 7)] = e
7t
f (t) =
7
e
7t
sin 4t.
4
(s+3) s s
73. Let F (s + 3) =
(s+3)
2
+5
F (s) =
s
2
+5
=
2
+(
5)
2
.
s
s
So f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] = L
1
_ _
= cos
5t.
s
2
+(
5)
2
Now L
1
_
(s+3)
_
= L
1
[F (s + 3)] and the shifting theorem
(s+3)
2
+5
1
[F (s + 3)] = e
3t
f (t) = e
3t
cos
5t.

_
2, t = 1;
75. f (t) = .
t, t = 1.
L [f (t)] =
_
1
te
st
dt +
_
1
2e
st
dt +
_
te
st
dt
0 1 1
=

1
s
te
st

s
1
2
e
st
1
0
+ 0 + lim

1
s
te
st

s
1
2
e
st
b
1
1
e
s
s
1
2
e
s
+
1
+ lim
b
1
be
sb
s
1
2
e
sb
+
1
e
s
+
s
1
2
e
s
_
=
1
s

s
2
b
_

s

s
=
s
(since lim e
sb
= 0 and rst two terms cancel with last two).
2
b
Now L [t] =
_
te
st
dt = lim

1
s
te
st
s
1
2
e
st
b
0
0
b
b
1

1
2
e
sb 1 1
= lim
_

s
be
sb
s
+
s
_
=
s
2 2
.
77. Yes, since e
t
e
t
for t 1.
79.
_
Me
t
e
st
dt converges for s > , and f (t) e
st
Me
t
e
st
by
0
| |
assumption.
d d
_
1
_
1
81. L
_
te
5t

=
ds
_
L
_
e
5t
_
=
ds s5
=
(s5)
2
.
2
d d
_
s
_
s 25
83. L [t cos 5t] =
ds
(L [cos 5t]) =
ds s
2
+25
=
(s
2
+25)
2
.
4s(s
2
85. L
_
t
2
cos 3t

=
d
2
(L [cos 3t]) =
d
2
_
s
_
=
2s
+
9)
.
ds
2
ds
2
s
2
+9 (s
2
+9)
2
(s
2
+9)
3
87. L
_
te
5t
sin 3t

=
d
_
L
_
e
5t
sin 3t
_
=
d
_
3
_
=
6(s5)
ds ds (s5)
2
+9
[(s5)
2
+9]
2
.
d d
_
s+4
_
(s+4)
2
25
89. L
_
te
4t
cos 5t

=
ds
_
L
_
e
4t
cos 5t
_
=
ds (s+4)
2
+25
=
[(s+4)
2
+25]
2
.
91. The derivative theorem for higher powers of t is L [t
n
e
at
] =
(sa
n
)
!
n+1
.
So L
1
_
(sa
n
)
!
n+1
_
= t
n
e
at
.
1
_
1 5!
_
1
t
5
e
3t
Thus L
1
_
=
5!
L
1
_
(s+3)
5+1
=
5!
.
(s+3)
6
93. L
1
_
5s
_
=
6
5
L
1
_
6s
_
=
6
5
L
1
_
d
_
3
__
=
5
t sin 3t.
(s+9)
2
s
2
+9

ds s
2
+9 6
2
95. L
1
_
s 9
_
= L
1
_
d
_
s
__
= t cos 3t.
(s
2
+9)
2

ds s
2
+9
2
97. L
1
_
5
_
=
5 1 s 9
_
(s
2
+9)
2
18
L
1
_
(s
2
+9)

(s
2
+9)
2
2
5 3 s 9
_
=
18
L
1
_
1
3 (s
2
+9)

(s
2
+9)
2
=
5
_
3
1
L
1
_
3
_
L
1
_

d
_
s
___
18 (s
2
+9) ds s
2
+9
=
5
_
1
sin 3t t cos 3t

.
99. L
1
18
_
2
3
s+1
_
= L
1
_
1
+
2s
_
(s
2
+1)
2
(s
2
+1)
2
(s
2
+1)
2
= L
1
_
1 2
+
2s
_
2 (s
2
+1)
2
(s
2
+1)
2
2
=
2
1
L
1
_
1 s 1
_
+ L
1
_
2s
_
(s
2
+1)

(s
2
+1)
2
(s
2
+1)
2
=
1
_
L
1
_
1
_
L
1
_

d
_
s
___
+ L
1
_

d
_
1
__
2 (s
2
+1) ds s
2
+1 ds s
2
+1
=
1
(sin t t cos t) + t sin t.
2
86 CHAPTER 3
101. L [f (ct)] =
_
e
st
f (ct) dt. Let u = ct
1
u = t and
1
du = dt.
c c
0

s
c
Then this integral becomes
1
c
_
e
u
f (u) du =
1
c
F
_
s
c
_
, since
0
L [f (t)] =
_
e
st
f (t) dt = F (s) .
0
1
103. Using (T2), F (s) = L [f (t)] = L [e
at
] = = (s a)
1
. So
sa
F

(s) = (s a)
2
= (1)
1
(s
1!
a)
2
2!
F

(s) = (2) (s a)
3
= (1)
2
(sa)
3
F

(s) = (2) (3) (s a)
4
= (1)
3
(s
3!
a)
4
F

(s) = (2) (3) (4) (s a)
5
= (1)
4
(s
4!
a)
5
... ... ... ...
n
n!
F
(n)
(s) = (2) (3) (4) ... (n) (s a)
(n+1)
= (1)
(sa)
(n+1)
.
Now using Exercise 102, L [t
n
f (t)] = (1)
n
F
(n)
(s) , we have
L [t
n
e
at
] = (1)
n
(1)
n
(sa
n
)
(
!
n+1)
=
(sa
n
)
(
!
n+1)
.
3.2 INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORMS (ROOTS,
QUADRATICS, & PARTIAL FRACTIONS)
1 1 A B
1. Using partial fractions,
s 9
=
(s3)(s+3)
=
s3
+
s+3
. Multiplying by
2
the
denominator gives 1 = A (s + 3) + B (s 3) . Letting s = 3 and 3
in this equation gives A =
6
1
, B =
6
1
.
1
_ _
1 1
__
1
_
1
_
1
__
2
Thus L
1
_
s 9
= L
1
_
1
6 s3

s+3
=
6
L
1
_
s3
L
1
_
s3
1 3t
6
3. L
=
1
_
5
_
s
e
1
_

=
e
L
3
t
_
1
.
_
5s
_
1
_
= 5L
1
_
s
_

1
7
L
1
_
7
_
s
2
+7 s
2
+7
L
1
_
s
2
+7 s
2
+7

s
2
+(
7)
2
1
= 5 cos
7t sin
7t.
7
s+2 s+2 A B
s
2
1
=
(s1)(s+1)
=
s1
+
s+1
. Multiplying by
the denominator gives s + 2 = A (s + 1) + B (s 1) . Letting s = 1
and 1 in this equation gives A =
3
2
, B =
1
2
.
Thus L
1
_
s+2
_
=
2
3
L
1
_
1
_
2
1
L
1
_
1
_
=
3
e
t 1
e
t
.
s
2
1 s1

s+1 2

2
2s1 A B
2
s
s1
=
s(s1)
=
s
+ . Multiplying by
2
s s1
the denominator gives 2s 1 = A (s 1) + Bs. Letting s = 0
and 1 in this equation gives A = 1, and B = 1. Thus
2s1 1 1
s
2
s
=
s
+
s1
.
So L
1
_
2s1
_
= L
1
_
1

+ L
1
_
1
_
= 1 + e
t
.
s
2
s s s1
s1 s1 A B
s
2
+s2
=
(s1)(s+2)
=
s1
+
s+2
. Multiplying
by the denominator gives s 1 = A (s + 2) + B (s 1) . Letting
s = 1 and 2 in this equation gives A =
2
3
, B =
1
3
.
Thus L
1
_
s1
_
3
2
L
1
_
1
_
3
1
L
1
_
1
_
2
e
t 1
e
2t
.
s
2
+s2
=
s1

s+2
=
3

3
4
=
4
=
A
+
B
. Multiplying
s
2
+s6 (s2)(s+3) s2 s+3
by the denominator gives 4 = A (s + 3) + B (s 2) . Letting s = 2
5
4
, B =
5
4
.
4
_
4
_
1
_
1
__
4 2t
Thus L
1
_
s
2
+s6
=
5
L
1
_
s2
L
1
_
s+3
=
5
_
e e
3t
_
.
s s (s1)+1
13.
2s+26
=
(s1)
2
+25
=
(s1)
2
+5
2
. Replacing s 1 by s, we compute
s
2
that L
1
_
s+1
_
= L
1
_
s
_
+
5
1
L
1
_
5
_
= cos 5t +
1
sin 5t.
s
2
+5
2
s
2
+5
2
s
2
+5
2
5
Thus by the shifting theorem (T16) with c = 1, we have
f (t) = L
1
_
s
2
2
s
s+26
_
= e
t
_
cos 5t +
5
1
sin 5t
_
.
2s+5 2s+5 2(s3)+11
15.
s 6s+18
=
(s3)
2
+9 (s3)
2
+3
2
. Replacing s 3 by s, we compute
2
=
s
_
11 3 11
that L
1
_
2s+11
_
= 2L
1
_
+
3
L
1
_ _
= 2 cos 3t+ sin 3t.
s
2
+3
2
s
2
+3
2
s
2
+3
2
3
2s+5 11
f (t) = L
1
_
s
2
6s+18
_
= 2e
3t
cos 3t +
3
e
3t
sin 3t.
3s2 3s2 3(s+5)17
17.
s
2
+10s+26
=
(s+5)
2
+1
=
(s+5)
2
+1
2
. Replacing s + 5 by s, we compute
that L
1
_
3s17
_
= 3L
1
_
s
_
17L
1
_
1
_
= 3 cos t 17 sin t.
s
2
+1
2
s
2
+1
2
s
2
+1
2
2s+5
f (t) = L
1
_
s
2
6s+18
_
= 3e
5t
cos t 17e
5t
sin t.
s s A B
s
2
5s+6
=
(s2)(s3)
=
s2
+
s3
. Multiplying
by the denominator gives s = A (s 3) + B (s 2) . Letting s = 2
and 3 in this equation gives A = 2, B = 3.
Thus L
1
_
s
_ _
L
1
_
1
_
+ 3L
1
_
1
__
= 3e
3t 2t
2
.
s 5s+6
= 2
s2 s3
2e
1
=
1
=
A
+
B
+
C
.
s
3
3s
2
+2s s(s1)(s2) s s1 s2
Multiplying by the denominator gives
1 = A (s 1) (s 2) + Bs (s 2) + Cs (s 1) . Letting s = 0, 1
1
, B = 1, C =
1
.
Thus L
1
_
1
_
=
1
_
L
1
_
2
1

L
1
_
1
__
2
+
1
2
L
1
_
1
_
s
3
3s
2
+2s 2 s s1 s2
1 t 1 2t
=
2
e +
2
e .
s
2
2 s
2
2 A B C
s
3
+8s
2
+7s
=
s(s+1)(s+7)
=
s
+
s+1
+
s+7
.
s
2
2 = A (s + 1) (s + 7) + Bs (s + 7) + Cs (s + 1) . Letting s = 0,
1 and 7 in this equation gives A =
2
, B =
1
, C =
47
.
7 6 42
2
s 2
_
2
_

+
1 1
__
47 1
_
Thus L
1
_
s
3
+8s
2
+7s
=
7
L
1
_
1
s 6
L
1
_
s+1
+
42
L
1
_
s+7
2
+
1
e
t
+
47
e
7t
. =
7 6 42
s+3 s+3 A B C
s s
=
s(s1)(s+1)
=
s
+
s1
+
s+1
.
3
s + 3 = A (s 1) (s + 1) + Bs (s + 1) + Cs (s 1) . Letting s = 0, 1
88 CHAPTER 3
and 1 in this equation gives A = 3, B = 2, C = 1.
Thus L
1
_
s+3
_ _
L
1
_
1

+ 2L
1
_
1
__
1
_
s
3
s
= 3
s s1
+ L
1
_
s+1
= 3 + 2e
t
+ e
t
.
2s+1 2s+1 A Bs+C
s
3
+4s
2
+13s
=
s(s
2
+4s+13)
=
s
+
s
2
+4s+13
.
2s+1 = A
_
s
2
+ 4s + 13
_
+(Bs + C) s = As
2
+4As+13A+Bs
2
+Cs.
Letting s = 0 in this equation gives A =
1
. Equating the coecients:
13
2 1
s : 0 = A + B B = A =
13

4 22
s : 2 = 4A + C C = 2 = .
13 13
Thus
2s+1
=
1 1 s22
=
1 1 (s+2)24
s
3
+4s
2
+13s 13s

13 s
2
+4s+13 13s

13 (s+2)
2
+3
2
1 1
_
(s+2) 3
_
=
13s

13 (s+2)
2
+3
2
8
(s+2)
2
+3
2
.
Now applying the shifting theorem (T16) with c = 2 in the second
and third terms, we have
L
1
_
2s+1
_
=
1 1
e
2t
(cos 3t 8 sin 3t) .
s
3
+4s
2
+13s 13

13
s
2
3
=
s
2
3
=
A
+
Bs+C
.
s
3
+2s
2
+26s s(s
2
+2s+26) s s
2
+2s+26
2
s 3 = A
_
s
2
+ 2s + 26
_
+(Bs + C) s = As
2
+2As+26A+Bs
2
+Cs.
3
26
. Equating the
coecients:
s
2
: 1 = A + B B = 1 +
3
=
29

26 26
2
s : 0 = 2A + C C = 2A =
3
13
.
Thus
s 3 3
+
1 29s+6 3
+
1 29(s+1)23
s
3
+2s
2
+26s
=
26s 26 s
2
+2s+26
=
26s 26 (s+1)
2
+5
2
3
+
1
_
29
(s+1) 23 5
_
. =
26s 26 (s+1)
2
+5
2

5 (s+1)
2
+5
2
2
L
1
_
s 3
_
3
+
1
e
t
_
29 cos 5t
23
sin 5t
_
.
s
3
+2s
2
+26s
=
26 26 5
s8 A Bs+C
(s5)(s
2
+4)
=
s5
+
s
2
+4
. Multiplying by the
denominator gives s 8 = A
_
s
2
+ 4
_
+ (Bs + C) (s 5)
s 8 = As
2
+ 4A + Bs
2
+ (C 5B) s 5C.

3
. Equating the
29
coecients:
s
2
: 0 = A + B B = A =
3
s : 1 = C 5B

C = 1 +
15
29
=
44
.
So
s8 3 1
+
1 3s+44

29 29
(s5)(s
2
+4)
=
29 s5 29 s
2
+4
3 1
+
1
_
3
s
+ 22
2
_
. Thus =
29 s5 29 s
2
+2
2
s
2
+2
2
s8
_
3 5t 1
L
1
_
(s5)(s
2
+4)
=
29
e +
29
(3 cos 2t + 22 sin 2t) .
s
2
=
A
+
Bs+C
.
(s3)(s
2
2s+26) s3 s
2
2s+26
2 2
s = A
_
s 2s + 26
_
+ (Bs + C) (s 3)
2

s = As
2
2As + 26A + Bs
2
+ (C 3B) s 3C.
89 THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM
9
. Equating the
29
coecients:
s
2
: 1 = A + B B = 1
9
=
20
29 29

26A 78
2
1 : 0 = 26A 3C C = = .
3 29
Thus
s
=
9 1
+
1 20s+78
=
9 1
+
2 10(s1)+49
(s3)(s
2
2s+26) 29 s3 29 s
2
2s+26 29 s3 29 (s1)
2
+5
2
=
9 1
+
2
_
10
(s1)
+
49 5
_
.
29 s3 29 (s1)
2
+5
2
5 (s1)
2
+5
2
2
s
_
=
9
e
3t
+
2
e
t
_
10 cos 5t +
49
sin 5t
_
.
2
L
1
_
(s3)(s 2s+26) 29 29 5
s
3
1 s
3
1 As+B Cs+D
s
4
+10s
2
+9
=
(s
2
+9)(s
2
+1)
=
s
2
+9
+
s
2
+1
.
3
s 1 = (As + B)
_
s
2
+ 1
_
+ (Cs + D)
_
s
2
+ 9
_
s
3
1 = (A + C) s
3
+ (B + D) s
2
+ (A + 9C) s +
B + 9D.
Equating the coecients:
s
3
: 1 = A + C
s
2
: 0 = B + D
s : 0 = A + 9C
1 : 1 = B + 9D
Subtracting the rst from the third we get, 8C C
1
.
9
= 1 =
8
Then from the third, A = 9C =
8
. Subtracting the second from
the fourth we get, 8D = 1 D =
1
. Then from the second,
1

8
B = D =
8
.
s 1
_
9s+1 s+1
_
1
_
9s+1 s+1
_
So
3
1
= =
s
4
+10s
2
+9 8 s
2
+9

s
2
+1 8 s
2
+3
2

s
2
+1
2
1
_
9
s 1 3 s 1
_
= + . Thus
8 s
2
+3
2
3 s
2
+3
2

s
2
+1
2

s
2
+1
2
3
L
1
_
s 1
_
=
1
_
9 cos 3t +
1
sin 3t cos t sin t
_
.
s
4
+10s
2
+9 8 3
3 3 3
s s s
s
4
5s
2
+4
=
(s
2
1)(s
2
4)
=
(s1)(s+1)(s2)(s+2)
A B C D
=
s1
+
s+1
+
s2
+
s+2
. Multiplying by the denominator gives
s
3
= A (s + 1) (s 2) (s + 2) + B (s 1) (s 2) (s + 2)
+C (s 1) (s + 1) (s + 2) + D (s 1) (s + 1) (s 2) .
Letting s = 1, 1, 2 and 2 in this equation gives A =
6
1
, B =
6
1
,
C =
2
3
, D =
2
3
.
3
s 1
_
1 1
_
2
_
1 1
_
So
s 5s
2
+4
=
6 s1
+
s+1
+
3 s2
+
s+2
. Thus
4
3
L
1
_
s
s
2
+4
_
=
6
1
(e
t
+ e
t
) +
2
3
_
e
2t
+ e
2t
_
.
4
5s
s
=
s
=
s
s
4
16 (s
2
4)(s
2
+4) (s2)(s+2)(s
2
+4)
=
A
+
B
+
Cs+D
s2 s+2 s
2
+4
s = A (s + 2)
_
s
2
+ 4
_
+B (s 2)
_
s
2
+ 4
_
+(Cs + D) (s 2) (s + 2)
s = (A + B + C) s
3
+ (2A 2B + D) s
2
+ (4A + 4B 4C) s + 8A
+8B 4D.
Letting s = 2 and 2 in this equation gives A =
1
, B =
1
.
16 16
90 CHAPTER 3
s
3
: 0 = A + B + C C
1 1 1
2
=
16

16
=
8
s : 0 = 2A 2B + D D = 0
s 1
_
1 1
_
1 s
So
s 16
=
16 s2
+
s+2

8 s
2
+4
. Thus
4
L
1
_
4
s
_
=
1
_
e
2t
+ e
2t
_

1
cos 2t.
s 16 16 8
n
e
at
] =
(sa
n
)
!
n+1
.
So L
1
_
(sa
n
)
!
n+1
_
= t
n
e
at
.
Thus using a = 3 and n = 5 we get
L
1
_
4
_
=
4 5!
_
=
4
t
5
e
3t
=
1
t
5
e
3t
.
(s+3)
6
5!
L
1
_
(s+3)
5+1
5! 30
n
e
at
] =
(sa
n
)
!
n+1
.
So L
1
_
(sa
n
)
!
n+1
_
= t
n
e
at
. Thus using a =
1
and n = 4 we get
3
1
4
_
_
4
_
4
_
4!
_
1 t
3
L
1
_
(3s+1)
5
= L
1
3
5
(s+
1
)
5
=
4!3
5
L
1
(s+
1
)
=
3!3
5
t
4
e

.
4+1
3 3
s
2
A B C D
(s+3)
2
(s3)
2
=
s+3
+
(s+3)
2
+
s3
+
(s3)
2
.
s
2
= A (s + 3) (s 3)
2
+ B (s 3)
2
+ C (s 3) (s + 3)
2
+ D (s + 3)
2
Letting s = 3 and 3 in this equation gives D =
1
, B =
1
.
4 4
s
3
: 0 = A + C
s
2
: 1 =
1
3A + B + D + 3C 1
1
4

1
4
= 3A + 3C

6
= A + C
Adding them we get, C =
1
and then A = C
1
.
12
=
12
s
2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
So
(s+3)
2
(s3)
2
=
12 s+3
+
4 (s+3)
2
+
12 s3
+
4 (s3)
2
. Thus
2
s
_
1 1 1 3t 1
L
1
_
(s+3)
2
(s3)
2
=
12
e
3t
+
4
te
3t
+
12
e +
4
te
3t
= e
3t
_
1 1
_
+ e
3t
_
1
t +
1
_
.
4
t
12 4 12
s
=
A
+
B
+
Cs+D
.
(s+1)
2
(s
2
+1) s+1 (s+1)
2
s
2
+1
2
s = A (s + 1)
_
s
2
+ 1
_
+ B
_
s
2
+ 1
_
+ (Cs + D) (s + 1)
Letting s = 1 in this equation gives B =
1
2
.
s
3
: 0 = A + C
s
2
: 0 = A + B + 2C + D
s : 1 = A + C + 2D
1 : 0 = A + B + D
Substituting A + C = 0 (rst equation) into the third equation
we get, D =
2
1
and then the last equation gives A = 0
(since B =
2
1
). Finally, the rst equation yields C = 0
(since A = 0).
s 1 1 1 1
So
(s+1)
2
(s
2
+1)
=
2 (s+1)
2
+
2 s
2
+1
.
Thus L
1
_
(s+1)
2
s
(s
2
+1)
_
=
2
1
te
t
+
2
1
sin t.
s+5
=
A
+
B
+
C
+
D
(s+1)(s1)
3
s+1 s1 (s1)
2
(s1)
3
.
3 2
s +5 = A (s 1) + B (s 1) (s + 1) + C (s 1) (s + 1) + D (s + 1)
Letting s = 1 and 1 in this equation gives D = 3, A =
1
.
2
s
3
: 0 = A + B B = A =
2
1
2

1 3
s : 0 = 3A B + C C = = 1
2
s+5 1 1 1 1

2
So
(s+1)(s1)
3
=
2 s+1
+
2 s1

(s
1
1)
2
+ 3
(s
1
1)
3
. Thus
s+5
_
1 1 t 3
t
2 t 1 t
_
1 3
t
2
_
. L
1
_
(s+1)(s1)
3
=
2
e
t
+
2
e te
t
+
2
e =
2
e
t
+e
2
t +
2
s
2
s As+B Cs+D
(s
2
+4)
2
=
s
2
+4
+
(s
2
+4)
2
.
2
s s = (As + B)
_
s
2
+ 4
_
+Cs+D = As
3
+Bs
2
+(4A + C) s+4B+D
s
3
: 0 = A
s
2
: 1 = B
s : 1 = 4A + C C = 1
1 : 0 = 4B + D D = 4B
2
s 1 s+4
1 s
= 4
4
So
s
= =
(s
2
+4)
2
s
2
+4

(s
2
+4)
2
s
2
+4

(s
2
+4)
2

(s
2
+4)
2
1 2 1 2 2 s 1 2 2
2
=

2
s
2 s
2
_
+2
2
1

4 (s
2
+2
2
1
)
2

2 (s
2
+2
1
2
_
)
2
1
.
Thus L
1
_
s
= sin 2t t sin 2t sin 2t t cos 2t
_
(s
2
+4)
2
2 4 2 2
=
1
sin 2t
1
t sin 2t +
1
t cos 2t.
4 4 2
s
3
1
=
As+B
+
Cs+D
(s
2
+9)
2
s
2
+9 (s
2
+9)
2
.
3
s 1 = (As + B)
_
s
2
+ 9
_
+Cs+D = As
3
+Bs
2
+(9A + C) s+9B+D
s
3
: 1 = A
s
2
: 0 = B
s : 0 = 9A + C C = 9A = 9
So
s 1
1 :
=
s
1 = 9
9s
B
+1
+ D
=
s
D = 1
9s 1
3
(s
2
+9)
2
s
2
+9

(s
2
+9)
2
s
2
+3
2

(s
2
+3
2
)
2

(s
2
+3
2
)
2
s 3 2 3 s 1 2 3
2
=

s
2
+3
2

2 (s
2
+3
2
)
2

18 (s
2
+3
2
)
2
.
3
s 3 1
_
1
Thus L
1
_
1
_
= cos 3t t sin 3t sin 3t t cos 3t
_
.
(s
2
+9)
2
2 18 3
s
3
s
2
=
As+B
+
Cs+D
(s
2
+36)
2
s
2
+36 (s
2
+36)
2
.
3
s s
2
= (As + B)
_
s
2
+ 36
_
+ Cs + D = As
3
+ Bs
2
+ (36A + C) s
+36B + D
s
3
: 1 = A
s
2
: 1 = B
s : 0 = 36A + C C = 36A = 36
1 : 0 = 36B + D D = 36B = 36
3 2
So
s s
=
s1 36s36
=

s 1 36s
+
36
(s
2
+36)
2
s
2
+36

(s
2
+36)
2
s
2
+6
2

s
2
+6
2

(s
2
+6
2
)
2
(s
2
+6
2
)
2
92 CHAPTER 3
s 1 6 2 6 s 1 2 6
2
=

+
s
2
+6
2
6 s
2
+6
2
3
(s
2
+6
2
)
2
2 (s
2
+6
2
)
2
.
3 2
s 1 1
_
1
Thus L
1
_
s
_
= cos 6t sin 6t3t sin 6t+ sin 6t t cos 6t
_
(s
2
+36)
2
6 2 6
= cos 6t
1
sin 6t 3t sin 6t
1
t cos 6t.
12 2
(3s+3)4 3(s+1) 4
(s
2
+2s+26)
2 2 2 2
57.
3s1
=
[(s+1)
2
+5
2
]
=
[(s+1)
2
+5
2
]

[(s+1)
2
+5
2
]
3 2 5(s+1) 2 2.5
2
=
2
.
2
10
[(s+1)
2
+5
2
]

25
[(s+1)
2
+5
2
]
Thus L
1
_
3s1
_
=
3
te
t
sin 5t
2
_
1
e
t
(sin 5t 5t cos 5t)

(s
2
+2s+26)
2
10 25 5
3 2
= te
t
sin 5t e
t
_
1
sin 5t t cos 5t
_
.
10 25 5
s
2
As+B Cs+D
(s
2
+6s+25)
2
=
s
2
+6s+25
+
(s
2
+6s+25)
2
.
s
2
= (As + B)
_
s
2
+ 6s + 25
_
+ Cs + D
= As
3
+ (6A + B) s
2
+ (25A + 6B + C) s + 25B + D
s
3
: 0 = A
s
2
: 1 = 6A + B B = 1
s : 0 = 25A + 6B + C C = 6
1 : 0 = 25B + D D = 25
2
s 1 6s
+25
So =
(s
2
+6s+25)
2
s
2
+6s+25

(s
2
+6s+25)
2
1 6s+18 7
=
(s+3)
2
+4
2

[(s+3)
2
+4
2
]
2

[(s+3)
2
+4
2
]
2
1 4 3 2 4 (s+3) 7 2 4
2
=

2
.
4 (s+3)
2
+4
2

4
[(s+3)
2
+4
2
]
2

32
[(s+3)
2
+4
2
]
2
Thus L
1
_
s
_
=
1
e
3t
sin 4t
3
te
3t
sin 4t
7
_
1
e
3t
(sin 4t 4t cos 4t)

(s
2
+6s+25)
2
4 4 32 4
=
1
e
3t
sin 4t
3
te
3t
sin 4t
7
e
3t
_
1
sin 4t t cos 4t
_
.
4 4 32 4
s+5
=
A
+
B
+
C
+
D
(s+1)(s1)
3
s+1 s1 (s1)
2
(s1)
3
.
3 2
s +5 = A (s 1) + B (s 1) (s + 1) + C (s 1) (s + 1) + D (s + 1)
Letting s = 1 and 1 in this equation gives D = 3, A =
1
2
.
s
3
: 0 = A + B B = A =
2
1

s
2
: 0 = 3A B + C C =
1 3
s+5 1 1 1 1

2

2
= 1
So
(s+1)(s1)
3
=
2 s+1
+
2 s1

(s
1
1)
2
+ 3
(s
1
1)
3
. Thus
s+5
_
1 1 t 3 t 1 3
L
1
_
(s+1)(s1)
3
=
2
e
t
+
2
e te
t
+
2
t
2
e =
2
e
t
+e
t
_
1
2
t +
2
t
2
_
.
12 A B C D E F G
s(s8)
6
=
s
+
s8
+
(s8)
2
+
(s8)
3
+
(s8)
4
+
(s8)
5
+
(s8)
6
.
6 5 4 3
12 = A (s 8) + Bs (s 8) + Cs (s 8) + Ds (s 8)
2
+Es (s 8) + Fs (s 8) + Gs
12 3
Letting s = 0 and 8 in this equation gives A =
8
6
, G =
2
.
s
6
: 0 = A + B B
12
5
= A =
8
6
12
s : 0 = 48A 40B + C C =
8
5
s
4
3
: 0 = 960A + 640B 32C + D D =
12
8
4
12
s : 0 = 10240A5120B +384C 24D +E E =
s
2
: 0 = 61440A + 20480B 2048C + 192D
16E +
8
F
3
F
12
=
8
2
12 12 1
12 1 12 1 12 1 12 1 12 1
So =
8
6
8
6
+
8
5
8
4
+
8
3
8
2
s(s8)
6
s

s8 (s8)
2

(s8)
3
(s8)
4

(s8)
5
3 1
+
2 (s8)
6
12 1 12 1 12 1! 12 1 2! 12 1 3!
=
8
6
s

8
6
s8
+
8
5
(s8)
1+1

8
4
2! (s8)
2+1
+
8
3
3! (s8)
3+1
12 1 4! 3 1 5!

8
2
(s8)
4+1
+
(s8)
5+1
.
4! 2 5!
Thus
12
_
12 12 8t 12
L
1
_
s(s8)
6
=
8
6
e +
8
5
te
8t
8
6
4096 512 128 240
12 12 12 3 1 1 1
= + e
8t
_

+
6
t
2
e
8t
+
2
t
2
t
3
+
e
8t
t
3
1
t
4
e
8
t
t
4
+
+
3
t
t
5
5
_
e
8
.
t
8
6
8
6
8
5
t
2048 256 128 80
s+5 A

B C D
(s+1)
2
(s1)
2
=
s+1
+
(s+1)
2
+
s1
+
(s1)
2
.
2 2 2 2
s+5 = A (s + 1) (s 1) +B (s 1) +C (s 1) (s + 1) +D (s + 1)
Letting s = 1 and 1 in this equation gives D =
3
, B = 1.
2
s
3
: 0 = A + C
s
2
: 0 = A + B + C + D
5 3
= A + C (since D = , B = 1)
2 2
s : 1 = A 2B C + 2D
1 : 5 = A + B C + D
Adding these equations we get, C =
4
5
and then A = C =
4
5
.
s+5 5 1 1 5 1 3 1
So
(s+1)
2
(s1)
2
=
4 s+1
+
(s+1)
2

4 s1
+
2 (s1)
2
. Thus
s+5
_
=
5
e
t
+ te
t 5
e
t
+
3
te
t
5 3
L
1
_
(s+1)
2
(s1)
2
= e
4
t
_
5
+ t
_
+

e
t
4
_
+
2
t
_
.
4 4 2
s As+B C D E F
(s
2
+1)(s7)
4
=
s
2
+1
+
s7
+
(s7)
2
+
(s7)
3
+
(s7)
4
.
4 3 2
s = (As + B) (s 7) + C
_
s
2
+ 1
_
(s 7) + D
_
s
2
+ 1
_
(s 7)
+E
_
s
2
+ 1
_
(s 7) + F
_
s
2
+ 1
_
Letting s = 7 in this equation gives F =
7
.
50
s
5
: 0 = A + C
s
4
: 0 = 28A + B 21C + D
s
3
: 0 = 294A 28B + 148C 14D + E
s
2
: 0 = 1372A 294B 364C + 50D 7E + F
s : 1 = 2401A 1372B + 147C 14D + E
1 : 0 = 2401B 343C + 49D 7E + F
Note this is a system of 6 equations with 5 unknowns as we know F.
So the system considering 5 equations (excluding the fourth one, for
example) with 5 unknowns can be solved (by using Maple, for
example) to get
94 CHAPTER 3
A =
527
, B =
84
, C =
527
, D =
161
, E =
12
.
1562500 390625 1562500 62500 625
s 527s336 1 527 1 161 1 12 1
So
(s
2
+1)(s7)
4
=
1562500 s
2
+1

1562500 s7
+
62500 (s7)
2

625 (s7)
3
7 1
+
50 (s7)
4
527 s 84 1 527 1 161 1
=
1562500 s
2
+1

390625 s
2
+1

1562500 s7
+
62500 (s7)
2
12 2! 7 3!
625(2!) 50(3!) (s7)
2+1
+
(s7)
3+1
.
Thus L
1
_
s

_
=
527
cos t
84
sin t
527
e
7t
(s
2
+1)(s7)
4
1562500 390625 1562500
+
161
te
7t 6
t
2
e
7t
+
7
t
3
e
7t
62500 625 300
1

7t
_
7(15625)
t
3
__
=
_
527 cos t 336 sin t + e 527 + 4025t 15000t
2
+ .
1562500 3
3.3 INITIAL-VALUE PROBLEMS FOR DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS
1. Taking the Laplace transform of both sides of y

4y = 1 we get,
L [y
] 4L [y] = L [1] s
2
Y (
2
s) sy (0) y

(0) 4Y (s) =
1
s
s
2
Y (s) 1 4Y (s) =
1
_
s 4
_
Y (s) =
1
+ 1
s s
1+s

Y (s) =
s(s 4)
. Using partial fractions,
2
Y (s) =
1+s
=
1
=
A
+
B
+
C
.
s(s
2
4) s(s2)(s+2) s s2 s+2
1 + s = A (s + 2) (s 2) + Bs (s + 2) + Cs (s 2) . Letting s = 0, 2
4
1
, B =
8
3
and C =
8
1
.
Thus Y (s) =
1 1
+
3 1 1 1
.
4 s 8 8 s+2
So L
1
[Y (s)] =
1
4
L
s
1
_
2
1

+
3
8
L
1
_
1
_
1
8
L
1
_
1
_
s s+2 s2

y (t) =
1
+
3
e
2t

1
e
2t
.
4 8 8

+ 3y

4y = 0
we get, L [y
] + 3L [y
] 4L [y] = 0
s
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) + 3sY (s) 3

y (0) 4Y (s) = 0
s
2
Y (s) s 1 + 3sY (s) 3 4Y (s) = 0
s+4

s+4 1
_
s
2
+ 3s 4
_
Y (s) = s + 4 Y (s) =
s
2
+3s4
=
(s+4)(s1)
=
s1
.
So L
1
[Y (s)] = L
1
_
1
_
y (t) = e
t
.
s1

+5y

+6y = 1 we get,
L [y
] + 5L [y
] + 6L [y] = L [1]
s
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) + 5sY (s
) 5y (0) + 6Y (s) =
1
s
s
2
Y (s) s 1 + 5sY (s) 5 + 6Y (s) =
1

s +6s+1 s
2
+6s+1
_
s
2
+ 5s + 6
_
Y (s) =
1
+ s + 6 Y (s) =
s
2
= .
s

s(s
2
+5s+6) s(s+2)(s+3)
s
2
+6s+1 A B C
Using partial fractions, Y (s) =
s(s+2)(s+3)
=
s
+
s+2
+
s+3
.
s
2
+ 6s + 1 = A (s + 3) (s + 2) + Bs (s + 3) + Cs (s + 2) .
Letting s = 0, 2 and 3 in this equation gives A =
1
, B =
7
and
6 2
8 1 7 1 8 1
C =
3
. Thus Y (s) =
1
6 s
+
2 s+2

3 s+3
7 1
_
8 1
_
So L
1
[Y (s)] =
1
6
L
1
_
s
1

+
2
L
1
_
s+2

3
L
1
_
s+3
y (t) =
1
+
7
e
2t

8
e
3t
.
6 2 3

3y

+ 2y = 1
we get, L [y
] 3L [y
] + 2L [y] = L [1]
s
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) 3sY (s) + 3y (0) + 2Y (s) =
1
s
2
Y (s) 1 3sY (s) + 2Y (s) =
1
s

2

s+1 s+1
_
s 3s + 2
_
Y (s) =
1
s
+ 1 Y (
s
s) =
s(s
2
3s+2)
=
s(s2)(s1)
.
s+1 A B C
s(s2)(s1)
=
s
+
s2
+
s1
.
s + 1 = A (s 1) (s 2) + Bs (s 1) + Cs (s 2) .
Letting s = 0, 1 and 2 in this equation gives A =
1
2
, B =
3
2
and
1 3 1 1
C = 2. Thus Y (s) =
1
+
s2
2
s1
So L
1
[Y (s)] =
1
2
L
1
_
2
1
s

+
2
3
2
L
1
_
1
_
2L
1
_
1
_
s s2 s1
y (t) =
2
1
+
2
3
e
2t
2e
t
.

+ 9y = e
t
we get,
L [y
] + 9L [y] = L [e
t
] s
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) + 9Y (s) =
1

1 1
s+1
s
2
Y (s) s 2 + 9Y (s) =
_
s
2
+ 9
_
Y (s) = + s + 2
s+1

s+1

Y (s) =
s
2
+3s+3
(s+1)(s
2
+9)
Y (s) =
s
2
+3s+3
=
A
+
Bs+C
.
(s+1)(s
2
+9) s+1 s
2
+9
s
2
+ 3s + 3 = A
_
s
2
+ 9
_
+ (Bs + C) (s + 1) . Letting s = 1 in this
equation gives A =
1
10
.
s
2
: 1 = A + B B = 1 A =
9
.
10
9 21
s : 3 = B + C C = 3 B = 3 =
Thus Y (s) =
1 1
+
9 s
+
21 1
10 10
.
10 s+1 10 s
2
+9 10 s
2
+9
1 1 9 s 21 1 3
=
10 s+1
+
10 s
2
+3
2
+
10 3 s
2
+3
2
.
So L
1
[Y (s)] =
1 1
_
+
9 s
_
+
7 3
_
10
L
1
_
s+1 10
L
1
_
s
2
+3
2
10
L
1
_
s
2
+3
2
y (t) =
1
e
t
+
9
cos 3t +
7
sin 3t.
10 10 10

+ 4y

+ 13y = 2
we get, L [y
] + 4L [y
] + 13L [y] = L [2]

s
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) + 4sY (s) 4y (0) + 13Y (s) =
2
s
2
Y (s) s + 4sY (s) 4 + 13Y (s) =
2
s

s
2
+4s+2
_
s
2
+ 4s + 13
_
Y (s) =
s
2
+ s + 4 Y (
s
s) =
s(s
2
+4s+13)
.
s
2
+4s+2
=
A
+
Bs+C
.
s(s
2
+4s+13) s s
2
+4s+13
s
2
+ 4s + 2 = A
_
s
2
+ 4s + 13
_
+ (Bs + C) s.
2
13
.
s
2
: 1 = A + B B = 1 A =
11
.
13
8 44
s : 4 = 4A + C C = 4 4A = 4
13
=
13
.
96 CHAPTER 3
Thus Y (s) =
2 1
+
1 11s+44
=
2 1
+
1 11(s+2)+22
13 s 13 s
2
+4s+13 13 s 13 (s+2)
2
+3
2
=
2 1
+
1
_
11
(s+2)
+
22 3
_
13 s 13 (s+2)
2
+3
2
3 (s+2)
2
+3
2
2 11 (s+2)
_
22 3
_
So L
1
[Y (s)] =
13
L
1
_
1
s

+
13
L
1
_
(s+2)
2
+3
2
+
39
L
1
_
(s+2)
2
+3
2
y (t) =
2
+
11
e
2t
cos 3t +
22
e
2t
sin 3t.
13 13 39
(4)
y = 1 we get,
L
_
y
(4)

L [y] = L [1]
3 2

s
4
Y (s) s y (0) s y

(0) sy

(0) y

(0) Y (s) =
1
s
s
4
Y (s) 3s
3
5s
2
Y (s) =
1
s

4 3 4 3
4 2 +5s +1 3s +5s +1
_
s 1
_
Y (s) =
1
s
+3s
3
+5s Y (s) =
3s
s(s 1)
=
s(s+1)(s1)(s
2
+1)
.
4
Using partial fractions,
3s
4
+5s
3
+1 A B C Ds+E
Y (s) =
s(s+1)(s1)(s
2
+1)
=
s
+
s+1
+
s1
+
(s
2
+1)
.
4
3s
4
+5s
3
+1 = A
_
s 1
_
+ Bs (s 1)
_
s
2
+ 1
_
+ Cs (s + 1)
_
s
2
+ 1
_
+(Ds + E) s (s + 1) (s 1) .
Letting s = 0, 1 and 1 in this equation gives A = 1, B =
1
4
and
C =
4
9
.
s
4
: 3 = A + B + C + D D = 3 A B C = 2.
1 9 5
s : 0 = B + C E E = B + C = + =
2
.
1 1 1 9 1

s 5 1
4 4
Thus Y (s) = + + 2 +
s 4 s+1 4 s
2
+1 2 s
2
+1

1
s1
1
_
9 1
_
So L
1
[Y (s)] = L
1
_
1
s

4
L
1
_
s+1
+
4
L
1
_
s1
+2L
1
_
s
_
+
2
5
L
1
_
1
_
s
2
+1 s
2
+1
y (t) = 1
1
e
t
+
9
e
t
+ 2 cos t +
5
sin t.
4 4 2

y = 1 t we get,
L [y
] L [y] = L [1] L [t] sY (s) y (0) Y (s) =

1
s

s
2
1
2
sY (s) + 1 Y (s) =
s1
(s 1) Y (s) =
s1
1 =
s1s
2
s
2

s
2
1 1
s
2
s
2

Y (s) =
s1s
=
s1
= .
2
s
2
(s1) s
2
(s1)

s
2
(s1) s
t
So L
1
[Y (s)] = L
1
_
1

L
1
_
1
_

y
s
(
t
1
) = t e .
s
2
s1

+ 2y

+ y = e
t
we get, L [y
] + 2L [y
] + L [y] = L [e
t
]
1
s
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) + 2sY (s) 2y (0) + Y (s) =
s+1
s
2
Y (s) 1 + 2sY (s) + Y (s) =
1
_
s
s+1
1 s+2 s+2 2
+ 2s + 1
_
Y (s) =
s+1
+ 1 Y (s) =
(s+1)(s
2
+2s+1)
=
(s+1)
3
.
s+2
=
A
+
B
+
C
(s+1)
3
s+1 (s+1)
2
(s+1)
3
.
2
s + 2 = A (s + 1) + B (s + 1) + C.
Letting s = 1 in this equation gives C = 1.
s
2
: 0 = A
s : 1 = 2A + B B = 1.
Thus Y (s) =
1
+
1
=
1!
+
1 2!
(s+1)
2
(s+1)
3
(s+1)
1+1
2 (s+1)
2+1
1!
_
1 2!
_
So L
1
[Y (s)] = L
1
_
(s+1)
1+1
+
2
L
1
_
(s+1)
2+1
y (t) = te
t
+
1
t
2
e
t
.
2

+ 2y = e
t
cos t
we get, L [y
] + 2L [y] = L [e
t
cos t]
sY (s) y (0) + 2Y (s) =
s+1
(s+1)
2
+1
sY (s) + 2Y (s) =
s+1
(s + 2) Y (s) =
s+1
s
2
+2s+2

s
2
+2s+2
s+1
Y (s) =
(s+2)(s
2
+2s+2)
s+1 A Bs+C
Y (s) =
(s+2)(s
2
+2s+2)
=
s+2
+
s
2
+2s+2
.
s + 1 = A
_
s
2
+ 2s + 2
_
+ (Bs + C) (s + 2) .
2
1
.
s
2
: 0 = A + B B = A =
1

2
s : 1 = 2A + C + 2B C = 1 2A 2B = 1.
1 1 1 s+2
Thus Y (s) = +
2 s+2 2 s
2
+2s+2
1 1 1
_
s+1 1
_
=
2 s+2
+
2 (s+1)
2
+1
+
(s+1)
2
+1
So L
1
[Y (s)] =
2
1
L
1
_
1
_
+
2
1
L
1
_
s+1
_
+
2
1
L
1
_
1
_
s+2 (s+1)
2
+1
2
(s+1)
2
+1
2
y (t) =
2
1
e
2t
+
2
1
e
t
cos t +
2
1
e
t
sin t.

+ y = sin t we get,
L [y
] + L [y] = L [sin t] s
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) + Y (s) =
1
s
2
Y (s) + Y (s) =
s
2
1
+1
_
s
2
+ 1
_
Y (s) =
s
2
1
+1
s
2
+1

Y (s) =
1
=
1 21
1

(s
2
+1)
2
2 (s
2
+1
2
)
2
.
So L
1
[Y (s)] =
1
2
L
1
_
21
1
_
y (t) =
1
[sin t t cos t] .
(s
2
+1
2
)
2

2

+ 9y = cos 3t
we get, L [y
] + 9L [y] = L [cos 3t]

s
s
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) + 9Y (s) =
2
s
2
+9
s s s +s+9
s
2
Y (s) 1 + 9Y (s) =
s
2
+9

_
s
2
+ 9
_
Y (s) =
s
2
+9
+ 1 =
s
2
+9
s
2
+s+9
Y (s) =
(s
2
+9)
2
Y (s) =
s
2
+s+9
=
As+B
+
Cs+D
(s
2
+9)
2
s
2
+9 (s
2
+9)
2
.
2
s + s + 9 = (As + B)
_
s
2
+ 9
_
+ Cs + D.
s
3
: 0 = A
s
2
: 1 = B
s : 1 = A + C C = 1
1 : 9 = 9B + D D = 0.
1 s
1 3 1 2 3 s
Thus Y (s) =
s
2
+9
+ =
3 s
2
+3
2
+
6

(s
2
+9)
2
(s
2
+3
2
)
2
.
So L
1
[Y (s)] =
1
3
L
1
_
3
_
+
6
1
L
1
_
23s
_
s
2
+3
2
(s
2
+3
2
)
2
98 CHAPTER 3
y (t) =
1
sin 3t +
1
t sin 3t.
3 6

+4y = cos 2t we get,
L [y
] + 4L [y] = L [cos 2t]

s
s
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) + 4Y (s) =
s
2
+4
s s
s
2
Y (s) + 4Y (s) =
s
2
+4
_
s
2
+ 4
_
Y (s) =
s
2
+4

Y (s) =
s
=
1 22s

(s
2
+4)
2
4 (s
2
+2
2
)
2
.
So L
1
[Y (s)] =
1
4
L
1
_
22s
_
y (t) =
1
t sin 2t.
(s
2
+2
2
)
2

4

+ y = sin t + cos t
we get, L [y
] + L [y] = L [sin t] + L [cos t]

s
2
Y (s) sy (0)
1
y

(0) +
s
Y (s) =
s
2
1
+1
+
s
2
s
+1
1 s
s
2
Y (s) + Y (s) =
s
2
+1
+
s
2
+1

_
s
2
+ 1
_
Y (s) =
s
2
+1
+
s
2
+1
Y (s) =
1
+
s
=
1 21
2
+
1 21s

(s
2
+1)
2
(s
2
+1)
2
2 (s
2
+1
2
)
2
2 (s
2
+1
2
)
2
.
So L
1
[Y (s)] =
1
2
L
1
_
21
2
_
+
1
2
L
1
_
21s
_
(s
2
+1
2
)
2
(s
2
+1
2
)
2
y (t) =
1
(sin t t cos t) +
1
t sin t
=
2

1
2
t cos t +
1
2
sin t
2
+
1
2
t sin t.
29. L [f

(t)] =
_
e
st
f

(t) dt. We use integration-by-parts taking
0
u = e
st
du = se
st
dt and dv = f

(t) dt v = f (t) .
So L [f

(t)] =
_
e
st
f

(t) dt = uv|
vdu
0
0 0
= e
st
f (t) |
+ s
_
0
e
st
f (t) dt
0
= lim [e
st
f (t)] lim [e
st
f (t)] + sF (s) = sF (s) f (0
+
) .
t t0
+
3.4 DISCONTINUOUS FORCING FUNCTIONS
_
0; 0 t < 2, _
1. f (t) = 3; 2 t < 5,
_
t; 5 t.
Thus 3 [H (t 2) H (t 5)] + t [H (t 5)]
= 3H (t 2) + (t 3) H (t 5) .
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
_
sin t; 0 t < ,
0; t < 2,
3. f (t) =
sin t; 2 t < 3,
0; 3 t.
Thus sin t [H (t) H (t )] + sin t [H (t 2) H (t 3)]
= sin t [1 H (t )] + sin t [H (t 2) H (t 3)] .
_
y
1
t
2 3 4
5. f (t) =
_
_
1; 0 t < 1,
0; 1 t < 2,
1; 2 t < 3,
0, t 3
_
_
The unit-step function is H (t) H (t 1) + H (t 2) H (t 3) .
0, 0 t < 1,
t 1; 1 t < 2,
1; 2 t < 3,
4 t; 3 t < 4,
7. f (t) =
0, t 4
The unit-step function is
(t 1) [H (t 1) H (t 2)]+1 [H (t 2) H (t 3)]+(4 t) [H (t 3) H (t 4)] .
= (t 1) H (t 1)+(2 t) H (t 2)+(3 t) H (t 3)+(t 4) H (t 4) .
100 CHAPTER 3
_
0, 0 t < 1,
_
2 t; 1 t < 3,
9. f (t) =
t 4; 3 t < 5,
_
0, t 5
The unit-step function is
(2 t) [H (t 1) H (t 3)] + (t 4) [H (t 3) H (t 5)] .
= (2 t) H (t 1) + 2 (t 3) H (t 3) (t 4) H (t 5) .
11. y (t) = tH (t 2) . Here c = 2 and f (t 2) = t. Let = t 2.
Then t = + 2 and f ( ) = + 2 f (t) = t + 2. Thus
1 2
F (s) = L [f (t)] = +
2
.
So Y (s) = L [y (t)] = L [tH (t 2)] = L [f (t 2) H (t 2)] .
Then (T 15) gives that L [f (t 2) H (t 2)] = e
2s
F (s)
s s
2 2
= e
2s
_
s
1
+
s
_
. Thus Y (s) = e
2s
_
s
1
+
s
_
.
2 2
13. y (t) =
_
t
3
+ 1
_
H (t 1) . Here c = 1 and f (t 1) = t
3
+ 1.
3
Let = t 1.Then t = + 1 and f () = ( + 1) + 1, so that
f (t) = (t + 1)
3
+ 1 = t
3
+ 3t
2
+ 3t + 2. Thus
F (s) = L [f (t)] =
6
+
6
+
3
+
2
.
s
4
s
3
s
2
s
So Y (s) = L [y (t)] = L
__
t
3
+ 1
_
H (t 1)

= L [f (t 1) H (t 1)] .
s
F (s)
6 3 2 6 3 2
= e
s
_
s
6
4
+
s
3
+
s
2
+
s
_
. Thus Y (s) = e
s
_
s
6
4
+
s
3
+
s
2
+
s
_
.
15. y (t) = sin tH (t ) . Here c = and f (t ) = sin t.
Let = t .Then t = + and f ( ) = sin ( + ) = sin .
f (t) = sin t. Thus F (s) = L [f (t)] = L [sin t] =
s
2
1
+1
.
So Y (s) = L [y (t)] = L [sin tH (t )] = L [f (t ) H (t )] .
Then (T 15) gives that L [f (t ) H (t )] = e
s
F (s)
= e
s
_

1
_
. Thus Y (s) = e
s
_

1
_
.
s
2
+1 s
2
+1
17. y (t) = cos tH (t 2) . Here c = 2 and f (t 2) = cos t.
Let = t 2.Then t = + 2 and f ( ) = cos ( + 2) = cos .
f (t) = cos t. Thus F (s) = L [f (t)] = L [cos t] =
s
.
s
2
+1
So Y (s) = L [y (t)] = L [cos tH (t 2)] = L [f (t 2) H (t 2)] .
2s
F (s)
= e
2s
_
s
2
s
+1
_
. Thus Y (s) = e
2s
_
s
2
s
+1
_
.
19. y (t) = e
2t
H (t 3) . Here c = 3 and f (t 3) = e
2t
.
Let = t 3.Then t = + 3 and f () = e
2 +6
= e
6
e
2
.
6
f (t) = e
6
e
2t
. Thus F (s) = L [f (t)] = e
6
L
_
e
2t

=
s
e
2
.
So Y (s) = L [y (t)] = L
_
e
2t
H (t 3)

= L [f (t 3) H (t 3)] .
3s
F (s)
6 6
= e
3s
_
s
e
2
_
. Thus Y (s) = e
3s
_
s
e
2
_
.
21. y (t) = te
5t
H (t 2) . Here c = 2 and f (t 2) = te
5t
.
Let = t 2.Then t = + 2 and f () = ( + 2) e
5 +10
= 2e
10
e
5
+ e
10
e
5
f (t) = 2e
10
e
5t
+ e
10
te
5t
.
10
e
10
10
_
1 2
_
Thus F (s) = L [f (t)] =
2
s
e
5
+
(s5)
2
= e
(s5)
2
+
s5
.
So Y (s) = L [y (t)] = L
_
te
5t
H (t 2)

= L [f (t 2) H (t 2)] .
2s
F (s)
= e
2s
e
10
_
1
+
2
_
. Thus Y (s) = e
2s
e
10
_
1
+
2
_
.
(s5)
2
s5 (s5)
2
s5
1 1 A B
23. Using partial fractions
s
2
+s
=
s(s+1)
=
s
+
s+1
. Multiplying
by the denominator we have 1 = A (s + 1) + Bs. Letting s = 0,
and s = 1 gives A = 1 and B = 1. So F (s) =
1
=
1

1
s
2
+s s s+1
f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] = 1 e
t
. Now e
2s
s
2
1
+s
and e
3s
s
2
1
+s
are
of the form e
cs
F (s) with c = 2 and c = 3, respectively.
Then using (T 15) we have
L
1
_
e
2s 1
+ e
3s 1
_
= f (t 2) H (t 2) + f (t 3) H (t 3)
s
2
+s s
2
+s
=
_
1 e
(t2)

H (t 2) +
_
1 e
(t3)

H (t 3) .
25. F (s) =
s
2
+2
1
s+2
=
(s+1)
1
2
+1
2
f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] = e
t
sin t.
Now e
3s
s
2
+2
1
s+2
is of the form e
cs
F (s) with c = 3. Then
using (T 15) we have
e
3s
L
1
_ _
= f (t 3) H (t 3) = e
(t3)
sin (t 3) H (t 3) .
s
2
+2s+2
e
s
27. The rst term,
s
2
+1
, is of the form e
cs
F
1
(s) with c = 1
where F
1
(s) =
s
2
1
+1
f
1
(t) = L
1
[F
1
(s)] = sin t.
Then using (T 15) we have L
1
_
e
s
_
= L
1
[e
s
F
1
(s)]
s
2
+1
= f
1
(t 1) H (t 1) = sin (t 1) H (t 1) .
e
2s
The second term,
s
2
+4
, is of the form e
cs
F
2
(s) with c = 2
where F
2
(s) =
1
=
1 2
f
2
(t) = L
1
[F
2
(s)] =
1
sin 2t.
s
2
+4 2 s
2
+2
2

2
Then using (T 15) we have L
1
_
e
2s
_
= L
1
_
e
2s
F
2
(s)

s
2
+1
= f
2
(t 2) H (t 2) =
1
sin (2t 4) H (t 2) .
Hence L
1
_
e
s
e
2s
2
_
s
2
+1

s
2
+1
= sin (t 1) H (t 1)
1
sin (2t 4) H (t 2) .
2
29. F
1
(s) =
4
f
1
(t) = L
1
[F
1
(s)] = 4 and
s
6s
F
2
(s) =

= 6
s
f
2
(t) = L
1
[F
2
(s)] = 6 cos 3t.
s
2
+9 s
2
+3
2
For both terms, c = 1. Then using (T 15) we have

L
1
_
e
s
_
4
+
6
__
= f
1
(t 1) H (t 1) + f
2
(t 1) H (t 1)
s s
2
+9
= [4 + 6 cos (3t 3)] H (t 1) .
31. g (t) = H (t 2) H (t 5) and the dierential eqution is
y

+ y = H (t 2) H (t 5) , y (0) = y

(0) = 0.
Taking the Laplace transform of both sides gives
s
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) + Y (s) =
e
2s

e
5s
(since, for example,
s s
H (t 2) = f (t 2) H (t 2) with f (t 2) = 1 f (t) = 1
F (s) =
1
and using (T 15) with c = 2, L [f (t 2)
H (t 2)] =
s
e
2s
F (s) =
e
s
2s
).
e
2s
e
5s
e
2s
e
5s

_
s
2
+ 1
_
Y (s) =
s

s
Y (s) =
s(s
2
+1)

s(s
2
+1)
.
1 A Bs+C
Using partial fractions
s(s
2
+1)
=
s
+
s
2
+1
. Multiplying by
denominator we have 1 = A
_
s
2
+ 1
_
+ (Bs + C) s. Letting s = 0
102 CHAPTER 3
gives A = 1. Equating the coecients:
s
2
: 0 = A + B B = A = 1
s : 0 = C
So F (s) =
s(s
2
1
+1)
=
1
s

s
2
s
+1
f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] = 1 cos t.
Now
e
2s
and
e
5s
are of the form e
cs
F (s) with c = 2 and
s(s
2
+1) s(s
2
+1)
c = 5, respectively.
Thus L
1
_
e
2s
_
= f (t 2) H (t 2) = [1 cos (t 2)] H (t 2)
s(s
2
+1)
e
5s
and L
1
_ _
= f (t 5) H (t 5) = [1 cos (t 5)] H (t 5) .
s(s
2
+1)
So y (t) = L
1
[Y (s)] = [1 cos (t 2)] H (t 2)[1 cos (t 5)] H (t 5) .
_
_ t; 0 t < 1,
33. g (t) = 2 t; 1 t < 2,
_
0; 2 t.
g (t) = t [H (t) H (t 1)] + (2 t) [H (t 1) H (t 2)]
= t + (2 2t) H (t 1) (2 t) H (t 2)
and the dierential eqution is
y

3y = t + (2 2t) H (t 1) (2 t) H (t 2) , y (0) = 1.
For the second forcing term, (2 2t) H (t 1) , c = 1 and
f (t 1) = 2 2t. Let = t 1.Then t = + 1 and
f ( ) = 2 2 + 2 = 4 2 f (t) = 4 2t.
Thus F (s) = L [4 2t] =
4

2
2
.
So L [(2 2t) H (t 1)] =
s
L
_
f
s
(t 1) H (t 1)

= e
cs
F (s)
4e
s
2e
s
=
s

s
2
.
For the third forcing term, (2 t) H (t 2) , c = 2 and
f (t 2) = 2 t. Let = t 2.Then t = + 2 and
f
( ) = 2 2 = f
(t) = t. Thus F
(s) = L [t] =
s
1
2
.
So L [(2 t) H (t 2)] = L
_
f (t 2) H (t 2)
_
= e
cs
F
(s) =
e
2s
.
2
s
Taking the Laplace transform of both sides dierential eqution gives
sY (s) y (0) 3Y (s) =
1
+
4e
s
2e
s
+
e
2s
s
2
s

s
2
s
2

sY (s) 1 3Y (s) =
4e
s
2e
s
+
1
+
e
2s
2 2 2
s

s s s

(s 3) Y (s) =
4e
s

2e
s
+
1
+
e
2s
+ 1
s s
2
s
2
s
2
Y (s) =
4e
s
e
s
+
1
+
e
2s
+
1
s(s3)
2
s
2
(s3) s
2
(s3) s
2
(s3) (s3)
Y (s) =
(4s2)e
s
+
1
+
e
2s
+
1

s
2
(s3) s
2
(s3) s
2
(s3) (s3)
To nd the inverse Laplace transform of the rst term, we use
partial fractions by letting F
1
(s) =
4s2
=
A
+
B
+
C
.
s
2
(s3) s s
2
s3
Multiplying by denominator we have
4s 2 = As (s 3) + B (s 3) + Cs
2
. Letting s = 0 and 3 gives
B =
2
and C =
10
. Equating the coecient of s
2
we get
3 9
10
0 = A + C A = C =
9
.
4s2 10 1 2 1 10 1
So F
1
(s) =
s
2
(s3)
=
9 s
+
3 s
2
+
9 s3
f
1
(t) = L
1
[F
1
(s)] =
10
+
2
t +
10
e
3t
.
9 3 9
(4s2)e
s
The rst term,
s
2
(s3)
, is of the form e
cs
F
1
(s) with c = 1.
Then using (T 15) , L
1
_
(4s2)e
s
_
= L
1
[e
s
F
1
(s)] = f
1
(t 1) H (t 1)
=
_

9 3
s
2
9
(s3)
10
+
2
(t 1) +
10
e
3(t1)

H (t 1) .
To nd the inverse Laplace transform of the second term, we
use partial fractions by letting F
2
(s) =
1
=
D
+
E
+
F
s
2
(s3) s s
2
s3
.
1 = Ds (s 3) + E (s 3) + Fs
2
. Letting s = 0 and 3 gives
E =
1
3
and F =
1
9
. Then equating the coecient of s
2
we have
0 = D + F D = F =
9
1
.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2
So F
2
(s) =
s
2
(s3)
=
9 s

3 s
+
9 s3
f
2
(t) = L
1
[F
2
(s)] =
1 1
t +
1
e
3t
.
3 9

e
2s
9
The third term,

s
2
(s3)
, is of the form e
cs
F
2
(s) with c = 2.
e
2s
_
Then using (T 15) , L
1
_
s
2
(s3)
= L
1
_
e
2s
F
2
(s)

= f
2
(t 2) H (t 2)
=
_

9
1

3
1
(t 2) +
9
1
e
3(t2)

H (t 2) .
The inverse Laplace transform of the last term is L
1
_
1
_
= e
3t
.
s3
Thus y (t) = e
3t
+
_
10

1
9
2
1
t +
1
e
3t

3(t1)

H (t 1)
3 9
+
_
+ (t 1) +
10
e
+
_

9
1
9

3
1
3
(t 2) +
9
1
e
9
3(t2)

H (t 2) .
35. g (t) = H (t) H (t 3) and the dierential eqution is
y

+ 2y

+ 10y = H (t) H (t 3) , y (0) = 1, y

(0) = 0.
s
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) + 2sY (s) 2y (0) + 10Y (s) =
1

e
3s
s s
(since, for example, H (t 3) = f (t 3) H (t 3) with f (t 3) = 1
f (t) = 1 F (s) =
1
s
and using (T 15) with c = 3,
e
3s
L [f (t 3) H (t 3)] = e
3s
F (s) = ).
s
s
2
Y (s) s + 2sY (s) 2 + 10Y (s) =
1 e
3s

e
3s

_
s
2
+ 2s + 10
_
Y (s) =
1
s

s
+ s + 2
s s
Y (s) =
1 e
3s
+
s+2

s(s
2
+2s+10)

s(s
2
+2s+10) (s
2
+2s+10)
.
First, we will nd the inverse Laplace transform of the rst term.
Using partial fractions
1
=
A
+
Bs+C
. Multiplying by
s(s
2
+2s+10) s s
2
+2s+10
_
s
2
+ 2s + 10
_
+ (Bs + C) s. Letting
s = 0 gives A =
1
10
2 1
s : 0 = A + B B = A =
10
2
s : 0 = 2A + C C = 2A =
10
1 1 1 1 s+2
So F (s) =
s(s
2
+2s+10)
=
10 s

10 s
2
+2s+10
1 1 1 (s+1) 1 3
=
10 s

10 (s+1)
2
+3
2

30 (s+1)
2
+3
2
f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] =
1 1
e
t
cos 3t
1
e
t
sin 3t.
10

10 30
The second term is of the form e
cs
F (s) with c = 3.
So using (T 15) , L
1
_
e
3s
_
= f (t 3) H (t 3)
s(s
2
+2s+10)
1 1
=
_
1
e
(t3)
cos 3 (t 3) e
(t3)
sin 3 (t 3)

H (t 3) .
10

10 30
For the third term:
104 CHAPTER 3
L
1
_
s+2
_
= L
1
_
s+1
_
+
3
1
L
1
_
3
_
(s
2
+2s+10) (s+1)
2
+3
2
(s+1)
2
+3
2
= e
t
cos 3t +
1
3
e
t
sin 3t.
So using all three inverse Laplace transform we have
1 1 1
y (t) = L
1
[Y (s)] =
10

10
e
t
cos 3t
30
e
t
sin 3t
1 1

_
1
e
(t3)
cos 3 (t 3) e
(t3)
sin 3 (t 3)

H (t 3)
10

10 30
+e
t
cos 3t +
3
1
e
t
sin 3t
=
1
+
9
e
t
cos 3t +
3
e
t
sin 3t
10 10 10
1 1

_
1
e
(t3)
cos 3 (t 3) e
(t3)
sin 3 (t 3)

H (t 3) .
10

10 30
37. g (t) = 1H (t 1)+H (t 2)H (t 3) and the dierential eqution
is y

+4y = 1H (t 1)+H (t 2)H (t 3) , y (0) = 0, y

(0) = 0.
s
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) + 4Y (s) =
1 e
s
+
e
2s
e
3s
e
s
+
e
2s
e
3s

_
s
2
+ 4
_
Y (s) =
1
s

s s

s
s

s s s
1 e
s
e
2s
e
3s
Y (s) =
s(s
2
+4)

s(s
2
+4)
+
s(s
2
+4)

s(s
2
+4)
.
Using partial fractions F (s) =
1
=
A
+
Bs+C
. Multiplying by
s(s
2
+4) s s
2
+4
_
s
2
+ 4
_
+ (Bs + C) s. Letting
s = 0 gives A =
1
4
s
2
: 0 = A + B B = A =
4
1

s : 0 = C
So F (s) =
1
=
1 1 1 s
=
1 1 1 s
s(s
2
+4) 4 s

4 s
2
+4 4 s

4 s
2
+2
2
f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] =
4
1

1
cos 2t.
4
The second, third and fourth terms are of the form e
cs
F (s) with
c = 1, 2 and 3, respectively. So using (T 15) , we have
L
1
_
e
s
_
= f (t 1) H (t 1) =
4
1

1
cos 2 (t 1) H (t 1)
s(s
2
+4) 4
L
1
_
e
2s
_
= f (t 2) H (t 2) =
1
4

1
cos 2 (t 2) H (t 2)
s(s
2
+4) 4
e
3s
_
1
L
1
_
s(s
2
+4)
= f (t 3) H (t 3) =
1
4

4
cos 2 (t 3) H (t 3) .
Thus y (t) = L
1
[Y (s)] =
1
4

1
cos 2t
1
+
1
cos 2 (t 1) H (t 1)
4 4 4
+
1 1
cos 2 (t 2) H (t 2)
1
+
1
cos 2 (t 3) H (t 3)
4 4 4
y (t) =
4
1
[ cos 2t + cos 2 (t 1) H (t 1) cos 2 (t 2) H (t 2)

4
+ cos 2 (t 3) H (t 3)].
39. g (t) = H (t) H (t 2) + e
t
H (t 2) and the dierential eqution is
y

+ 9y = H (t) H (t 2) + e
t
H (t 2) , y (0) = 0, y

(0) = 0.
For H (t 2) = f (t 2) H (t 2) with f (t 2) = 1 f (t) = 1
F (s) =
1
and using (T 15) with c = 2, L [f (t 2) H (
t 2)] =
s
e
2s
F (s) =
e
s
2s
.
For the last forcing term, e
t
H (t 2) , c = 2 and f (t 2) = e
t
.
( +2)
=
e
1
2
e
1 1 1
f (t) =
e
2
e
t
. Thus F (s) = L
_
e
1
2
e
t

=
e
2
s+1
.
1 e
2s
So L [e
t
H (t 2)] = L
_
f (t 2) H (t 2)

= e
cs
F (s) = .
e
2
s+1
Then the Laplace transform of both sides of dierential eqution gives
e
2s
1 e
2s
s
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) + 9Y (s) =
1
s

s
+
s+1
e
2
s
2
Y (s) + 9Y (s) =
1 e
2s
+
1 e
2s
e
2s
1 e
2s
_
s
2
+ 9
_
Y (s) =
1
s

s

s
s
+
e
2
e
s
2
+1
s+1

1 e
2s
1 e
2s
Y (s) =
s(s
2
+9)

s(s
2
+9)
+
e
2
(s+1)(s
2
+9)
.
First, we will nd the inverse Laplace transform of the rst term.
1 A Bs+C
Using partial fractions let F
1
(s) =
s(s
2
+9)
=
s
+
s
2
+9
.
Multiplying by denominator we have 1 = A
_
s
2
+ 9
_
+ (Bs + C) s.
Letting s = 0 gives A =
9
1
s
2
: 0 = A + B B = A =
9
1

s : 0 = C
1 1 1 1 s 1 1 1 s
So F
1
(s) =
s(s
2
+9)
=
9 s

9 s
2
+9
=
9 s

9 s
2
+3
2
f
1
(t) = L
1
[F
1
(s)] =
9
1

1
cos 3t.
9
The second term is of the form e
cs
F
1
(s) with c = 2.
So L
1
_
e
2s
_
= f
1
(t 2) H (t 2)
s(s
2
+9)
1
=
_
1
9
cos 3 (t 2)

H (t 2) .
9
For the third term, using partial fractions let
1 A Bs+C
F
3
(s) =
(s+1)(s
2
+9)
=
s+1
+
s
2
+9
. Multiplying by denominator
we have 1 = A
_
s
2
+ 9
_
+ (Bs + C) (s + 1) . Letting s = 1
1
gives A =
10
. Equating the coecients
s
2
: 0 = A + B B
1
= A =
1
10
s : 0 = B + C C = B =
10
.
1 1 1

1 s 1 1
F
3
(s) =
(s+1)(s
2
+9)
=
10 s+1

10 s
2
+9
+
10 s
2
+9
1 1 1 s 1 3
=
10 s+1

10 s
2
+3
2
+
30 s
2
+3
2
f
3
(t) = L
1
[F
3
(s)] =
1
e
t

1
cos 3t +
1
sin 3t
10 10 30
The third term is of the form e
cs
F
3
(s) with c = 2.
So L
1
_
1 e
2s
_
=
1
f
3
(t 2) H (t 2)
e
2
(s+1)(s
2
+9) e
2
=
1
_
1
e
(t2)

1
cos 3 (t
1
2) +
1
sin 3 (t
1
2)

H (t 2)
e
2
10 10 30
So y (t) = L
1
[Y (s)] =
1
9
cos 3t
_
1
9
cos 3 (t 2)

H (t 2)
+
1
_
1
e
(t2) 1
9
cos 3 (t 2) +
9
1
sin 3 (t 2)

H (t 2) .
e
2
10 10 30
41. g (t) = e
3t
[H (t) H (t
4)] = e
3t
e
3t
H (t 4) and the dierential
equation is y

5y = e
3t
e
3t
H (t 4) , y (0) = 0.
For the last forcing term, e
3t
H (t 4) , c = 4 and f (t 4) = e
3t
.
3(+4)
= e
12
e
3
12 3t 12 12 1
f (t) = e e . Thus F (s) = L
_
e e
3t

= e . Then using
s3
12 e
4s
(T 15) , L
_
e
3t
H (t 4)

= L
_
f (t 4) H (t 4)

= e
4s
F (s) = e
s3
.
Then Laplace transform of both sides of dierential equation gives
1 12 e
4s
sY (s) y (0) 5Y (s) =
s3
e
s3
(s 5) Y (s) =
1 12 e
4s
s3
e
s3

e
4s
1 12
Y (s) =
(s3)(s5)
e
(s3)(s5)
.
1 A B
Using partial fractions let F (s) =
(s3)(s5)
=
(s3)
+
(s5)
.
Multiplying by denominator we have 1 = A (s 5) + B (s 3) .
Letting s = 3 and 5 gives A =
1
and B =
2
1
.
2
106 CHAPTER 3
So F (s) =
1 1 1
+
1 1
(s3)(s5)
=
2 (s3) 2 (s5)
f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] =
1
e
3t
+
1
e
5t
. Now
e
4s
is of the
2 2 (s3)(s5)
form e
cs
F (s) with c = 4 and using (T 15) , L
1
_
e
4s
_
=
(s3)(s5)
L
1
_
e
4s
F (s)

= f (t 4) H (t 4) =
_
1
e
3(t4)
+
1
e
5(t4)

H (t 4) .
2 2
Hence y (t) = L
1
[Y (s)]
=
2
1
e
3t
+
2
1
e
5t
e
12
_

2
1
e
3(t4)
+
2
1
e
5(t4)

H (t 4) .
43. g (t) = cos tH

_
t
_
and the dierential equation is

y

+ 3y = cos tH
_
2
t
_
, y (0) = 0.
2

For the forcing term, cos tH
_
t
_
, c = and f
_
t
_
= cos t.
2 2 2

Let = t .Then t = + and f ( ) = cos
_
+
_
= sin
2 2 2
f (t) = sin t. Thus F (s) = L [ sin t] =
s
2
1
+1
. Then using

2
(T 15) , L
_
cos tH
_
t
_
= L
_
f
_
t
_
H
_
t
_
= e
s
F (s)
2 2 2
e

2
s
. =
s
2
+1

2 2
sY (s) y (0) + 3Y (s) =
e
s
(s + 3) Y (s) =
e
s

s
2
+1
s
2
+1
Y (s) =
e

2
s
.
(s+3)(s
2
+1)
1 A Bs+C
Using partial fractions let F (s) =
(s+3)(s
2
+1)
=
s+3
+
s
2
+1
.
_
s
2
+ 1
_
+(Bs + C) (s + 3) .
1
10
s
2
: 0 = A + B B
1
= A =
10
3
s : 0 = 3B + C C = 3B =
1 1 1

1 s 3
10
1
.
So F (s) =
(s+3)(s
2
+1)
=
10 s+3

10 s
2
+1
+
10 s
2
+1
f (t) = L
s
1
[F (s)] =
1
e
3t

1
cos t +
3
sin t.
10 10 10

2
Now
e

is of the form e
cs
F (s) with c =

and using (T 15) ,
(s+3)(s
2
+1) 2

L
1
_
e

2
s
_
= L
1
_
e

s
F (s)

= f
_
t

_
H
_
t

_
2
(s+3)(s
2
+1) 2 2
_
1
e
3(t
2
) 1 3
_
=
10

10
cos
_
t
2
_
+
10
sin
_
t
2
_
_
H
_
t
2

2
=
_
1
e
3(t )

1
sin t
3
cos t
_
H
_
t

_
.
10 10 10 2
Hence y (t) = L
1
[Y (s)]
_
1
e
3(t
2
) 1
sin t
3
cos t
_
H
_
t

_
. =
10

10 10 2
45. g (t) = sin tH (t 3) and the dierential equation is
y

+ 2y = sin tH (t 3) , y (0) = 0.
For the forcing term, sin tH (t 3) , c = 3 and f (t 3) = sin t.
Let = t 3.Then t = + 3 and f () = sin ( + 3)
f (t) = sin (t + 3) = cos 3 sin
1
t + sin 3 cos
s
t. Thus
F (s) = L [sin (t + 3)] = cos 3 + sin 3 . Then using (T 15) ,
s
2
+1 s
2
+1
L [sin tH (t 3)] = L
_
f (t 3) H (t 3)

= e
3s
F (s)
= cos 3
e
3s
+ sin 3
se
3s
.
s
2
+1 s
2
+1
sY (s) y (0) + 2Y (s) = cos 3
e
3s
+ sin 3
se
3s
s
2
+1 s
2
+1
(s + 2) Y (s) = cos 3
e
3s
+ sin 3
se
3s
s
2
+1 s
2
+1
Y (s) = cos 3
e
3s
+ sin 3
se
3s
(s+2)(s
2
+1) (s+2)(s
2
+1)
.
1 A Bs+C
1
(s) =
(s+2)(s
2
+1)
=
s+2
+
s
2
+1
.
_
s
2
+ 1
_
+(Bs + C) (s + 2) .
1
5
s
2
: 0 = A + B B
1
= A =
5
2
s : 0 = 2B + C C = 2B = .
1 1 1

1 s 2 1
5
So F
1
(s) =
(s+2)(s
2
+1)
=
5 s+2

5 s
2
+1
+
5 s
2
+1
f
1
(t) = L
1
[F
1
(s)] =
1
e
2t 1
cos t +
2
sin t.
5 5 5

e
3s

Now
(s+2)(s
2
+1)
is of the form e
cs
F
1
(s) with c = 3 and using (T 15) ,
L
1
_
e
3s
_
= L
1
_
e
3s
F
1
(s)

= f
1
(t 3) H (t 3)
(s+2)(s
2
+1)
e
2(t3) 1
=
_
1
cos (t 3) +
2
sin (t 3)

H (t 3) .
5 5 5
s A Bs+C
2
(s) =
(s+2)(s
2
+1)
=
s+2
+
s
2
+1
.
Multiplying by denominator we have s = A
_
s
2
+ 1
_
+(Bs + C) (s + 2) .
2
5
s
2
: 0 = A + B B = A =
2
5
1
s : 1 = 2B + C C = 1 2B = .
s 2 1

2 s 1 1
5
So F
2
(s) =
(s+2)(s
2
+1)
=
5 s+2
+
5 s
2
+1
+
5 s
2
+1
f
2
(t) = L
1
[F
2
(s)] =
5
2
e
2t
+
5
2
cos t +
5
1
sin t.
Now
se
3s
is of the form e
cs
F
2
(s+2)(s
2
+1)
L
1
_
se
3s
_
= L
1
_
e
3s
F
2
(s)

= f
2
(t 3) H (t 3)
(s+2)(s
2
+1)
2
e
2(t3) 2
=
_
+ cos (t 3) +
1
sin (t 3)

H (t 3) .
5 5 5
Hence y (t) = L
1
[Y (s)]
e
2(t3) 1
= cos 3
_
1
cos (t 3) +
2
sin (t 3)

H (t 3)
5 5 5
2
e
2(t3) 2
+ sin 3
_

+ cos (t 3) +
1
sin (t 3)

H (t 3)
5 5 5
=
1
H (t 3) [(2 cos 3 + sin 3) sin (t 3)+(2 sin 3 cos 3) cos (t 3)
5
+ (cos 3 2 sin 3) e
2(t3)
].
47. g (t) = sin t [H (t) H (t 4)] = sin t sin tH (t 4) and the
dierential equation is
y

+ 9y = sin t sin tH (t 4) , y (0) = 0, y

(0) = 1.
For the last forcing term, sin tH (t 4) , c = 4 and f (t 4) = sin t.
Let = t 4.Then t = + 4 and f () = sin ( + 4) so that
f (t) = sin (t + 4) = cos 4 sin t + sin 4 cos t. Thus
F (s) = L [sin (t + 4)] = cos 4
1
+ sin 4
s
. Then using (T 15) ,
s
2
+1 s
2
+1
L [sin tH (t 4)] = L
_
f (t 4) H (t 4)

= e
4s
F (s)
= cos 4
e
4s
+ sin 4
se
4s
s
2
+1 s
2
+1
.
1
s
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) + 9Y (s) =
2
+1
sin 4
se
4s
2
+1
cos 4
e
4s
s s s
2
+1

1
s
2
Y (s) 1 + 9Y (s) =
s
2
+1
sin 4
se
4s
s
2
+1
cos 4
e
4s
s
2
+1
1
_
s
2
+ 9
_
Y (s) = 1 +
s
2
+1
sin 4
se
4s

s
2
+1
cos 4
e
4s
s
2
+1
108 CHAPTER 3
Y (s) =
1
+
1
2
+9)
cos 4
e
4s
2
+9)
sin 4
se
4s
.
s
2
+9 (s
2
+1)(s (s
2
+1)(s (s
2
+1)(s
2
+9)
Now we will nd the inverse Laplace transform of all four terms.
Let F
1
(s) =
1
=
1 3
f
1
(t) = L
1
[F
1
(s)] =
1
sin 3t.
s
2
+9 3 s
2
+3
2
3

1 As+B Cs+D
Using partial fractions, let F
2
(s) =
(s
2
+1)(s
2
+9)
=
s
2
+1
+
s
2
+9
.
1 = (As + B)
_
s
2
+ 9
_
+ (Cs + D)
_
s
2
+ 1
_
.
Equating the coecients
s
3
: 0 = A + C C
2
= A
s : 0 = B + D D = B
s : 0 = 9A + C 9A A = 0 A = 0 and so C = 0.
1 1
1 : 1 = 9B + D 9B B = 1 B = and so D = .
1

1 1 1

1
8
1 1
8
1 3
Thus F
2
(s) =
(s
2
+1)(s
2
+9)
=
8 s
2
+1

8 s
2
+9
=
8 s
2
+1

24 s
2
+3
2
.
f
2
(t) = L
1
[F
2
(s)] =
1
sin t
1
sin 3t.
8 24
F
3
(s) =
e
4s
is of the form e
cs
F
2
(s) with c = 4 and using
(s
2
+1)(s
2
+9)
(T 15) , L
1
[F
3
(s)] = L
1
_
e
4s
_
= L
1
_
e
4s
F
2
(s)

= f
2
(t 4) H (t 4)
(s
2
+1)(s
2
+9)
1
=
_
1
sin (t 4) sin 3 (t 4)

H (t 4) .
8 24
s As+B Cs+D
4
(s) =
(s
2
+1)(s
2
+9)
=
s
2
+1
+
s
2
+9
.
s = (As + B)
_
s
2
+ 9
_
+ (Cs + D)
_
s
2
+ 1
_
.
Equating the coecients
s
3
: 0 = A + C C = A
s
2
: 0 = B + D
D = B
1 1
s : 1 = 9A + C 9A A = 1 A =
8
and so C =
8
.
1 : 0 = 9B + D 9B B = 0 B = 0 and so D = 0.
s

1 s 1

1 s 1 s s
Thus F
4
(s) =
(s
2
+1)(s
2
+9)
=
8 s
2
+1

8 s
2
+9
=
8 s
2
+1

8 s
2
+3
2
.
f
4
(t) = L
1
[F
4
(s)] =
1
cos t
1
cos 3t.
se
4s
8 8
Now
(s
2
+1)(s
2
+9)
is of the form e
cs
F
4
L
1
_
se
4s
_
= L
1
_
e
4s
F
4
(s)

= f
4
(t 4) H (t 4)
(s
2
+1)(s
2
+9)
1
=
_
1
cos (t 4) cos 3 (t 4)

H (t 4) .
8 8
Hence y (t) = L
1
[Y (s)]
=
1
sin 3t +
1
sin t
1
sin 3t
3 8 24
1
cos 4
_
1
sin (t 4) sin 3 (t 4)

H (t 4)
1
sin 4
_
8
1
cos (t 4)
24
cos 3 (t 4)

H (t 4)
8 8
=
1
sin 3t +
1
sin t
1
sin 3t
3 8 24
+
1
H (t 4) [
1
cos 4 sin 3 (t 4) + sin 4 cos 3 (t 4)
8 3
cos 4 sin (t 4) sin 4 cos (t 4)].
49. g (t) = (1)
n1
for n 1 t < n, where n = 1, 2, ...,
g (t) = 1 [H (t) H (t 1)] 1 [H (t 1) H (t 2)]
+1 [H (t 2) H (t 3)] 1 [H (t 3) H (t 4)] ...
g (t) = 1 2H (t 1) + 2H (t 2) 2H (t 3) + 2H (t 4) ...
and the dierential equation is
y

+ 4y = 1 2H (t 1) + 2H (t 2) 2H (t 3)
+2H (t 4) ..., y (0) = 0, y

(0) = 0.
Taking the Laplace transform of both sides of dierential equation
gives s
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) + 4Y (s)
1 2e
s
2e
2s
2e
3s
2e
4s
2e
s
2e
2s
2e
3s
2e
4s

_
s
2
+ 4
_
Y (s) =
=
1
s

s
+
+
s

s
+
+
s

...
...

s s s s s
e
ns
1
Y (s) = + 2

(1)
n
.
s(s
2
+4)
n=1
s(s
2
+4)
Using partial fractions, let F (s) =
1
=
A
+
Bs+C
.
s(s
2
+4) s s
2
+4
_
s
2
+ 4
_
+ (Bs + C) s.
1
4
s
2
: 0 = A + B B
1
= A =
4
s : 0 = C.
1 1 1 1 s 1 1 1 s
So F (s) =
s(s
2
+4)
=
4 s

4 s
2
+4
=
4 s

4 s
2
+2
2
f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] =
4
1

1
cos 2t.
4
e
ns
Now
s(s
2
+4)
is of the form e
cs
F (s) with c = n and using (T 15) ,
e
ns
L
1
_ _
= L
1
[e
ns
F (s)] = f (t n) H (t n)
s(s
2
+4)
1
=
_
1
4
cos 2 (t n)

H (t
1
n) .
4
So y (t) = L
1
[Y (s)] =
1
4
cos 2t
4
n
_
1 1
+2

(1) cos 2 (t n)

H (t n)
4 4
n=1
y (t) =
1
(1 cos 2t) +
1

(1)
n
H (t n) [1 cos 2 (t n)] .
4 2
n=1
3.5 PERIODIC FUNCTIONS
1. g (t) = sin t is a periodic function with period T = and | |
1
|sin t| = sin t for 0 t < .So G (s) = L [g (t)] =
_
e
st
sin tdt.
1e
s
0
Using integration table we have that

e
st
1+e
s
_
e
st
sin tdt =
2
(s sin t cos t)
=
1+s 1+s
2
.
0
0
1+e
s
Thus G (s) = .
(s
2
+1)(1e
s
)
y
1
t
2 3 4
110 CHAPTER 3
2 2
1
e
st 1
3. L [g (t)] =
1e
2s
_
g (t) dt =
1e
2s
_
_
1
t
2
e
st
dt +
_ _
2 t
2
_
e
st
dt
_
.
0 0 1
We use the method of integration by parts twice to nd
_
t
2
e
st
dt =
1
t
2
e
st
s
2
2
te
st
s
2
3
e
st
.
s
1
Now L [g (t)] =
_

_
1
t
2
e
st
dt

+ 2
_
2
e
st
dt
_
2
t
2
e
st
dt
_
1e
2s
0 1 1
=
1e
1
2s
[

1
s
t
2
e
st
s
2
2
te
st
s
2
3
e
st
2
s
e
st
1
1 2
1
t
2
e
st 2
2
te
st 2
3
e
st

s

s

s

2
1
0
| |
=
1e
1
2s
[
1
s
e
s

s
2
2
e
s

s
2
3
e
s
+
s
2
3

2
s
e
2s
+
2
s
e
s
+
4
s
e
2s
+
s
4
2
e
2s
+
s
2
3
e
2s

1
s
e
s

s
2
2
e
s

s
2
3
e
s
]
1 4 4 2 2 4 2
=
1e
2s
_

s
2
e
s

s
3
e
s
+
s
+
s
e
2s
+
s
2
e
2s
+
s
3
e
2s
3
1 2 4 4 2
=
1e
2s
_
+
s
3

_
s
4
3
+
s
2
_
e
s
+
_
s
2
3
+
s
2
+
s
_
e
2s

.
1
t
1
1
e
st 1
e
st 1
5. L [g (t)] =
1e
s
_
1
g (t) dt =
1e
s
_
1
e
t
dt =
1e
s
_
1
e
(1s)t
dt
0 0 0
=
1 e
(1s)t
=
e
1s
1
.
1
1e
s

1s

(1s)(1e
s
)
0
7. g (t) = 1 [H (t) H (t 1)] 1 [H (t 1) H (t 2)] = 1 2H (t 1)
_
g (t) , 0 t 2,
+H (t 2) . So g (t) =
0, t > 2.
L [g (t)] =
1e
1
2s
_
2
e
st
g (t) dt =
1e
1
2s
L [g(t)] =
1e
1
2s
L [1 2H (t 1) + H (t 2)]
1e
1
2s
_
1

2
e
0
s 1
e
2s

. = +
s s s
1
t
1 2 3 4 5
9. Let F (s) =
1
+
s
1
3
. Then f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] = t +
1
t
2
.
So g (t) = L
s
2
1
_
1
1
e
s
_
s
1
+
s
1
_
_
= L
1
_
1
1
e
s
F (s
2
)
_
2 3

=

f (t n) H (t n) =
_
(t n) +
1
(t n)
2
_
H (t n) .
2
n=0 n=0
s s
11. Let F (s) = =
2
+2
2
. Then f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] = cos 2t.
s
2
+4 s
So g (t) = L
1
_
1
1
e
s
_
s
2
s
+4
__
= L
1
_
1
1
e
s
F (s)
_

=

f (t n) H (t n) =

[cos 2 (t n)] H (t n) .
n=0 n=0
13. Let F (s) =
s
1
2
+
e
s
. Then f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] = t+
1
(t 1)
2
H (t 1) .
So g (t) = L
1
_
s
1
3
e
1
2s
_
s
1
2
+
e
s
3
s
__
= L
1
_
1e
1
2s
2
F (s)
_
=

f (t 2n) H (t 2n)
n=0
2
=
_
(t 2n) +
1
(t 2n 1) H (t 2n 1)
_
H (t 2n) .
2
n=0
+
e

2
15. Let F (s) =
1
s
. Then f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] = 1+sin
_
t
_
H
_
t
_
.
s s
2
+1 2 2
s
So g (t) = L
1
_
1e
1
s
_
1
+
e

2
__
= L
1
_
1e
1
s
F (s)
_
s s
2
+1
=

f (t n) H (t n)
n=0

=
_
1 + sin
_
t n
_
H
_
t n
_
H (t n)
2 2
n=0

=

H (t n) + sin
_
t n
_
H
_
t n
_
.
2 2
n=0
17. Let F (s) =
s
1
3
+
e
2s
. Then f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] =
1
t
2
+
1
(t 2)
3
H (t 2) .
s
4
2 6
1
_
1
+
e
2s
__
1
_
So g (t) = L
1
_
1+e
5s
s
3
s
4
= L
1
_
1+e
5s
F (s)
=

(1)
n
f (t 5n) H (t 5n)
n=0
2
1
3
=

(1)
n
_
1
(t 5n) + (t 5n 2) H (t 5n 2)
_
H (t 5n)
2 6
n=0
n
_
1
2 3
_
=

(1) (t 5n) H (t 5n) +
1
(t 5n 2) H (t 5n 2) .
2 6
n=0
1 1
_
2
_
1
_
2e
s
_
19. G (s) =
s
2
csch(s) =
s
2
e
s
e
s
=
1e
2s
s
.
2
Let F (s) =
2e
s
. Then f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] = 2 (t 1) H (t 1) .
2
So g (t) = L
1
s
_
1e
1
2s
_
2e
s
s
__
= L
1
_
1e
1
2s
F (s)
_
2
=

f (t 2n) H (t 2n)
n=0
=

[2 (t 2n 1) H (t 2n 1)] H (t 2n)
n=0
=

2 (t 2n 1) H (t 2n 1) .
n=0
21. Graphing the step functions makes result simple.
_
1, t > b, _
If b > a, H (t a) H (t b) = 0, a < t < b = H (t b) ,
_
0, t < a.
_
_
_ _
_
.
_
_
_
112 CHAPTER 3
_
1, t > a, _
If a > b, H (t a) H (t b) = 0, b < t < a = H (t a) ,
_
0, t < b.
23. First, we will nd the Laplace transform of sin 2t which is a

| |
periodic function with period T =
2
and sin 2t = sin 2t for | |

_
2
1
e
st
sin 2tdt. Using 0 t < .So L [|sin 2t|] =
2
s
1e

2
0

integration table we have that
_
2
e
st
sin 2tdt
0
_
1 + e

2
s
_
.

1 2
e
st
(s sin 2t 2 cos 2t)
2
|
_
2
| = =
2
+4 0 s
2
+4
__
s

Thus L [|sin 2t|] =
2
+
s
2
+4
Taking the Laplace transform of the dierential equation
1
e
s
2
.
s
2
+4
s
1e

2
y

+ y = |sin 2t| , y (0) = y

(0) = 0 we have
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) + Y (s) =
_
2 s
__
1
_

+
2
e
s
2
+4
2
s
s
2
+4
s
1e

2
s
__
1
_
_
s
2
+ 1
_
Y (s) =
2 2
e
+
2
2
+4
2
+4
s
s s
2
e

2
1e

s
_ _
2 2 1
Y (s) = + .
2
+4)(s
2
+1) (s
2
+4)(s
2
+1) (s
s
1e

2
2 As+B Cs+D
let F
1
(s) =
(s
2
+4)(s
2
+1)
=
s
2
+1
+
s
2
+4
denominator we get 2 = (As + B)
_
s
2
+ 4
_
+ (Cs + D)
_
s
2
+ 1
_
.
s
3
: 0 = A + C C = A
s
2
: 0 = B + D

D = B
s : 0 = 4A + C 4A A = 0 A = 0 and then C = 0
2 2
1 : 2 = 4B + D 4B B = 2 B = and then D = .
2

2 1
2 1
3
2 1 1 2
3
Thus F
1
(s) =
(s
2
+4)(s
2
+1)
=
3 s
2
+1

3 s
2
+4
=
3 s
2
+1

3 s
2
+2
2
f
1
(t) = L
2
1
[F
1
(s)] =
2
F
2
(s) =
sin t
1
sin 2t.
3 3
is of the form e
cs
F
1
(s) with c =

2
. e
s
2
(s
2
+4)(s
2
+1)

_
t
2
_
H
_
t
2
_
1
So f
2
(t) = L
1
[F
2
(s)] = f
1

=
_
2
3
sin
_
t
2
_

3
sin (2t )

H
_
t
2
2 2

e
s
Let F (s) = F
1
(s) + F
2
(s) = +
2
.
(s
2
+4)(s
2
+1) (s
2
+4)(s
2
+1)
Then f (t) = L
1
[F (s)]
2 1
=
3
sin t
3
sin 2t +
_
2
3
sin
_
t
2
_

1
sin (2t )

H
_
t

3 2
s
_ _
1
_
2 2
e
and Y (s) = +
2
(s
2
+4)(s
2
+1) (s
2
+4)(s
2
+1)
s
1e

2
1
s
F (s) . =
1e

2
Hence the inverse Laplace transform yields
y (t) = L
1
[Y (s)] = L
1
_
1
_
F (s)
s
1e

2
=
n

f
_
t
_
H
_
t
2
n=0
n
2
2 n 1 n
=

3
sin
_
t
2
_

3
sin 2
_
t
2
_
n=0
{
n 1 n n
+
_
2
3
sin
_
t
2

2
_

3
sin (2t n )

H
_
t
2

2
_
}H
_
t
2
_
1
n n
=

{
_
2 sin
_
t
_
sin (2t n)

H
_
t
_
3 2 2
n=0
n n
+
_
2 sin
_
t
_
t
sin (2t n )

H
_
t
_
}.
2 2 2 2
25. From Exercise 5, g (t) = e and its Laplace transform is
1
e
st 1
e
st 1
L [g (t)] =
_
1
g (t) dt =
_
1
e
t
dt =
_
1
e
(1s)t
dt
1e
s
1e
s
1e
s
0 0 0
1
(1s)t 1s
=
1
=
e 1
=
_
1 e
s
__
1
_
.
1e
s
1s (1s)(1e
s
) s1
e
s1 1e
s
0
y

+ y = g (t) , y (0) = 1, we have
_
1 e
s
__
1
_
sY (s) y (0) + Y (s) =
s1
e
s1 1e
s
_
1 e
s
__
1
_
(s + 1) Y (s) = 1 +
s1
e
s1 1e
s
1
_
1 e
s
__
1
_
Y (s) =
s+1
+
(s1)(s+1)
e
(s1)(s+1) 1e
s
.
let F
1
(s) =
1
=
A
+
B
(s1)(s+1) s1 s+1
denominator we get 1 = A (s + 1) + B (s 1) . Letting s = 1 and
s = 1 gives A =
1
and B
1
. So F
1
(s) =
1 1 1 1
2
=
2 2 s1

2 s+1

t 1 e
s
f
1
(t) = L
1
[F
1
(s)] =
1
2
e
2
e
t
= sinh t. Now F
2
(s) =
(s1)(s+1)
is of the form e
cs
F
1
(s) with c = 1. So f
2
(t) = L
1
[e
s
F
1
(s)]
= f
1
(t 1) H (t 1) = sinh (t 1) H (t 1) .
1 e
s
_
Then f (t) = f
1
(t) ef
2
(t) = L
1
_
(s1)(s+1)
e
(s1)(s+1)
= sinh t e sinh (t 1) H (t 1) .
So L
1
__
1 e
s
__
1
__
(s1)(s+1)
e
(s1)(s+1) 1e
s
=

f (t n) H (t n)
n=0
=

[sinh (t n) e sinh (t n 1) H (t n 1)] H (t n)
n=0
=

sinh (t n) H (t n) e sinh (t n 1) H (t n 1) .
n=0
e
s
y (t) = L
1
[Y (s)] = L
1
_
1
+
_
1
__
1
__
s+1 (s1)(s+1)
e
(s1)(s+1) 1e
s
= e
t
+

sinh (t n) H (t n)e sinh (t n 1) H (t n 1) .
n=0
27. From Exercise 7, g (t) =
_
1, 0 t < 1,
is a periodic
1, 1 t < 2.
2
1
function with period 2. So L [g (t)] =
1e
2s
_
_
1
e
st
dt
_
e
st
dt
_
e
st
e
st
1 1
_
1 2 1
=
1e
2s
_

1
0
+

2
1
_
=
1e
2s
0
s

s
e
s
1
+
s
e
2s

.
114 CHAPTER 3
y

4y = g (t) , y (0) = y

(0) = 0, we have
s
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) 4Y (s) =
1e
1
2s
_
1
s
2
s
e
s
+
1
s
e
2s
2 1 2 1
_
s 4
_
Y (s) =
1e
2s
_
1
s s
e
s
+
s
e
2s

Y (s) =
1
_
1

2
e
s
+
1
e
2s
_
.
1e
2s
s(s2)(s+2)

s(s2)(s+2) s(s2)(s+2)
1 A B C
let F
1
(s) =
s(s2)(s+2)
=
s
+
s2
+
s+2
denominator we get 1 = A (s 2) (s + 2) + Bs (s + 2) + Cs (s 2) .
Letting s = 0, 2 and s = 2 gives A =
1
, B =
1
and C =
1
.
4 8 8
So F
1
(s) =
1 1
+
1 1
+
1 1
4 s 8 8 s+2 s2

f
1
(t) = L
1
[F
1
(s)] =
1
+
1
e
2t
+
1
e
2t
=
1
(cosh 2t 1) .
4 8 8 4
So f
2
(t) = L
1
[e
s
F
1
(s)] = f
1
(t 1) H (t 1) =
1
[cosh (2t 2) 1] H (t 1)
4
and f
3
(t) = L
1
_
e
2s
F
1
(s)

= f
1
(t 2) H (t 2) =
1
[cosh (2t 4) 1] H (t 2)
4
Then f (t) = f
1
(t) 2f
2
(t) + f
3
(t)
1 2 1
= L
1
_
s(s2)(s+2)

s(s2)(s+2)
e
s
+
s(s2)(s+2)
e
2s
_
=
1
(cosh 2t 1)
1
[cosh (2t 2) 1] H (t 1)+
1
[cosh (2t 4) 1] H (t 2) .
4 2 4
1
__
1 2 1
e
2s
__
y (t) = L
1
[Y (s)] = L
1
__
1e
2s
s(s2)(s+2)

s(s2)(s+2)
e
s
+
s(s2)(s+2)
=

f (t 2n) H (t 2n)
n=0
1 1
=

(cosh (2t 4n) 1) [cosh (2t 4n 2) 1] H (t 2n 1)
4 2
n=0
{
+
1
[cosh (2t 4n 4) 1] H (t 2n 2)}H (t 2n)
4
1
=

{[cosh (2t 4n) 1] H (t 2n)2 [cosh (2t 4n 2) 1] H (t 2n 1)
4
n=0
+ [cosh (2t 4n 4) 1] H (t 2n 2)}.
n
29. The Laplace transform of each term,
t
, of e
t
is
n
1 n! 1
L
_
t

= =
n!
n! n! s
n+1
s
n+1
.
Applying the linearity property of Laplace transform we have
n n
_
t
_

1 1
_
n
L [e
t
] = L

n!
=

L
_
t
n!

=

=
s
_
1
s
. Now
s
n+1
n=0 n=0 n=0 n=0
_
1
_
n
1 s

s
is a geometric series which converges to
1
s
=
s1
if
1
n=0
s 1

1
s

< 1 s > 1. Thus for s > 1, L [e
t
] =
1
s s1
=
s1
.
3.6 INTEGRALS AND THE CONVOLUTION THEOREM
1. f (t) = t, and g (t) = e
t
. So f g =
_
t
e
t
d = e
t
_
t
e

d. Now using
0 0
integration by parts (u = , dv = e

d) we get
f g = e
t
|e

e

|
t
= e
t
(
t
te
t
e
t
+ 1) = t 1 + e
t
.
0
3. f (t) = 1, and g (t) = 1. So 1 1 =
_
1 1d = t.
0
5. Let F (s) =
1
and G (s) =
1
. Then f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] = t and
s
2
s
2
+1
g (t) = L
1
[G (s)] = sin t. So L
1
_
1 1
_
= L
1
[F (s) G (s)]
s
2
s
2
+1

=
_
t
f ( ) g (t ) d =
_
t
sin (t ) d. Now using integration by
0 0
parts (u = , dv = sin (t ) d) we get L
1
_
1 1
_
s
2
s
2
+1
= | cos (t ) + sin (t )|
t
= t sin t.
0
7. Taking the Laplace transform of both sides of the dierential equation
y

5y

+ 4y = f (t) , y (0) = y

(0) = 0, we have
s
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) 5sY (s) + 5y (0) + 4Y (s) = F (s)
2
_
s 5s + 4
_
Y (s) = F (s) Y (s) = F (s) G (s)
1 1
where G (s) =
s
2
5s+4
=
(s4)(s1)
.
Using partial fractions G (s) =
1
=
A
+
B
s
2
5s+4 s4
.
Multiplying by denominator we get 1 = A (
s
s

1
4)+B (s 1) . Letting
1 1 1 1 1
s = 1 and 4 gives A =
3
and B =
3
. So G (s) =
1
3 s4

3 s1

g (t) = L
1
[G (s)] =
1
3
e
4t

1
3
e
t
. Now the inverse Laplace transform
using the convolution theorem yields
y (t) = L
1
[Y (s)] = L
1
[F (s) G (s)]
4(t ) 1
=
_
0
t
f ( ) g (t ) d =
_
0
t
f ()
_
1
e e
t

d.
3 3
y

9y = f (t) , y (0) = y

(0) = 0, we have
s
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) 9Y (s) = F (s)
2
_
s 9
_
Y (s) = F (s) Y (s) = F (s) G (s)
1
1
where G (s) =
s 9
=
(s+3)(s3)
.
2
Using partial fractions G (s) =
1
=
A
+
B
(s+3)(s3) s+3 s3
.
Multiplying by denominator we get 1 = A (s 3)+B (s + 3) . Letting
s = 3 and 3 gives A =
1
and B =
1
. So G (s) =
1 1 1 1
6 6 6 s3

6 s+3

g (t) = L
1
[G (s)] =
1
e
3t

1
e
3t
. Now the inverse Laplace transform
6 6
using the convolution theorem yields
y (t) = L
1
[Y (s)] = L
1
[F (s) G (s)]
3(t ) 1
=
_
0
t
f ( ) g (t ) d =
_
0
t
f ()
_
1
e e
3(t )

d.
6 6
y

+ 4y = f (t) , y (0) = 0, y

(0) = 7, we have
s
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) + 4Y (s) = F (s)
7
_
s
2
+ 4
_
Y (s) = F (s) + 7 Y (s) = F (s) G (s) +
s
2
+4

1 1 2

where G (s) = = g (t) = L
1
[G (s)] =
1
sin 2t.
s
2
+4 2 s
2
+2
2

2
Now the inverse Laplace transform using the convolution theorem
yields y (t) = L
1
[Y (s)] = L
1
[F (s) G (s)] + L
1
_
7
_
s
2
+4
7 1 7
=
_
t
f ( ) g (t ) d + sin 2t =
_
t
f () sin 2 (t ) d + sin 2t.
2 2 2
0 0
116 CHAPTER 3
y

+ 7y = f (t) , y (0) = 2, we have sY (s) y (0) + 7Y (s) = F (s)
2
(s + 7) Y (s) = F (s) + 2 Y (s) = F (s) G (s) +
s+7

1

where G (s) = g (t) = L
1
[G (s)] = e
7t
.
s+7
Now the invrese Laplace transform using the convolution theorem
yields y (t) = L
1
[Y (s)] = L
1
[F (s) G (s)] + L
1
_
2
_
s+7
=
_
t
f () g (t ) d + 2e
7t
=
_
t
f ( ) e
7(t )
d + 2e
7t
.
0 0
y

2y

+ 10y = f (t) , y (0) = y

(0) = 0, we have
s
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) 2sY (s) + 2y (0) + 10Y (s) = F (s)
2
_
s 2s + 10
_
Y (s) = F (s) Y (s) = F (s) G (s)
where G (s) =
s 2
1
s+10
=
1
3 (s1)
3
2
+3
2 2
g (t) = L
1
[G (s)] =
1
e
t
sin 3t.
3
yields y (t) = L
1
[Y (s)] = L
1
[F (s) G (s)] =
_
t
f () g (t ) d
0
1
=
_
t
f () e
t
sin 3 (t ) d.
3
0
y

+ 4y

+ 13y = f (t) , y (0) = y

(0) = 0, we have
s
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) + 4sY (s) 4y (0) + 13Y (s) = F (s)
_
s
2
+ 4s + 13
_
Y (s) = F (s) Y (s) = F (s) G (s)
where G (s) =
s
2
+4
1
s+13
=
3
1
(s+2)
3
2
+3
2
g (t) = L
1
[G (s)] =
3
1
e
2t
sin 3t.
yields y (t) = L
1
[Y (s)] = L
1
[F (s) G (s)] =
_
t
f () g (t ) d
0
1
=
_
t
f () e
2(t)
sin 3 (t ) d.
3
0
19. x (t) =
_
t
cos (t ) x ( ) d + sin t = (h x) (t) + sin t, where
0
h (t) = cos t. Now taking Laplace transform of both sides using the
convolution theorem we have
X (s) = L [h (t)] L [x (t)] + L [sin t] X (s) =
s
2
s
+1
X (s) +
s
2
1
+1

s 1 1 2 2
_
1
s
2
+1
_
X (s) =
s
2
+1
X (s) =
s s+1
=
3
(s
1
2
)
2
3
_
2
3
_
2 2
+
Inverse Laplace transform then yields
1
x (t) = L
1
[X (s)] =
2
e
t
sin
3
t.
3
2
2
21. x (t) =
_
t
e
(t )
x () d + 2 = (h x) (t) + 2, where
0
h (t) = e
t
. Now taking Laplace transform of both sides using the
convolution theorem we have
1
X (s) = L [h (t)] L [x (t)] + L [2] X (s) =
s+1
X (s) +
2
s

1 2(s+1) 2 2
_
1
_
X (s) =
2
X (s) =
2
= +
2
.
s+1 s s s s

x (t) = L
1
[X (s)] = 2 + 2t.
23. x (t) =
_
t
2 sin (2t 2 ) x () d + sin t = (h x) (t) + sin t, where
0
h (t) = 2 sin 2t. Now taking Laplace transform of both sides using
the convolution theorem we have
X (s) = L [h (t)] L [x (t)] + L [sin t] X (s) =
s
2
4
+4
X (s) +
s
2
1
+1

4 1 s
2
+4
_
1
_
X (s) = X (s) =
s
2
(s
2
+1)
. Using partial fraction
s
2
+4 s
2
+1
s
2
+4 A B Cs+D
s
2
(s
2
+1)
=
s
+
s
2
+
s
2
+1
. Multiplying by denominator we get
2
s
2
+ 4 = As
_
s
2
+ 1
_
+ B
_
s
2
+ 1
_
+ (Cs + D) s . Letting s = 0 in
this equation gives B = 4
s
3
: 0 = A + C
s
2
: 1 = B + D D = 1 B = 3
s : 0 = A. So C = 0 (from the rst equation)
So
s
2
+4
=
4 3
. Hence X (s) =
4
2
3
.
2
s
2
(s
2
+1) s

s
2
+1 s

s
2
+1
x (t) = L
1
[X (s)] = 4t 3 sin t.
25. x (t) =
_
t
sinh (t ) x () d + 3 = (h x) (t) + 3, where
0
h (t) = sinh t =
1
e
t
+
1
e
t
. Now taking Laplace transform of
2 2
both sides using the convolution theorem we have
_
1 1
X (s) = L [h (t)] L [x (t)]+L [3] X (s) =
1
2 s+1

_
X (s)+
3
s

s1

1 1 1 1 s
2
3
_
1
2 s+1
+
2 s1
_
X (s) =
3
s

s 1
X (s) =
3
s
X (s) =
3
s

s
2 3
.
x (t) = L
1
[X (s)] = 3
3
t
2
.
2
27. F (s) = L [f (t)] =
_
e
st
f (t) dt.
0
So |F (s)| =
e
st
f (t) dt
|e
st
f (t)| dt =
_
e
st
|f (t)| dt
0 0 0
_
e
st
Me
t
dt = M
_
e
(s)t
dt =
M
for s > .
0 0
sa
29. (i) Continuity at t = 1 :
lim g (t) = e and lim g (t) = 1 + e + 1 = e lim g (t) exists
t 1

t 1
+

t 1
and lim g (t) = e = g (1) g (t) is continuous at t = 1.
t 1
Dierentiability at t = 1 :
g(1+h)g(1)
1+h h
g

(1) = lim
h
= lim
1+e
h
+e
does not exist.
h 0 h 0
Now, in terms of unit step function, g (t) can be written as
t
e
t
[1 H (t 1)] +
_
1 + e + e
t1
_
H (t 1)
t t1
= e +
_
e 1

H (t 1)
118 CHAPTER 3
Taking Laplace transform of both sides of the dierential equation
y

y = H (t 1) , y (0) = 1, we have sY (s) y (0) Y (s) =
e
s
(s 1) Y (s) 1 =
e
s
Y (s) =
_
1 +
e
s
_
1
=
1
+
e
s
s
.
s

s s1 s1 s(s1)
1 A B
Using partial fraction let F (s) =
s(s1)
=
s
+
s1
. Multiplying by
denominator we get 1 = A (s 1) + Bs. Letting s = 0 and 1 in this
equation gives A = 1 and B = 1. Hence F (s) =
1 1
s1

f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] = e
t
1. Thus L
1
_
s(
e
s
s
1)
_
= L
1
[e
s
s
F (s)]
t1
= f (t 1) H (t 1) =
_
e 1

H (t 1) .
e
s
Hence L
1
[Y (s)] = L
1
_
1
_
+ L
1
_
s(s1)
_
s1
t t1
y (t) = e +
_
e 1

H (t 1) which is the same as unit step
function of g (t) .
(ii) From (i)
dy
y = H (t 1)
dy
= y + H (t 1) , y (0) = 1.
dt dt
Integrating from 0 to t we have

y (t) = y (0) +
_
t
[y ( ) + H ( 1)] d
0

y (t) = 1 +
_
t
[y ( ) + H ( 1)] d valid for all t including t = 1.
0
3.7 IMPULSES AND DISTRIBUTIONS
1.Taking the Laplace transform of both sides of the dierential equation
y

+ 8y = (t 1) + (t 2) , y (0) = 0, we have
sY (s) y (0) + 8Y (s) = e
s
+ e
2s
e
s
+
e
2s
1
(s + 8) Y (s) = e
s
+ e
2s
Y (s) =
s+8
. Let F (s) =
s+8 s+8
f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] = e
8t
. Then using
L
1
[e
cs
F (s)] = f (t c) H (t c) the invese Laplace transform
yields y (t) = L
1
[Y (s)] = L
1
_
e
s
_
+ L
1
_
e
2s
_
s+8 s+8
= e
8(t1)
H (t 1) + e
8(t2)
H (t 2) .
y

+ 6y

+ 109y = (t 1) + (t 7) , y (0) = y

(0) = 0, we
have s
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) + 6sY (s) y (0) + 109Y (s) = e
s
+ e
7s
e
s
e
7s

_
s
2
+ 6s + 109
1
_
Y (s) =
1
e
s
+
10
e
7s
Y (s) =
s
2
+6s+109
+
s
2
+6s+109
Let F (s) =
s
2
+6s+109
=
10 (s+3)
2
+10
2
f (t) = L
1
[F (s)] =
1
e
3t
sin 10t. Then using
10
L
1
[e
cs
F (s)] = f (t c) H (t c) the invese Laplace transform
yields y (t) = L
1
[Y (s)] = L
1
_
e
s 1
_
+L
1
_
e
7s 1
_
s
2
+6s+109 s
2
+6s+109
=
1
e
3(t1)
sin 10 (t 1) H (t 1)+
1
e
3(t7)
sin 10 (t 7) H (t 7) .
10 10
y

+ 4y

+ 3y = 1 + (t 3) , y (0) = 0, y

(0) = 1, we have
s
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) + 4sY (s) 4y (0) + 3Y (s) =
1
+ e
3s
1+e
3s
1
_
s
2
+ 4s + 3
_
Y (s) 1 =
1
+ e
3s
Y (s) =
s
+
s

s
2
+4s+3 s(s
2
+4s+3)
Y (s) =
1
+
e
3s
+
1
. Using partial fractions
(s+3)(s+1) (s+3)(s+1) s(s+3)(s+1)
let F
1
(s) =
1
=
A
+
B
1 = A (s + 1) + B (s + 3) .
(s+3)(s+1) s+3 s+1

Letting s = 3 and s = 1 gives A =
1
and B =
2
1
. Thus
2
1 1 1 1
F
1
(s) =
2
1
s+1

2 s+3
f
1
(t) = L
1
[F
1
(s)] =
2
1
e
t

2
e
3t
.
Then using L
1
[e
cs
F
1
(s)] = f
1
(t c) H (t c) we have
f
2
(t) = L
1
_
e
3s
F
1
(s)

=
_
1
e
(t3)
1
1
e
3(t3)
A

H (t
B
3) .
C
2 2
3
(s) =
s(s+3)(s+1)
=
s+3
+
s+1
+
s
1 = As (s + 1) + Bs (s + 3) + C (s + 3) (s + 1) .
Letting s = 3, s = 1 and s = 0 gives A =
1
6
, B =
1
2
and C =
1
3
.
1 1 1 1
Thus F
3
(s) =
1
6 s+3

2 s+1
+
3s
f
3
(t) = L
1
[F
3
(s)] =
1
e
3t

1
e
t
+
1
.
6 2 3
Hence y (t) = L
1
[Y (s)] = f
1
(t) + f
2
(t) + f
3
(t)
=
1
e
t 1
e
3t
+
_
1
e
(t3) 1
e
3(t3)

H (t 3) +
1
e
3t 1
e
t
+
1
2 2 2 2 6 2 3
1 1
=
1

e
3t
+
_
1
e
(t3)

e
3(t3)

H (t 3)

1
3 2
1
_
e
(t3)
2
=
3
_

1 e
3t
_
+
e
3(t3)

H (t 3) .
3 2
y

+ y = 1 + (t 2) , y (0) = 1, y

(0) = 0, we have
s
2
Y (s) sy (0) y

(0) + Y (s) =
1
+ e
2s
1
+ e
2s 1
_
s
2
+ 1
_
Y (s) s =
s _
s
2
+ 1
_
Y (s) = s + e
2s
+
s s

s e
2s
1

Y (s) =
(s
2
+1)
+
(s
2
+1)
+
s(s
2
+1)
.
f
1
(t) = L
1
_
s
_
= cos t
(s
2
+1)
1
f
2
(t) = L
1
_
e
2s
_
= sin (t 2) H (t 2)
(s
2
+1)
3
(s) =
1
=
A
+
Bs+C
s(s
2
+1) s s
2
+1
1 = A
_
s
2
+ 1
_
+ (Bs + C) s. Now s = 0 yields A = 1.
s
2
: 0 = A + B B = A = 1
s : 0 = C.
s
Thus F
3
(s) =
1
s

s
2
+1
f
3
(t) = L
1
[F
3
(s)] = 1 cos t.
Hence y (t) = L
1
[Y (s)] = f
1
(t) + f
2
(t) + f
3
(t)
y (t) = cos t + sin (t 2) H (t 2) + 1 cos t
= 1 + sin (t 2) H (t 2) = 1 + sin tH (t 2) .
9. (a) The following are graphs of the solutions of Exercises 1 through 4.
120 CHAPTER 3
t
1
1 2
y
t
1
5
y
t
0.05
y
t
1
y
5
11. L
_
(n)
(t a)

=
_
e
st
(n)
(t a) dt
0
=
_
(n)
(t a) e
st
dt
_
0
(n)
(t a) e
st
dt

If t = a t a = 0 , then the property (i) gives
(n)
(t a) = 0.
In this case, everything on the right hand side is 0. But for t = a
n
d
n
property (ii) gives
_
(n)
(t a) e
st
dt = (1) (e
st
) |
t=a
dt
n
n
e
as n
e
as n
e
as
= (1)
n
(1)
n
s

= s . Thus L
_
(n)
(t a)

= s .
Chapter Four
An Introduction to Linear Systems of Dierential
Equations and Their Phase Plane
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 INTRODUCTION TO LINEAR SYSTEMS OF
_
0 1
_
1. A =
4 0
. The eigenvalue, , satises det (A I) = 0
det
_
1
_
= 0
2
+ 4 = 0 = 2i (complex).
_
2
4
1
_

3. A = . The eigenvalue, , satises det (A I) = 0
1 2

det
_
2
1

2
1

_
= 0 (2 )
2
1 = 0 2 = 1
= 3, 1.
_
u
_ _
2 1
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
Eigenvector, , satises = .
v 1 v 0
_
1 1
_ _
2
u
_

_
0
_
Eigenvector for = 3 : =
1 1 v 0
_
1
_
u + v = 0 u = 1, v = 1 and eigenvector is
1
.
_
1 1
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
Eigenvector for = 1 : = u + v = 0
1 1 v 0

_
1
_
u = 1, v = 1 and eigenvector is .
1
5. A =
_
3 1
_
. The eigenvalue, , satises
1 2
det (A I) = 0 det
_
3
1

2

1

_
= 0
(3 ) (2 ) + 1 = 0
2
5 + 7 = 0
5
2528 5
= =
2
i (complex).
2 2
0
122 CHAPTER 4
_
1 0
_
7. A = . The eigenvalue, , satises
1 3
det (A I) = 0 det
_
1
3
0

_
= 0
1
(1 ) (3 ) = 0 = 1, 3.
_
u
_

_
1 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
v 1 3 v
_
0 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
Eigenvector for = 1 :
4
= u 4v = 0
1 v 0
_
4
_
v = 1, u = 4 and eigenvector is .
1
_
4 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
1 0 v
=
0
4u = 0
_
0
_
u = 0, v is free to choose, say, v = 1 and eigenvector is .
1
9. A =
_
4 3
_
1 0

det
_
4 3
_
= 0 (4 ) + 3 = 0
1
2
4 + 3 = 0 ( 1) ( 3) = 0 = 1, 3.
_
u
_

_
4 3
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
v 1 v 0
_
3 3
_ _
u
_
=
_
0
_
3u 3v = 0
1 1 v 0

_
1
_
1
_
1 3
_ _
u
_
=
_
0
_
u 3v = 0
1 3 v 0
_
1
_
3
_
3 2
_
11. A =
0 4
_
3 2
_
det
0 4
= 0 (3 ) (4 ) = 0 = 3, 4.
_
u
_ _
3 2
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
v 0 4 v 0
_
0 2
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
Eigenvector for = 3 : = 2v = 0
0 1 v 0

_
1
_
v = 0, u is free to choose, say, u = 1 and eigenvector is .
_
1 2
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
0 0 v 0
_
2
_
u + 2v = 0 v = 1, u = 2 and eigenvector is .
1
0
123 Linear Systems of Dierential Equations and Their Phase Plane
_
0 1
_
13. A = . trA = 0 + 0 = 0 and det A = 0 + 4 = 4.
4 0
The eigenvalue, , satises det (A I) = 0
1
_

det
_

= 0
2
+ 4 = 0 = 2i (complex).
4

Let
1
= 2i and
2
= 2i. Then
1
+
2
= 0 = trA and
2
= 2i (2i) = 4i
2
= 4 = det A.
_
2 1
_
15. A = . trA = 2 + 2 = 4 and det A = 4 1 = 3.
1 2
_
2 1
_
det = 0
1 2
2
(2 ) 1 = 0 2 = 1 = 3, 1.
Let
1
= 3 and
2
= 1. Then
1
+
2
= 4 = trA and
2
= 3 (1) = 3 = det A.
dx
_
dt
_ _
0 1
_ _
x
_
d
_
x
_ _
0 1
_ _
x
_
17.
dy
=
dt
=
dt
4 0 y

y 4 0 y
_
x
_ _
u
_ _
u
_
= e
t
where is eigenvalue and is
y v v
_
0 1
_
corresponding eigenvector of A = .
4 0
1
_

det
_

= 0
2
+ 4 = 0 = 2i (complex).
4

dx
_
dt
_ _
2 1
_ _
x
_
d
_
x
_ _
2 1
_ _
x
_
19.
dy
=
1 2 y

dt
y
=
1 2 y
dt
_
x
_ _
u
_ _
u
_
= e
t
y v v
_
2 1
_
1 2
det
_
2 1
_
= 0 (2 )
2
1 = 0
1 2

2 = 1 = 3, 1.
_
2
_
u
_
1
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
v 1 2 v 0
_
1 1
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
1 1 v 0
_
1
_
u + v = 0 u = 1, v = 1 and eigenvector is .
1
_
1
_
3t
Solution of the dierential equation is e .
1
_
1 1
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
1 1 v 0

124 CHAPTER 4
_
1
_
u = 1, v = 1 and eigenvector is . Solution of the
_
1
_
1
dierential equation is e
t
.
1
General solution of the dierential equation is
_
x
_ _
1
_
3t
_
1
_
t
= c
1
e + c
2
e .
y 1 1
dx
21.
_
dt
_
=
_
3 1
_ _
x
_
d
_
x
_
=
_
3 1
_ _
x
_
dy
1 2 y

dt
y 1 2 y
dt
_
x
_
t
_
u
_ _
u
_

y
= e
v
where is eigenvalue and
v
is
_
3 1
_
1 2
_
3
_
det
1 2

1

= 0 (3 ) (2 ) + 1 = 0
dx
2
5 + 7 = 0 =
5
2528
=
2
5

3
i (complex).
_
dt
_ _
1 0
_ _
x
_
2
d
_
x
_ _
2
1 0
_ _
x
_
23.
dy
=
1 y
dt
y
=
1 y
dt
3
3
_
x
_
= e
t
_
u
_
_
u
_
is
y v v
_
1 0
_
1 3
det
_
1
1

3
0

_
= 0 (1 ) (3 ) = 0
= 1, 3.
_
u
_ _
1 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
v 1 3 v 0
_
0 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
1 4 v
=
0
u 4v = 0
_
4
_
v = 1, u = 4 and eigenvector is . Solution of the dierential
1
equation is
_
4
_
e
t
.
1
_
4 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
1 0 v
=
0
4u = 0
_
0
_
1
_
0
_
Solution of the dierential equation is e
3t
.
1
_
x
_ _
4
_ _
0
_
= c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
3t
.
y 1 1
dx
_
dt
_ _
4 3
_ _
x
_
d
_
x
_ _
4 3
_ _
x
_
25.
dy
=
1 0 y

dt
y
=
1 0 y
dt
_
x
_ _
u
_ _
u
_
= e
t
y v v
corresponding eigenvector of A =
_
4 3
_
.
1 0
det
_
4 3
_
= 0 (4 ) + 3 = 0
2
4 + 3 = 0
1
( 1) ( 3) = 0 = 1, 3.
_
u
_

_
4 3
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
v 1 v 0
_
3 3
_ _
u
_
=
_
0
_
3u 3v = 0
1 1 v 0

_
1
_
u = 1, v = 1 and eigenvector is . Solution of the dierential
1
_
1
_
t
equation is e .
1
_
1 3
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
1 v
=
0
u 3v = 0
3
_
1
_
3
_
1
_
3t
equation is e .
3
_
x
_ _
1
_
t
_
1
_
3t
= c
1
e + c
2
e .
y 1 3
dx
_ _ _
3 2
_ _
x
_
d
_
x
_ _
3 2
_ _
x
_
27.
dt
= =
dy
0 4 y

dt
y 0 4 y
dt
_
x
_
= e
t
_
u
_
_
u
_
is
y v v
_
3 2
_
0 4
_
3 2
_
det
0 4
= 0 (3 ) (4 ) = 0 = 3, 4.
_
u
_ _
3 2
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
v 0 4 v 0
_
0 2
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
0 1 v 0

_
1
_
_
1
_
3t
0
0
126 CHAPTER 4
_
1 2
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
0 0 v 0
_
2
_
u + 2v = 0 v = 1, u = 2 and eigenvector is .
1
_
2
_
4t
1
_
x
_ _
1
_
3t
_
2
_
4t
= c
1
e + c
2
e .
y 0 1
dx
= x
_ _
x
_ _
1 0
_ _
x
_
29.
dt
d
=
dy
= x + 2y

dt
y 1 2 y
dt
_
x
_
= e
t
_
u
_
_
u
_
is
y v v
_
1 0
_
1 2
_
1 0
_
det
1 2
= 0 (1 ) (2 ) = 0 = 1, 2.
_
u
_ _
1 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
v 1 2 v 0
_
0 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
1 1 v 0

_
1
_
1
_
1
_
t
equation is e .
1
_
1 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
1 0 v
=
0
u = 0
_
0
_
1
Solution of the dierential equation is
_
0
_
e
2t
.
1
_
x
_ _
1
_
t
_
0
_
= c
1
e + c
2
e
2t
.
y 1 1
dx
_ _
x
_ _ _
x
_
dt
= x 5y
d
_
1 5
31.
dy
=
= x + y

dt
y 1 1 y
dt
_
x
_ _
u
_ _
u
_
= e
t
y v v
corresponding eigenvector of A =
_
1 5
_
.
1 1
_

det
_
1
1

1

5

= 0 (1 ) (1 ) + 5 = 0
dx
2
+ 4 = 2i.
33.
dt
= x y
_
d
_
x
_
=
_
1 1
_ _
x
_
dy
= x + y

dt
y 1 1 y
dt
_
x
_
= e
t
_
u
_
_
u
_
y v v
is corresponding eigenvector of A =
_
1 1
_
.
1 1
2
det
_
1
1

1

1

_
= 0 (1 ) + 1 = 0

2
(1 ) = 1 1 = i = 1 i.
dx
_ _ _ _ _ _
dt
= 5x 4y
d
x
_
5 4 x
35.
dy
=
= 2x + y

dt
y 2 1 y
dt
_
x
_
= e
t
_
u
_
_
u
_
is
y v v
_
5 4
_
2 1
_
5 4
_
det
1
= 0 (5 ) (1 ) + 8 = 0
2
2
+ 4 + 3 = 0 ( + 1) ( + 3) = 1, 3.
_
u
_

_
5

_ _
u
_
Eigenvector, , satises
4
= 0.
v 2 1 v
_
4 4
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
2 2 v 0
_
1
_
4u 4v = 0 v = 1, u = 1 and eigenvector is
1
.
_
1
_
e
t
.
1
_
2 4
_ _
u
_
=
_
0
_
2 4 v 0
2u 4v = 0 v = 1, u = 2, and eigenvector is
_
1
2
_
.
_
2
_
e
3t
Solution of the dierential equation is .
1
_
x
_ _
1
_
e
t
_
2
_
e
3t
= c
1
+ c
2
.
y 1 1
dx
= y
_ _
x
_ _
0 1
_ _
x
_
dt
d
37.
dy
dt
=
= 2x + y

y 2 1 y
dt
_
x
_ _
u
_ _
u
_
= e
t
y v v
_
0 1
_
2 1
128 CHAPTER 4
_
1
_
det
2 1
= 0 (1 ) 2 = 0

2
2 = 0 ( + 1) ( 2) = 1, 2.
_
u
_ _
1
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
v 2 v 0
_
1 1
_ _
1
u
_

_
0
_
2 2 v 0

_
1
_
_
1
_
1
equation is e
t
.
1
_
2 1
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
2 1 v 0
_
1
_
2u + v = 0 u = 1, v = 2, and eigenvector is .
2
_
1
_
2t
2
_
x
_ _
1
_ _
1
_
= c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
2t
.
dx
y 1
_ _
x
_
2
_ _
x
_
dt
= 5x y
d
_
5 1
39.
dy
dt
=
dt
= 3x y

y 3 1 y
_
x
_ _
u
_ _
u
_
= e
t
y v v
_
5 1
_
3 1
det
_
5
1

1

_
= 0 (5 ) (1
) + 3 = 0
3
2
+ 6 + 8 = 0 ( + 2) ( + 4) = 2, 4.
_
u
_

_
5

_ _
u
_ _
0
_
1
= .
v 3 1 v 0
_
3 1
_ _
u
_
=
_
0
_
3 1 v 0
_
1
_
3u v = 0 u = 1, v = 3 and eigenvector is
3
.
_
1
_
2t
.
_
1 1
_ _
u
3
_
=
_
0
_
3 3 v 0
_
1
_
u v = 0 u = 1, v = 1, and eigenvector is
1
.
_
1
_
4t
.
1
_
x
_ _
1
_ _
1
_
= c
1
e
2t
+ c
2
e
4t
.
dx
y
= x + 4y
3
_ _
x
_
_
1
1 4
_ _
x
_
41.
dt
d
=
dy
dt
dt
= 4x y

y 4 1 y
_
x
_
= e
t
_
u
_
_
u
_
is
y v v
_
1 4
_
4 1
4
_
2
det
_
1
4

1
= 0 (1 ) + 16 = 0
2
dx
(1 + ) = 16 1 + = 4i = 1 4i.
= 4x + 3y
_
d
_
x
_ _
4 3
_ _
x
_
43.
dt
=
dy
= 3x + 4y

dt
y 3 4 y
dt
_
x
_
= e
t
_
u
_
_
u
_
is
y v v
_
4 3
_
3 4
_
4 3
_
2
det
3 4
= 0 (4 ) 9 = 0

2
8 + 7 = 0 ( 1) ( 7) = 1, 7.
_
u
_ _
4 3
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
v 3 v 0
_
3 3
_ _
u
_
4
_

0
_
Eigenvector for = 1 : = 3u + 3v = 0
3 3 v 0

_
1
_
1
_
1
_
t
equation is e .
1
_
3 3
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
3 3 v 0
_
1
_
3u + 3v = 0 u = 1, v = 1, and eigenvector is .
1
_
1
_
7t
1
_
x
_ _
1
_ _
1
_
= c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
7t
.
y 1 1
_
2
_ _
0
_
45. = 0, = 3, a = , b = .
0 1
130 CHAPTER 4
_
x
_
0t
__
2
_ _
0
_ _
y
= c
1
e
0
cos 3t
1
sin 3t
__
2
_ _
0
_ _
+c
2
e
0t
sin 3t + cos 3t
0 1
_
2 cos 3t
_ _
2 sin 3t
_
= c
1
+ c
2
.
sin 3t cos 3t
_
1
_ _
1
_
47. = 1, = 2, a = , b = .
0 3
_
x
_
t
__
1
_ _
1
_ _
y
= c
1
e
0
cos 2t
3
sin 2t
__
1
_ _
1
_ _
+c
2
e
t
sin 2t + cos 2t
0 3
_
cos 2t sin 2t
_ _
cos 2t + sin 2t
_
= c
1
e
t
+ c
2
e
t
.
_
1
_
3 sin 2t
_
1
_
3 cos 2t
49. = 0, = 5, a = , b = .
0 1
_
x
_
0t
__
1
_ _
1
_ _
y
= c
1
e
0
cos 5t
1
sin 5t
__
1
_ _
1
_ _
+c
2
e
0t
sin 5t + cos 5t
0 1
_
cos 5t sin 5t
_ _
cos 5t + sin 5t
_
= c
1
+ c
2
.
sin 5t cos 5t
4.3 PHASE PLANE FOR LINEAR SYSTEMS OF
1.
0 2 2
0
2
x
y
3.
0 2 2
0
2
x
y
5.
0 2 2
0
2
x
y
_
1 0
_
7. A =
1 2
_
1 0
_
det
1 2
= 0 (1 ) (2 ) = 0
= 1, 2, both positive Unstable node.
_
x
_ _
u
_ _
u
_
= e
t
so that eigenvector, , satises
y v v
_
1 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
= .
1 2 v 0
_
0 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
1 1 v 0

_
1
_
v = 1, u = 1, and eigenvector is . Solution of the
1
_
1
_
t
dierential equation is e .
1
_
1 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
1 0 v 0
u = 0
1
132 CHAPTER 4
_
0
_
_
0
_
2t
1
Phase plane:
_
1 5
_
9. A =
1 1
det
_
1
1

1

5

_
= 0 (1 ) (1 ) + 5 = 0

2
+ 4 = 2i, complex with 0 real part Stable center.
0
0
x
y
11. A =
_
1 1
_
1 1

det
_
1
1

1

_
= 0 (1 )
2
+ 1 = 0
1

2
(1 ) = 1 1 = i = 1 i, complex with
positive real part Unstable spiral.
_
5 4
_
13. A =
2 1
det
_
5
2

1

4

_
= 0 (5 ) (1 ) + 8 = 0
2
+ 4 + 3 = 0 ( + 1) ( + 3) = 1, 3, both negative
_
x
_
t
_
u
_

Stable node.
y
= e
v
so that eigenvector,
_
u
_ _
5 4
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
, satises = .
v 2 1 v 0
_
4 4
_ _
u
_
=
_
0
_
2 2 v 0
_
1
_
4u 4v = 0 v = 1, u = 1 and eigenvector is
1
.
_
1
_
t
.
1
_
2 4
_ _
u
_
=
_
0
_
2 4 v 0
_
2
_
2u 4v = 0 v = 1, u = 2, and eigenvector is .
1
_
2
_
e
3t
.
1
_
0 1
_
15. A =
2 1
det
_
2

1
1

_
= 0 (1 ) 2 = 0
2
2 = 0 ( + 1) ( 2) = 1, 2, one positive
_
x
_ _
u
_
and one negative Unstable saddle point.
y
= e
t
v
so
_
u
_ _
1
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
that eigenvector, , satises = .
v 2 1 v 0
_
1 1
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
2 2 v
=
0
u + v = 0
_
1
_
_
1
_
1
equation is e
t
.
1
_
2 1
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
2 1 v 0
_
1
_
2u + v = 0 u = 1, v = 2, and eigenvector is
2
.
134 CHAPTER 4
_
1
_
2t
2
dx
dt
= 5x y
_
d
_
x
_ _
5 1
_ _
x
_
17. =
dy
dt
y 3 y
dt
= 3x y
1
_
x
_ _
u
_ _
u
_
= e
t
where , are eigenvalue and
y v v
corresponding eigenvector, respectively, of A =
_
5 1
_
.
3 1
det
_
5
3

1

1

_
= 0 (5 ) (1
) + 3 = 0

2
+ 6 + 8 = 0 ( + 2) ( + 4) = 2, 4, both negative
Stable node.
_
u
_ _
5 1
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
Eigenvector for
v
= 2 :
_
3
3
1
_ _
u
1
_

=

_
0
_
v 0
3 1 v 0
_
1
_
3u v = 0 u = 1, v = 3 and eigenvector is
3
.
_
1
_
2t
.
_
1 1
_ _
u
3
_
=
_
0
_
3 3 v 0
_
1
_
u v = 0 u = 1, v = 1, and eigenvector is .
_ _
1
1
e
4t
.
1
dx
= x + 4y
_ _
x
_
4
_ _
x
_
dt
d
_
1
19. =
dy

dt
y y
dt
= 4x y 4 1
_
x
_ _
u
_ _
u
_
= e
t
where , are eigenvalue and
y v v
_
1 4
_
corresponding eigenvector, respectively, of A = .
4 1
_
1 4
_
2
det = 0 + 16 = 0
4 1
(1 )
2
(1 + ) = 16 1 + = 4i = 1 4i,
complex with negative real part Stable spiral.
dx
= 4x + 3y
_
d
_
x
_ _
4 3
_ _
x
_
dt
21.
dy
=
= 3x + 4y

dt
y 3 4 y
dt
_
x
_
= e
t
_
u
_
where ,
_
u
_
are eigenvalue and
y v v
_
4 3
_
corresponding eigenvector, respectively, of A = .
3 4
_
4 3
_
2
det
3 4
= 0 (4 ) 9 = 0

2
8 + 7 = 0 ( 1) ( 7) = 1, 7, both positive
Unstable node.
_
u
_ _
4 3
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
v 3 4 v 0
_
3 3
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
Eigenvector for = 1 : = 3u + 3v = 0
3 3 v 0

_
1
_
1
_
1
_
t
equation is e .
1
_
3 3
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
3 3 v 0
_
1
_
3u + 3v = 0 u = 1, v = 1, and eigenvector is
1
.
136 CHAPTER 4
_
1
_
7t
1
_
0 1
_
23. A =
4
0
det
_
1
_
= 0
2
+ 4 = 0 = 2i, complex with
4
0 real part Stable center.
_
2 1
_
1 2
_
2 1
_
2
det
1 2
= 0 (2 ) 1 = 0
_
2 =
_
1 = 3, 1, both positive
_
Unstable node.
x
_
= e
t
u
_
u
_
, satises
y v v
_
2 1
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
= .
1 2 v 0
_
1 1
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
1 1 v 0
_
1
_
u + v = 0 u = 1, v = 1 and eigenvector is .
1
_
1
_
3t
.
1
_
1 1
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
1 1 v 0

_
1
_
u = 1, v = 1 and eigenvector is . Solution of the
1
_
1
_
t
dierential equation is e .
1
27. A =
_
3 1
_
1 2

det
_
3
1

2

1

_
= 0 (3 ) (2 ) + 1 = 0

2
5 + 7 = 0 =
5
2528
=
2
5

3
i, complex with
2 2
positive real part Unstable spiral.
_
1 0
_
det
1
_
1
1
3
0
_
= 0 (1 ) (3 ) = 0
3
= 1, 3, one positive and one negative
_
x
_ _
u
_
Unstable saddle point. = e
t
y v
_
u
_ _
1 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
, satises = .
v 1 3 v 0
_
0 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
1 4 v
=
0
u 4v = 0
_
4
_
1
_
4
_
t
equation is e .
1
_
4 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
1 0 v
=
0
4u = 0
1
138 CHAPTER 4
_
0
_
_
0
_
3t
.
1
_
4 3
_
1 0
_
4 3
_
det
1
= 0 (4 ) + 3 = 0
2
4 + 3 = 0 ( 1) ( 3) = 0 = 1, 3, both positive
_

_ _ _

Unstable node.
x
= e
t
u
y v
_
u
_
, satises
_
4 3
_ _
u
_
=
_
0
_
.
v 1 v 0
_
3

3
_ _
u
_
=
_
0
_
3u 3v = 0
1 1 v 0

_
1
_
1
_
1
_
t
equation is e .
1
_
1 3
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
3
= u 3v = 0
1 v 0
_
1
_
3
_
1
_
3t
equation is e .
3
33. A =
_
2 1
_
1 0
_
2 1
_
det
1
= 0 (2 ) + 1 = 0

2
2 + 1 = 0 ( 1)
2
= 1, 1.
Not two distinct eigenvalues.
_
1 0
_
35. A =
0 3
_
1 0
_
det
3
= 0 (1 ) (3 ) = 0
0
= 1, 3, one positive and one negative
Unstable saddle point.
_
x
_
= e
t
_
u
_
y v
_
u
_ _
1 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
, satises = .
v 0 3 v 0
_
0 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
0 4 v
=
0
4v = 0
_
1
_
0
_
1
_
t
0
_
4 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
0 0 v
=
0
4u = 0
_
0
_
1
_
0
_
3t
.
1
140 CHAPTER 4
_
1 0
_
37. (29) A = . det A = 3, trA = 2.
1 3
2
Now 4 det A = 12 < 4 = (trA) eigenvalues are real.
Also det A < 0 implies unstable saddle point.
(31) A =
_
4 3
_
. det A = 3, trA = 4.
1 0
2
Also det A > 0 and trA > 0 imply unstable node.
(33) A =
_
2 1
_
. det A = 1, trA = 2.
1 0
2
Now 4 det A = 4 = (trA) eigenvalues are real (repeated).
_
1 0
_

(35) A = . det A = 3, trA = 2.
0 3
2
Also det A < 0 implies unstable saddle point.
39.
41.
Chapter Five
Mostly Nonlinear First-Order Dierential Equations
5.1 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
5.2 EQUILIBRIA AND STABILITY
1.
dx
= x (x 1) = f (x)
dt
Equilibria: f = 0 x (x 1) = 0 x = 0, 1.
dx
2

3. = (x 1) (x 2) = f (x)
dt
2
dx
Equilibria: f = 0 (x 1) (x 2) = 0 x = 1, 2.
5.
dt
= sin x = f (x)
dx
Equilibria: f = 0 sin x = 0 x = n, for n = 0, 1, 2, ...
7. = x (a bx) = f (x)
dt
Equilibria: f = 0 x (a bx) = 0 x = 0,
a
.
b
9.
dx
= x (x 1)
2
= f (x)
dt
2
Equilibria: f = 0 x (x 1) = 0 x = 0, 1.
2

f

(x) = 3x 4x + 1. For x = 0, f

(0) = 1 > 0
x = 0 is an unstable equilibrium.
Solution of the linearized dierential equation
dy
= f

(x
e
) y = f

(0) y = y for this equilibrium is
dt
y = x 0 = ce
f
(0)t
x = ce
t
.
Graph:
For x = 1, f

(1) = 0 Linear analysis is inconclusive.
11.
dx
=
_
x
2
1
_ _
x
2
3
_

= f (x) .
dt
2 2
Equilibria: f = 0
_
x 1
_ _
x 3
_
= 0 x = 1,
3.
f

(x) = 2x
_
x
2
3
_
+
_
x
2
1
_
2x.
For x = 1, f

(1) = 4 < 0 x = 1 is a stable equilibrium.
dy
= f

(x
e
) y = 4y for this equilibrium is
dt
y = x 1 = ce
f
(1)t
= ce
4t
x = ce
4t
+ 1.
Graph:
For x = 1, f

(1) = 4 > 0 x = 1 is an unstable equilibrium.
Solution of the linearized dierential equation for this equilibrium is
y = x + 1 = ce
f
(1)t
= ce
4t
x = ce
4t
1.
143 MOSTLY NONLINEAR FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Graph:
For x =
3, f

_
3
_
= 4
3 > 0 x =
3 is an unstable
equilibrium. Solution of the linearized dierential equation for
this equilibrium is
y = x
3 = ce
f
3)t
= ce
4
3t
x = ce
4
3t
+
3.
Graph:
For x =
3, f

_
3
_
= 4
3 < 0 x =
3 is a stable
equilibrium. Solution of the linearized dierential equation for this
equilibrium is
y = x +
3 = ce
f
3)t
= ce
4
3t
x = ce
4
3t
3.
Graph:
dx
13.
dt
= tan x = f (x) .
Equilibria: f = 0 tan x = 0 x = n, for all integer n.
f

(x) = sec
2
x and f

(n) = 1 > 0 for all integer n.
So all equilibria are unstable.
dy
= f

(x
e
) y = f

(n) y = y is
dt
y = x n = ce
f

(n)t
= ce
t
x = ce
t
+ n for all integer n.
15.
dx
= e
3x
5 = f (x) .

dt
Equilibria: f = 0 e
3x
= 5
1
ln 5.
1
f

(x) = 3e
3x
and f

_
ln 5
_
=
x
15
=
<
0
3
.
3
So x =
1
3
ln 5 is a stable equilibrium. Solution of the linearized
1
dierential equation
dy
= f

(x
e
) y = f

_
ln 5
_
y = 15y is
dt 3
y = x +
1
3
ln 5 = ce
f
(
1
ln 5)t
= ce
15t
x = ce
15t

1
3
ln 5.
3
5.3 ONE DIMENSIONAL PHASE LINES
1.
dx
= x (x 1) = f (x)
dt
Phase line:
dx
dt
x
1
Equilibria: f = 0 x (x 1) = 0 x = 0, 1.
From the graph above, x = 0 is stable and x = 1 is unstable.
144 CHAPTER 5
3.
dx
dt
= (x 1) (x 2)
2
= f (x)
Phase line:
0 1 2
5
dx
dt
x
2
Equilibria: f = 0 (x 1) (x 2) = 0 x = 1, 2.
From the graph above, x = 1 is unstable and x = 2 is unstable.
dx
5.
dt
= sin x = f (x)
Phase line: see text page 411.
Equilibria: f = 0 sin x = 0 x = n, for n = 0, 1, 2, ...
From the graph of the phase line, x = n is unstable if n is even
integer
and x = n is stable if n is odd integer.
dx
7.
dt
= x
2
+ 1 = f (x)
Phase line:
dx
dt
x
Equilibria: f = 0 x
2
+ 1 = 0 has no real solution (there
is no equilibrium in this problem).
9.
dx
= x
3
= f (x)
dt
Phase line:
dx
dt
x
Equilibria: f = 0 x
3
= 0 x = 0.
From the graph above, x = 0 is unstable.
11.
dx
= (x 3)
4
= f (x) .
dt
Phase line:
3
dx
dt
x
4
Equilibria: f = 0 (x 3) = 0 x = 3.
From the graph above, x = 3 is unstable.
13.
dx
= (x 1) (x 2) (x 3) (x 4) = f (x) .
dt
Phase line:
Equilibria: f = 0 (x 1) (x 2) (x 3) (x 4) = 0
x = 1, 2, 3, 4.
From the graph above, x = 1 and 3 are stable but x = 2
and 4 are unstable.
15.
146 CHAPTER 5
0
1
x
t
17.
x
1
0
1
3
3

t
19.
dx
= x
2
. Separation of variables gives
dx
= dt which,
dt x
2
on integration, yields
x
1
= t + c x =
t+
1
c
. Note
that c > 0 if x (0) < 0 and c < 0 if x (0) > 0. If x (0) > 0
and x (0) is close to zero, then x (t) increases since
dx 1
dt
=
(t+c)
2
> 0 and thus the solution is not stable.
21.
dx
= x
2
dx
= dt which,
dt x
2
on integration, yields
1
= t + c x (t) =
1
for t 0.
x

t+c
Initial condition 0 > x (0) =
1
c
(thus c > 0). Then from
x (t) =
t+
1
c
, we see that x (t) has a vertical asymptote at
t = c which is less than zero (since c > 0). Thus there are
no vertical asymptotes for t 0. From x (t) =
t+
1
c
,
0, but x (t) = 0 for nite t. as t , x (t)
5.4 APPLICATION TO POPULATION DYNAMICS: THE LO
GISTIC EQUATION
dx
1. = ax bx
3
=
_
a bx
2
_
x = kx where k = a bx
2
is the growth rate
dt
with a > 0, b > 0, x 0.
(a) k = a bx
2
> 0 bx
2
< a x <
_
a
b
. That is, growth rate is
positive if the population x <
_
a
b
.
k = a bx
2
< 0 bx
2
> a x >
_
a
b
. That is, growth rate is
negative if the population x >
_
a
.
b
(b)
a
b
dx
dt
x
(c)
0
a
b
x
t
3.
dx
= x (a bx) = ax bx
2
. Using partial fraction we write
dt
1 A B
= +
abx
x(abx) x
1 = A (a bx) + Bx. Letting x = 0 and x =
a
we have
1 b dx
A = and B = . Then
_
=
_
dt
b
a a x(abx)
1
_
dx
+
b
_
dx
=
_
dt
1
ln x
1
ln a bx = t + c
a x a abx a a
a
1
ln
x
= t + c
_

x
_
|
1
|
ce
t
|
x
=
|
ce
at
a

abx abx
=
abx

x = ace
at
bce
at
x
at
a

x (t) =
ace
=
ac
=
b
.
1+bce
at
bc+e
at
1+[
1
]e
at

bc
a
So x (0) =
b
=
ac
c =
x(0)
.
1+
1
1+bc

abx(0)
bc
a a
Thus x (t) =
_
b
_
=
b
]e
at
.
1+[
abx(0)
1+
1
e
at bx(0)
bx(0)
abx(0)
5.
dx
= x (a bx) . There are three parameters here: a, b, x (0) .
dt
a
Let x =
b
y (Note y (0) =
a
b
x (0)). Then dierentiation gives
a dy dx a a
= = x (a bx) = y (a ay) = ya (1 y)
b dt dt b b
dy
= ay (1 y) which has two parameters, a and y (0) =
b
x (0) .
dt a
148 CHAPTER 5
7.
dx
dt
= ax + bx
2
= (a + bx) x = kx where k = a + bx is the growth rate
with a > 0, b > 0, x 0.
(a) growth rate k = a + bx is an increasing function because it is linear
with positive slope b. So growth rate increases as the population x
increases.
(b)
x
dx
dt
(c)
x
t
0
Finite time
explosion
(see d)
(d)
dx
= x (a + bx) = ax + bx
2
dt
dx
_
x(a+bx)
=
_
dt. Using integration table we get,
a
ln
= t + c ce = ce
a
1

a+
x
bx

_
a+
x
bx
_ 1
=
t

a+
x
bx
at
at
x = ace
at
+ bce
at
x x (t) =
ace

ac

x(0)
1bce
at
.
So x (0) =
1bc
c =
a+bx(0)
.
ace
at
1
Now x (t) = = when e
at
=
bc
. For this to occur
1bce
at
when t > 0, we need bc < 1. However, bc =
bx(0)
< 1,
a+bx(0)
since x (0) 0.
a a
9. (a) x (t) = +
e 2
(tt
0
)
e

2
(tt
0
)
a a
e 2
(tt
0
)
+e

2
(tt
0
)
a a a a
_
(tt
0
) (tt
0
)
_ _
(tt
0
)
e
(tt
0
)
_
e 2 +e

2 + e 2 2
= a
(tt
0
)
a
(tt
0
)
.
e 2 +e

2
Multiplying the numerator and denominator by e

a
(tt0 )
we have
2
[1+e
a(tt
0
)
]+[1e
a(tt
0
)
]
x (t) =
1+e
a(tt
0
)
and comparing this with
a
equation (2), x (t) =
b
, we obtain
_
abx
0
_
e
at
1+
bx
0
a
=
b
.
[1+e
a(tt
0
)
]+[1e
a(tt
0
)
]
1+e
a(tt
0
)
1+
_
abx
0
_
e
at
bx
0
Equating
a
Numerator: + + ( ) e
a(tt0 )
=
_
abx0
_
e
b
at
Denominator: 1 + e
a(tt0)
= 1 +
bx0
.
From the rst equation we equate exponential and nonexponential
terms to have + =
a
and = 0.
b
Adding these, we get =
2
a
b
and then =
2
a
b
.
at0
_
abx0
_
e
at
From the second equation, 1 + e
at
e = 1 +
bx0
at0
abx0 abx0 1 abx0
e =
bx0
at
0
= ln

bx0
t
0
=
a
ln

bx0
.

a a
2
(tt
0
)
2
(tt
0
)
2 sinh
a
(tt0)
(b) x (t) = +
e e

a = +
2
a
e 2
(tt
0
)
+e

2
(tt
0
)
2 cosh
a
(tt0)
2
= + tanh
a
(t t
0
) .
2
(c)
tanh t
t
1
1
Asymptotic behavior: lim tanh t = 1 and lim tanh t = 1.
t t
(d)
x(t)
a
b
= 0
+ =
a
b
(e) See part (a).
11. f (Q) = a + bQ + cQ
2
.
(i) f (0) = 0 a = 0
(ii) f

(Q) = b + 2cQ b for Q small. So b > 0 for f

(Q) > 0.
(iii) f

(Q) = b + 2cQ 2cQ for Q large. So c < 0 for f

(Q) < 0.
Hence f (Q) = bQ + cQ
2
with b > 0, c < 0 and thus f (Q)
is a logistic equation.
_ _
_
Chapter Six
Nonlinear Systems of Dierential Equations in the
Plane
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 EQUILIBRIA OF NONLINEAR SYSTEMS, LINEAR
STABILITY ANALYSIS OF EQUILIBRIUM, AND PHASE PLANE
1.
dx
= x (1 + y) = x + xy = f
dt
dy
= y (2 4x) = 2y 4xy = g
dt
(a) Equilibria: f = 0 and g = 0
x (1 + y) = 0 Either x = 0 or y = 1
1
2
1
y (2 4x) = 0 If x = 0, then y = 0. If y = 1, then x =
Thus equilibria are (0, 0) and
_
.
, 1
_
.
2
_
1 + y
f f
x
x y
(b) A =
g g
= .
4y 2 4x
x y
_
1 0
_
For equilibrium (0, 0) , A = . The eigenvalue, , satises
0 2
det (A I) = 0 det
_
1
2
0

_
= 0
0
(1 ) (2 ) = 0 = 1, 2 (both positive).
So the equilibrium (0, 0) is an unstable node.
_
u
_ _
1 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
v 0 v 0
_
0 0
_ _
u
_
2
_

0
_
Eigenvector for = 1 : = v = 0.
0 1 v 0
_
u
_ _
1
_
u is free to choose, say, u = 1 = .
v 0
_
1 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
Eigenvector for = 2 : = u = 0.
0 0 v 0
_
u
_ _
0
_
v is free to choose, say, v = 1 = .
v 1
_
_
_
_ _
151 NONLINEAR SYSTEMS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS IN THE PLANE
_
0
1
For equilibrium
_
1
2
, 1
_
, A =
2
. The eigenvalue, ,
4 0
_
4
= 0
2
1
2
satises det (A I) = 0 det 2 = 0

=
2 (one positive, one negative). So the equilibrium

_
is a saddle point.
_
u
_ _
, 1
_
1
2
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
1
2
= .
v 4 v
1
0
_
2
4
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
Eigenvector for =
2 :
2
v = 0. Let u = 1. Then v = 2
2.
2
=
0 v
2u +
u
1
2
_
1
_
2
2
So =
v
.
_
2
1
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
Eigenvector for =
2 :
2
4
2 v 0
=
2u + v = 0. Let u = 1. Then v = 2
2.
1
_
u
_
1
So = .
v 2
2
(c)
2
dy
dy
dt
y(24x)
(e) Nullclines:
dx
= =
x(1+y)
.
dx
dt
So
dy
= 0 y (2 4x) = 0 y = 0, x =
dx

1
2
and
dy
dx
= x (1 + y) = 0
y
x =
x = 0, y = 1.
x
y = 1
1

2
152 CHAPTER 6
3.
dx
= 2x 2xy = 2x (1 y) = f
dt
dy
= y xy = y (1 x) = g
dt
2x (1 y) = 0 Either x = 0 or y = 1
y (1 x) = 0 If x = 0, then y = 0. If y = 1, then x = 1.
Thus equilibria are (0, 0) and (1, 1) .
f
x y
_
2 2y 2x
_
_
f
_
(b) A =
g g
= .
x y
y 1 x
_
2 0
_
0 1
det (A I) = 0 det
_
2
0

1
0

_
= 0
(1 ) (2 ) = 0 = 1, 2 (both positive).
_
u
_ _
2 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
v 0 1 v 0
_
1 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
0 0 v 0
_
u
_ _
0
_
v 1
_
0 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
0 1 v 0
_
u
_ _
1
_
v 0
_
0 2
_
det (A I) = 0 det
_

1
2
_
0
= 0
2
2 = 0
1
2 (one positive, one negative).

So the equilibrium (1, 1) is a saddle point.
_
u
_ _
2
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
Eigenvector for
v
=
2 :
_
2
1
2

2
_ _
v
u
_
=
_
0
0
_
v 0

2u 2v = 0. Let u =
2. Then v = 1.
_
u
_ _
2
_
So = is unstable direction.
v 1
Eigenvector for =
2 :
_
2 2
_ _
u
_
=
_
0
_
1
2 v 0

2u 2v = 0. Let u =
2. Then v = 1. So
_
u
_
=
_
2
_
v 1
is stable direction.
(c)
dt
(e) Nullclines:
dy
=
dy
=
y(1x)
.
dx
dx
2x(1y)
dt
So
dy
= 0 y (1 x) = 0 y = 0, x = 1
dx

and
dy
= 2x (1 y) = 0 x = 0, y = 1.
dx

y
y = 1
x
x = 1
5.
dx
= x y = f
dt
dy
= 2x + 2xy = 2x (1 y) = g
dt
x y = 0 x = y
2x (1 y) = 0 2x (1 x) = 0 x = 0 or x = 1.
Then y = 0 or y = 1. Thus equilibria are (0, 0) and (1, 1) .
f f
_
x y
_
_
1 1
_
(b) A =
g g
=
2 + 2y 2x
.
x y
For equilibrium (0, 0) , A =
_
1 1
_
_
1
2
1
0
_
det (A I) = 0 det
2
= 0 (1 ) 2 = 0

2
2 = 0 ( + 1) ( 2)
= 1, 2 (one positive, one negative).
_
u
_ _
1 1
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
v 2 v 0
154 CHAPTER 6
_
2
2
1
1
_ _
u
v
_
=
_
0
0
_
_
u
_ _
1
_
2u v = 0. Let u = 1. Then v = 2
v
=
2
is stable
direction.
_
1 1
_ _
u
v
_
=
_
0
0
_
2 2
_
u
_ _
1
_
u v = 0. Let u = 1. Then v = 1
v
=
1
is unstable direction.
_
1 1
_
0 2
det (A I) = 0 det
_
1
0

2

1

_
= 0
(1 ) (2 ) = 0 = 1, 2 (both positive).
_
u
_ _
1 1
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
v 0 2 v 0
_
0 1
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
0 1 v 0
_
u
_ _
1
_
u is free to choose, say, u = 1. So = .
v 0
_
1 1
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
0 0 v 0
_
u
_ _
1
_
u v = 0. Let u = 1. Then v = 1. So
v
=
1
.
(c)
dt
(e) Nullclines:
dy
=
dy
=
2x(1y)
.
dx
dx
xy
dt
So
dy
= 0 2x (1 y) = 0 x = 0, y = 1
dx
and
dy
x

= y.
dx
= x y = 0
y
y = 1
x
y = x
7.
dx
= 1 y
2
= f
dt
dy
= 1 x
2
= g
dt
1 y
2
= 0 y = 1
1 x
2
= 0

x = 1.
Thus equilibria are (1, 1) , (1, 1) , (1, 1) and (1, 1) .
_
f
_
_
0
_
f
x y
2y
(b) A = = .
g g
0
x y
2x
_
0 2
_
2 0
2
det (A I) = 0 det
_
2
_
= 0 4 = 0
2
= 4
2

_
u
_ _
2
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
v 2 v 0
_
2 2
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
2 2 v 0
_
u
_ _
1
_
2u 2v = 0. Let u = 1. Then v = 1 =
v 1
_
2 2
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
2 2 v 0
_
u
_ _
1
_
2u 2v = 0. Let u = 1. Then v = 1 =
v 1
_
0 2
_
2 0
2
det (A I) = 0 det
_
2

_
= 0
2
4 = 0
2
= 4
1
156 CHAPTER 6
_
u
_ _
2
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
v 2 v 0
_
2

2
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
2 2 v 0
_
u
_ _
1
_
2u + 2v = 0. Let u = 1. Then v = 1 =
v
_
2 2
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
2 2 v
=
0
_
u
_ _
1
_
2u + 2v = 0. Let u = 1. Then v = 1 =
v 1
_
0 2
_
_

2
2
_
0
det (A I) = 0 det
2
= 0
2
+ 4 = 0
= 2i (complex).
So the equilibrium (1, 1) is a center (nonlinear may be dierent).
_
0 2
_
2 0
det (A I) = 0 det
_
2
_
= 0
2
+ 4 = 0
2

= 2i (complex).
So the equilibrium (1, 1) is a center (nonlinear may be dierent).
(c)
dy
2
(e) Nullclines:
dy
=
dt
=
1x
dx
dx
1y
2
.
dt
So
dy
= 0 1 x
2
= 0 x = 1
dx

and
dy 2
= 0
dx
= 1 y y = 1.
y
x
9.
dx
= x y + x
2
= f
dt
dy
= x + y = g
dt
(a) Equilibria: g = 0 x + y = 0 y = x
f = 0 x y + x
2
= 0 2x +

x
2
= 0
x (2 + x) = 0 x = 0 or 2. So y = 0 or 2.
f
_
f
_
_
1 + 2x
_
x y
(b) A =
g g
=
1
.
1 1
x y
_
1 1
_
1 1
det (A I) = 0 det
_
1 1
_
= 0 (1 )
2
+ 1 = 0
2

2
1
48
1

2 + 2 = 0 = = 1 i (complex with positive
2
real part). So the equilibrium (0, 0) is unstable spiral.
_
3 1
_
. The eigenvalue, ,
1 1
satises det (A I) = 0 det
_
3
1

1

_
= 0
1
(1 ) (3 ) + 1 = 0
2
+ 2 2 = 0
2
4+8
= = 1

2
_
u
_ _
3 1
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
Eigenvector for
v
= 1 +
3 :
1 1 v 0
u
_
2
1
3
2
1
3
_ _ _
=
_
0
_

_
2
3
_
u v = 0.
v 0
Let u = 1. Then v = 2
3
_
u
v
_
=
_
2
1
3
_
Eigenvector for = 1
3 :
_
2 +
1
3
2 +
1
3
_ _
u
v
_
=
_
0
0
_

_
2 +
3
_
u v = 0.
158 CHAPTER 6
Let u = 1. Then v = 2 +
3
_
u
v
_
=
_
2 +
1
3
_
(c)
dy
(e) Nullclines:
dy
=
dt
=
x+y
dx
dt
dx xy+x
2
.
So
dy
= 0 x + y = 0 y = x
and
dx
dy

2
= 0 y = x + x
2
.
dx
= x y + x
Note intersections at equilibria.
y
x
dx
11.
dt
= x 2y = f
dy
= 2x y + xy
2
= g
dt
(a) Equilibria: f = 0 x 2y = 0
g = 0 2x y + xy
x = 2
3
y
= 0
y
_
2y

2
= 0 4y y 2y
2
+ 5
_
= 0 y = 0 (real only). So x = 0.
Thus equilibria is (0, 0) only.
f f
(b) A =
_
x y
_
=
_
1 2
_
.
g g
2 + y
2
1 + 2xy
x y
_
1 2
_
2 1
det (A I) = 0 det
_
1
1

2

_
= 0
2
(1 )
2
+ 4 = 0
2
+ 2 + 5 = 0
2
420
=
2
= 1 2i (complex with negative real part).
So the equilibrium (0, 0) is a stable spiral.
(c)
dy
dy
2xy+xy
2
(e) Nullclines: =
dt
= .
dx
dx
dt
x2y
So
dy
= 0 2x y + xy
2
= 0 x
_
2 + y
2
_
= y
dx

y

x =
2+y
2
and
dy 1
x.
dx
= x 2y = 0 y =
2
y
x
13.
dx
= x xy + x
2
= x xy 8x
2
= f
dt
dy
= y + xy = g
dt
(a) Equilibria: g = 0 y (1 x) = 0 y = 0 or x = 1.
f = 0 x xy 8x
2
= 0. If y = 0,
then x 8x
2
= 0
1
x (1 8x) = 0 x = 0, .
8
If x = 1, then 1 y 8 = 0
_
1
y = 7.
Thus equilibria is (0, 0) , , 0
_
and (1, 7).
f f
_
x y
_
_
1
8
y 16x x
_
(b) A = = .
g g
y 1 + x
x y
_
1 0
_
_
1
0 1
0
_
det (A I) = 0 det = 0
0 1
(1 ) (1 + ) = 0 = 1, 1 (one positive, one negative).
_
_
_
.
_
_ _
_ _
160 CHAPTER 6
_
1
0
1
For equilibrium
_
1
8
, 0
_
, A =
8
7
. The eigenvalue, ,
_
1
8
1
8
= 0
7
8
(1 )
_

_
= 0
So the equilibrium
_
1
8
0
(both negative).
7 7
= 1,
, 0
_
is a stable node.
8

8
_
8 1
_
0
For equilibrium (1, 7) , A = . The eigenvalue, ,
7
_
8 1
_
8
64+28
7
2
satises det (A I) = 0 det = 0

2
+ 8 7 = 0 =
= 4

dx
= x xy + x
2 1
dt
2
15. = f = x xy + x
3
dy
= y + xy = g
(a) Equilibria: g = 0 y (1 x) = 0
2
= 0. If y = 0, then x +
1
dt
y = 0 or x = 1.
1
x
2
= 0 f = 0 x xy +
x
_
= 0
1
x
3 3

x
_
1 +
1
x = 0, 3.
= 0 y =
3

4
.
3 3
If x = 1, then 1 y +
Thus equilibria is (0, 0) , (3, 0) and
_
1,
f f
_
x y
_
_
1 y +
=
4
3
2
3
x x
(b) A = .
g g
1 + x
_
1 0
_
y
x y
1
_
1
0 1
0
_
det (A I) = 0 det
0 1
= 0
_
1 3
_
0 4
. The eigenvalue, ,
_
1
0

4
3

_
= 0
(1 ) (4 ) = 0 = 1, 4 (both negative).
So the equilibrium (3, 0) is a stable node.
For equilibrium
_
1,
_
, A =
1
0
4
3
3
4
3
1
6
4
3
1
1
148

1 4
3
det (A I) = 0 det = 0 + = 0
3 3

47 1
3
2
+ 4 = 0 = = i (complex
6 6

with positive real part).
So the equilibrium
_
1,
_
is an unstable spiral.
4
3
17.
dx
= x xy + x
2
= x xy + 8x
dt
2
= f
dy
= y + xy = g
dt
_ _
_
_
(a) Equilibria: g = 0 y (1 x) = 0 y = 0 or x = 1.
f = 0 x xy + 8x
2
= 0. If y = 0,
then x + 8x
2
= 0
1
8
x (1 + 8x) = 0 x = 0,
If x = 1, then 1 y + 8 = 0
Thus equilibria is (0, 0) ,
_
1
.
y = 9.
, 0
_
and (1, 9).
8
f f
_
1 y + 16x x
_
1 + x
x y
(b) A =
g g
=
x y
.
y
_
1 0
_
_
1
0 1
0
_
det (A I) = 0 det = 0
0 1
_
1
1
For equilibrium
_
, 0
_
, A =
1
8
. The eigenvalue, ,
9
8
8
0
_
1
1
8
(1 )
_

_
= 0
1
So the equilibrium
_
8
= 0
9
8
0
9 9
8
= 1, (both negative).
, 0
_
is a stable node.

8
_
8 1
_
0
9
2
det (A I) = 0 det
_
8 1
_
= 0
2
8 + 9 = 0
9

8
6436
= 4
7 (both positive).
=
2
6.3 POPULATION MODELS
1. Two Competing Species Models
dx
= x (a by cx) = ax bxy cx
2
dt
dy
= y (q rx sy) = qy rxy sy
dt
a = 2, b = c = 1, and q = r = 6, s = 0. So
.
dx
= x (2 y x) = 2x xy x
dt
2
= f
dy
= y (6 6x) = 6y 6xy = g
dt
(a) Equilibria: g = 0 y (6 6x) = 0
f = 0 x (2 y x) = 0. If y = 0, then x = 0, 2.
If x = 1, then y = 1.
y = 0 and x = 1.

Thus equilibria are (0, 0) , (2, 0) and (1, 1) .
f f
_
x y
_
_
2 y 2x x
_
Jacobian matrix A =
g g
= .
6y 6 6x
x y
_
2 0
_
0 6
162 CHAPTER 6
det (A I) = 0 det
_
2
6
0

_
= 0
0
(2 ) (6 ) = 0 = 2, 6 (both positive).
_
u
_ _
2 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
v 0 6 v 0
_
0 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
0 4 v 0
_
u
_ _
1
_
v 0
_
4 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
0 0 v 0
_
u
_ _
0
_
v 1
_
2 2
_
0 6
det (A I) = 0 det
_
2
0

6

2

_
= 0
(2 ) (6 ) = 0 = 2, 6 (both negative).
_
u
_ _
2 2
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
v 0 6 v 0
_
0 2
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
0 4 v 0
_
u
_ _
1
_
v = 0. u is free to choose, say, u = 1. So = .
v 0
_
4 2
_ _
u
_
=
_
0
_
0 0 v 0
_
u
_ _
1
_
4u 2v = 0. Let u = 1. Then v = 2. So = .
v 2
_
1 1
_
det (A I) = 0 det
_
1
6

0
1
_
= 0
2
+ 6 = 0
6

( + 3) ( 2) = 0 = 2, 3 (one positive, one negative).
_
u
_ _
1 1
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
Eigenvector for
v
= 2 :
_
3 1
6
_ _
u
_

=
_
0
v
_
0
6 2 v 0
_
u
_ _
1
_
3u v = 0. Let u = 1. Then v = 3. So
v
=
3
_
2
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
6
3
1
v
=
0

_
u
_ _
1
_
2u v = 0. Let u = 1. Then v = 2. So =
v 2
(b) Graph of phase portrait using linear systems.
0
dy
(c) Method of nullclines:
dy
=
dt
=
y(66x)
dx
dt
dx x(2yx)
.
So
dy
= 0 y (6 6x) = 0 y = 0, x = 1
dx

and
dy
= x (2 y x) = 0 x = 0, y = 2 x.
dx

y
x
x = 1
1 2
(d) Graph improved by using eigenvectors.
_ _
_ _
_
_
_ _
164 CHAPTER 6
x = 1
y
x
2
1 2
3. Two Competing Species Models
dx
2
dt
dy
= y (q rx sy) = qy rxy sy
, b = 2, c = 4, and q = r = s = 1. So
= x
_
2y 4x
_
= x 2xy 4x
3
2
.
dt
a =
dx 3 3 2
= f
dt
dy
2 2
2
3
= y (1 x y) = y xy y
dt
f = 0 x
_
2y 4x
_
= 0
y = 0 or x + y = 1.
= g
3
4
. (a) Equilibria: x = 0 or 2x + y =
2

g = 0 y (1 x y) = 0
If x = 0, then considering both equations obtained from g = 0
we have y = 0, 1. Equilibria are then (0, 0) and (0, 1) .
Again, if 2x + y =
3
4
, then considering both equations obtained
8
from g = 0, we solve:
and y = 0 to get
_
and x + y = 1 to get, by subtracting,
_
, 0
_
; and
3 3
2x + y =
4
_
, which
3 5 1
2x + y = ,
4 4 4
3
is out of the domain as we are considering x 0, y 0.
Thus equilibria are (0, 0) , (0, 1) and
_
, 0
_
.
8
f f
3
2
2y 8x 2x
1 x 2y
Jacobian matrix A =
x y
= .
g g
y
x y
0
_
3
2
0 1
0
_
0
3
2
det (A I) = 0 det
_

_
(1 ) = 0
= 0
1
, 1 (both positive).
3 3
=
2 2

_
u
_ _
0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
=
0
3
2
Eigenvector, , satises .
0
_
1
_

0
v v
_ _
u
1
2
0
0
0 0 v
_
_
_ _
_
_
_
_
_
u
_ _
0
_
v 1
_
0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
0
3
Eigenvector for = v = 0. : =
1
2
0 0 v
2
u
_ _
1
_
1
2
_
1
2
det (A I) = 0 det
_

_
(1 ) = 0
1
2 2
1
, satises

1
.
2
Eigenvector,
v
1
1
2
2
1
Eigenvector for = :
1
2
2
u
1
2
5
3 3
For equilibrium
_
, 0
_
, A =
3
2 4
8
8
3
2
3
4
3
8 2
_

_ _

_
= 0
So the equilibrium
_
5
8
3 5 5 3
8 2

8
_
u
_
3
2
3
4
v 0
5
8
_
0
3
v 0
_
0
_
1 1

1
0
= 0
1
, 1 (both negative). =
_
u
_ _
0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
=
1
_ _
1 v 0
_ _
0 0 u
u = 0 =
0
_
0
1 0 v
_
u
_
u = 0. v is free to choose, say, v = 1. So = .
v 1
_
0 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
=
0
1 v
_
u
_ _
1
v = 0. Let u = 1. Then v = 2. So
_

_
= .
v 2
. The eigenvalue, ,
0
_

0

satises det (A I) = 0 det = 0
= (one positive, one negative).
, 0
_
is a saddle point.
,
_
_ _
u
_ _
0
_

0
_

= .
v
_ _ _
0
_
17
u
3
4
_
1
_
2 4
3
Eigenvector for = v = 0 : =
0
0 v
8
_
u
_
v = 0. u is free to choose, say, u = 1. So =
v 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
17 3
5
8 4
Eigenvector for = : =
8
_
0 0
v
_
u
_
6
_

17
8
u
3
4
v = 0. Let u = 6. Then v = 17. So =
v 17
166 CHAPTER 6
0
1
3/8
dy
dt
dy
= =
y(1xy)
.
dx
dx
x(
3
dt 2
2y4x)
So
dy
= 0 y (1 x y) = 0 y = 0, y = 1 x
3
and
dx
dy
= x
_
2
3
2y 4x
_
= 0 x = 0, y =
4
2x.
dx
Lines do not intersect for x 0, y 0.
Nullcline graph in combined gure in answer to part (d).
y
x
1
3/8
5. Predator-prey models:
dx
2
dt
dy
= y (q + rx sy) = qy + rxy sy
2
.
dt
a = 3, b = c = 1, q = r = 1 and s = 0. So
dx 2
= x (3 y x) = 3x xy x = f
dt
dy
= y (1 + x) = y + xy = g
dt
(a) Equilibria: g = 0 y (1 + x) = 0 y = 0 or x = 1.
f = 0 x (3 y x) = 0. If y = 0, then x = 0, 3 and
if x = 1, then y = 2.
Thus equilibria are (0, 0) , (3, 0) and (1, 2) .
f f
_
x y
_
_
3 y 2x x
_
Jacobian matrix A = = .
g g
y 1 + x
x y
_
3 0
_
_
3
0 1
0
_
det (A I) = 0 det
0 1
= 0
(3 ) (1 ) = 0 = 3, 1 (one positive, one negative).
_
u
_ _
3 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
v 0 1 v 0
_
0 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
0 4 v 0
_
u
_ _
1
_
u is free to choose, say, u = 1 = is unstable
v 0
direction.
_
4 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
0 0 v
=
0
u = 0.
_
u
_ _
0
_
v is free to choose, say, v = 1 =
v 1
_
3 3
_
0 2
det (A I) = 0 det
_
3
2

3

_
= 0
0
_
u
_ _
3 3
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
v 0 2 v 0
_
0 3
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
0 5 v
=
0
v = 0.
_
u
_ _
1
_
u is free to choose, say, u = 1. So = is stable
v 0
direction.
_
5 3
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
0 0 v 0
_
u
_ _
3
_
5u 3v = 0. Let u = 3. Then v = 5. So =
v 5
_
1 1
_
2 0
det (A I) = 0 det
_
1 1
_
= 0
2
+ + 2 = 0
1
18

2

= = 0
1
2
7
=
2

2
i (complex with negative real part).
168 CHAPTER 6
0
dy
dt
dy
= =
y(1+x)
.
dx
dx
x(3yx)
dt
So
dy
= 0 y (1 + x) = 0 y = 0, x = 1.
dx

and
dy
= x (3 y x) = 0 x = 0, y = 3 x.
dx

y
x 3
dx 2
dt
dy 2
= y (q + rx sy) = qy + rxy sy .
dt
a = 3, c = 0, q = r = s = b = 1. So
dx
= x (3 y) = 3x xy = f
dt
dy 2
= y (1 + x y) = y + xy y = g
dt
(a) Equilibria: f = 0 x (3 y) = 0 x = 0 or y = 3.
g = 0 y (1 + x y) = 0. If x = 0, then y = 0, 1
and if y = 3, then x = 4. However, (0, 1) is not in the domain
since x 0, y 0.
Thus equilibria are (0, 0) , and (4, 3) .
f f
_
x y
_
_
3 y x
_
Jacobian matrix A =
g g
=
y 1 + x 2y
.
x y
_
3 0
_
_
3
0 1
0
_
det (A I) = 0 det = 0
0 1
_
u
_ _
3 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
v 0 v 0
_
0 0
_ _
u
_
1
_

0
_
0 4 v 0
_
u
_ _
1
_
v 0
direction.
_
4 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
0 0 v 0
_
u
_ _
0
_
v is free to choose, say, v = 1 = is stable
v 1
direction.
_
0 4
_
_

3
4
3
_
det (A I) = 0 det = 0
2
+ 3 + 12 = 0
3 3

3
948
= = 0
3
2
39
=
2

2
dy
dy y(1+xy)
dt
dx
=
dx
=
x(3y)
.
dt
So
dy
= 0 y (1 + x y) = 0 y = 0, y = x 1.
dx

and
dy
= x (3 y) = 0 x = 0, y = 3.
dx

0
(c)
_ _
.
_ _
.
170 CHAPTER 6
y
x
y
x
dx
dt
dy
2
2
= y (q + rx sy) = qy + rxy sy
a = 3, b = 6, c = 2, q = r = s = 1. So
.
dt
dx 2
= f
2
= x (3 6y 2x) = 3x 6xy 2x
dy
= y (1 + x y) = y + xy y
dt
f = 0
dt
= g
3
2
. (a) Equilibria: x (3 6y 2x) = 0
g = 0 y (1 + x y) = 0 y = 0 or x y = 1.
We solve x = 0 and g = 0
x = 0 or x + 3y =

(0, 0) , (0, 1) .
3
y = 0, y = 1
However, (0, 1) is not in the domain since x 0, y 0.
Again we solve x + 3y = and g = 0, i.e
_
, 0
_ 2
3
2
3 3
x + 3y = and y = 0 x = or
2 2

3
2
1
x + 3y =
1 9
and x y = 1. Subtracting we have, y = and
8
9
then x = ,
8 8 8
Thus equilibria are (0, 0) , , 0

_
and
_
3 1 9
,
2 8 8
_
_
f f
_
x y
_
_
3 6y 4x 6x
_
Jacobian matrix A =
g g
=
y 1 + x 2y
.
x y
_
3 0
_
_
3
0 1
0
_
det (A I) = 0 det = 0
0 1
_
u
_ _
3 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
v 0 1 v 0
_
0 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
0 4 v 0
_
u
_ _
1
_
1
2
v 0
direction.
_
4 0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
0 0 v
=
0
u = 0.
_
u
_ _
0
_
v is free to choose, say, v = 1 = is stable
v 1
direction.
_
3 9
_
0
_
3
For equilibrium
_
, 0
_
, A =
3
. The eigenvalue, ,
2
9
_

3
2
(3 ) +
_

_
= 0
So the equilibrium
_
= 0
1
2
0
1 1
2
= 3,
, 0
_
is a saddle point.
(one positive, one negative).
2
_
u
_ _
3
0
9
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
= Eigenvector, , satises
v
.
0
1
2
_

_
0
_
v
7
_
0 9
_ _
u
0
0 v
2
u is free to choose, say, u = 1 = is stable direction.
v 0
u
_ _
1
_
_
0
9
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
=
0
7
1
2
Eigenvector for = :
2

18
_
v 0
_
u
_
7
2
1
9
_
1
u 9v = 0. Let u = 18. Then v = 7
_

=
v 7
27
_
9
8
For equilibrium
_ _
, A =
1 9
4 4
. The eigenvalue, , ,
1
8 8
8
27
_
1

8
2
+ 19 + 9 = 0
4 4
1
8
_

_ _

_
+
= 0
8 8
9 27
= 0
4 32

=
19
361288
=
19
73
(both negative real roots).
16 16
So the equilibrium
_ _
is a stable node.
1 9
,
8 8
172 CHAPTER 6
9 27
Eigenvector,
_
u
_
, satises
_

4
1

1
4
_ _
u
_
=
_
0
_
.
v
8

8
v 0
_
17
73 27
_
_
u
_ _
0
_
Eigenvector for =
19+
73
:
16

4
=
16 1 17
73
v 0
8 16
17
73 27
v = 0. Let u = 108. Then v = 17
73
_
16
u
_
u
_
4
108
_
= .
v 17
73
_
17+
73 27
_
_
u
_ _
0
_
Eigenvector for =
19
73
:
16
4
=
16 1 17+
73
v 0
8 16
17+
73 27
v = 0. Let u = 108. Then v = 17 +
73
_
16
u
_
u
_
4
108
_
= .
v 17 +
73
(b) Graph phase portrait using linear systems.
0 3/2
dy
dt
dy
= =
y(1+xy)
.
dx
dx
x(36y2x)
dt
So
dy
= 0 y (1 + x y) = 0 y = 0, y = x
1
1.
1
dx
and
dy
= x (3 6y 2x) = 0 x = 0, y = x.
dx 2

3

y
x
3/2
11. a = b = 1, c = 2, q =
2
1
, r = 1. So
dx y
_
x
dt
= x
_
1
1+x
= x
1+x
y = f
_ _
_
_
_
_
_
_ _
_ _
dy
dt
= y
1 1
2
x x
+ y + = y = g
2 1+x 1+x
x
_
= 0
1
2
(a) Equilibria: g = 0 y = 0 or x = 1. + y
_
= 0. Substituting y = 0 we have x = 0.
1+x

f = 0 x
_
1
y
1+x
Again substituting x = 1 in f = 0,we have y = 2.
_ _ _
1
f f
Jacobian matrix A =
x y
=
1
(1+
y
x)
2
1+x
x
.
g g
(1+
y
x)
2
+
x
2 1+x x y
_
1 0
_
0
_
= 0
1
2
1
2
0
_
1
0
det (A I) = 0 det
(1 )
_

_
= 0

1
= 1 ,
_
u
_ _
1
, satises
1
2 2

0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
Eigenvector, = .
1
2
v 0
_
v 0
_
0
_
0 0
_ _
u
0
3
0 v
2
v 0
direction.
u
_ _
1
_
0
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
3
1
2
Eigenvector for = u = 0. : =
2
0 0 v 0
_
u
_ _
0
_
v is free to choose, say, v = 1 = is stable direction.
v 1
1 1
0
2
1
2
2
1 1
1
2

1 1
= 0
2
2 2
det (A I) = 0 det + = 0
2 4
4
2
2 + 1 = 0
1
8
2
416
=
3i (complex with positive real part).
1
4
=
4
So the equilibrium (1, 2) is an unstable spiral.

0
dy
+
1 x
y(
2 1+x
)
dx
dx y
dt
x(1
1+x
)
dy
=
dt
= (c) Method of nullclines: .
_
_ _ _
174 CHAPTER 6
_
= 0 So
dy
dx
= 0
1
2
+
x
y = 0, x = 1. y
1+x

y
and
dy
_
1
dx
_
= 0 x = 0, y = 1 + x. = x
1+x

Combined gure for (c) and (d)
y
x
(e) Graph by software.
3
2
3
4
y
1
0 1
x 2 3
13.
dT

= kT
0
V bT

dt
dV
= NT

cV
dt
kT
0
, b = 1, N = 1 and c = 2. So =
dT

dt
= T

+
3
4
V = f
dV
= T

2V
Equilibria: f = 0 and g = 0
T

+
= g
dt
3
4
V = 0
T

2V = 0
Adding these we get V = 0 and then T

= 0.
Thus equilibria is (0, 0) .
f f
A =
T

V
_
1
g g
T

V
1 2
3
4
. The eigenvalue, , satises =
_
_
_
_
_
1
1
3
4
= 0 det (A I) = 0 det
2
4
2
+ 12 + 5 = 0
3
4
(1 ) (2 ) = 0
=
1
2
5
2
(both negative). (2 + 1) (2 + 5) = 0 ,
_
u
_ _
1
, satises
1
3
4
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
= . Eigenvector,
_ _
2
_
v 0 v
_
1
_
0
_
3 1
u
1
4 2
3
2
2

0
_
3
v
_
u
_
1 3
v = 0. Let u = 3. Then v = 2 u + = .
v 2
2 4
_ _ _ _
0
_
3 3
u
5
2 4
1
2

1 v 0
2
_
u
_ _
1
3 3
v = 0. Let u = 1. Then v = 2 u + = .
v 2
2 4
1
(b) See text page 423 for the graph of the phase portrait.
dV
dV
=
dt
=
T
2V
.
dT
dT

T
+
3
V
dt 4
3
So
dV
= 0 T

2V = 0 V =
dT
dV
= T

+
T
.
2

4
T
. and V = 0 V =
dT
4 3

v
T*
(d) Graph by software.
_ _ _
_
_
_
_
_

_
3
176 CHAPTER 6
2 y
2
2
x
2
15.
dT

= kT
0
V bT

dt
dV
= NT

cV
9
4
dt
kT
0
, b = 1, N = 1 and c = 1. So =
dT

dt
= T

+
9
4
V = f
dV
= g
dt
= T

V
T

+
9
4
V = 0
T

V = 0
Adding these we get V = 0 and then T

= 0.
Thus equilibria is (0, 0) .
f f
A =
T

V
_
1
g g
1
T

V
1
_
1
det
1
9
4
. The eigenvalue, , satises =
9
4
det (A I) = 0 = 0
5
2
1
2
1
4
2
+ 8 5 = 0
2
9
4
(1 )
(2 1) (2 + 5) = 0
= 0
= (one positive, one negative). ,
_
u
_ _
1
, satises
1
9
4
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
= . Eigenvector,
1 v 0
_ _
0
v
_
1
_ _
9
4
3
2
u
1
2
: Eigenvector for = =
3
2
0
v
_
u
_
3
2
u +
9
4
v = 0. Let u = 3. Then v = 2 =
v 2
_ _
u
_ _
0
_
=
9
4
3
2
5
2
: Eigenvector for =
1
3
2
v 0
_
u
_ _
3
3
2
u +
9
4
v = 0. Let u = 3. Then v = 2 =
v 2
v
T*
dV
dV
=
dt
=
T
V
.
dT
dT
9
V
dt
T
+
4
dV
So = 0 T

V = 0 V
= T

+
9
4
= T
.
dT

dV 4
T .
9
and V = 0 V =
dT

y = v
T* = x
(d) Graph by software.
2 y
2
2 x
2
178 CHAPTER 6
6.4 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
1.
saddle
Local maximum of potential is an unstable saddle point.
3.
saddle
center
Local maximum of potential is an unstable saddle point,
and local minimum of potential is a stable center.
5.
saddle
center center
Local maximum of potential is an unstable saddle point,
and two local minimum of potential are stable centers.
d
2
x
7.
dt
2
= x
_
1 + x
2
_
= f (x)
Equilibria: f = 0 x
_
1 + x
2
_
= 0 x = 0.
1 2 1 4
Potential: V (x) =
_
f (x) dx =
_ _
x + x
3
_
dx =
2
x
4
x .
180 CHAPTER 6
dx
dt
From the graph of the potential we see that the equlibrium
x = 0 is a local maximum and thus it is an unstable saddle point.
d
2
x
9. = x
_
1 x
2
_
= f (x)
dt
2
Equilibria: f = 0 x
_
1 x
2
_
= 0 x = 0 or x
2
= 1
x = 0, 1.
1 2 1 4
Potential: V (x) =
_
f (x) dx =
_ _
x x
3
_
dx = x + x .
2 4
x= 0
x= -1 x= 1
NONLINEAR SYSTEMS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS IN THE PLANE 181
From the graph of the potential we see that the equlibrium x = 0
is a local maximum and x = 1 are local minimum. Thus x = 0 is
an unstable saddle point and x = 1 are stable centers.
11.
d
2
x
= x (6 3x) = 6x + 3x
2
= f (x)
dt
2
Equilibria: f = 0 x (6 3x) = 0 x = 0 or 3x = 6
x = 0, 2.
2 3
Potential: V (x) =
_
f (x) dx =
_ _
6x + 3x
2
_
dx = 3x x .
x=2
x=0
From the graph of the potential we see that the equlibrium
x = 0 is a local minimum and x = 2 is a local maximum. Thus
x = 0 is a stable center and x = 2 is an unstable saddle point.
13. Pendulum (nonlinear) without damping is given by
ml
d
2
x
+ mg sin x = 0
d
2
x
= sin x where =
g
.
dt
2

dt
2
l
Let y =
dx
. Then
dy
=
d
2
x
= sin x.
dt dt dt
2
dy
dt
The slope eld equation is then
dy
= =
sin x
dx
dx
y
dt

ydy = sin xdx. Integration yields
1
2
y
2
= cos x + E, where
E is a constant of integration, known as energy. Thus the
conservation of energy for the pendulum without damping is
E =
1
y
2
cos x
2
E =
1
_
dx
_
2
cos x.
2 dt
15. The general conservative system is given by m
d
dt
2
2
x
= f (x) .
Multiplying this by
dx
we have m
dx d
2
x
= f (x)
dx
. Now we
dt dt dt
2
dt
d
_
dx
_
2
dx x
can rewrite this equation using the fact
1
2 dt dt
=
dt
d
dt
2
2
1 d
_
dx
_
2
= f (x)
dx
as m
2 dt dt dt
.
182 CHAPTER 6
Integrating this with respect to t we have
1
m
d
_ _
dx
_
2
dt =
_
f (x)
dx
dt
2 dt dt dt
1
m
_
dx
_
2

2 dt
=
_
f (x) dx + E
E =
1
m
_
dx
_
2

_
f (x) dx
2 dt
which is the conservation of energy.
17. Pendulum with resistive force is given by
x
ml
d
2
+ mg sin x = l
dx
.
dt
2
dt
In this problem m = = 1, l = 32. Also g = 32. So
32
d
2
x
+ 32 sin x = 32
dx d
2
x dx
sin x.
dt
2
dt
d
2

dt
2
=
dt
Let y =
dx
. Then
dy
=
x dx
sin x = y sin x.
dt dt dt
2
=
dt
Thus the dirential equation can be written as a system:
dx
= y = f
dt
dy
= y sin x = g
dt
Equilibria: f = 0 y = 0 and then g = 0 gives sin x = 0
x = n, n is an integer. Since the original equation is
for x only, the equilibrium is x = n, n is an integer.
_
f f
_
_
0 1
_
x y
Jacobian A =
g g
= .
x y
cos x 1
Since cos x has dierent values at even and odd we separate
even and odd integers to have two sets of equilibria, x = 2n
and x = (2n + 1) , n is an integer.
_
0 1
_
For the equlibria x = 2n, A = . The eigenvalue,
_
1
1
1
_
, satises det (A I) = det = 0
1 1
2
+ + 1 = 0
=
1
14
2
1

3
2
=
2
Thus the equlibria x = 2n are stable spirals.
_
0 1
_
For the equlibria x = (2n + 1) , A = .
1 1
The eigenvalue, , satises
1
det (A I) = det
_
1

1
_
= 0
2
+1 = 0 =
1
1+4
=
1
5
2 2
Thus the equlibria x = (2n + 1) are unstable saddle points.
19. Pendulum with resistive force is given by
x
ml
d
2
+ mg sin x = l
dx
.
dt
2
dt
In this problem m =
3
1
, = 1, l = 32. Also g = 32. So
32 d
2
x
+
32
sin x = 32
dx d
2
x
= 3
dx
sin x.
3 dt
2
3 dt dt
2
dt
Let y =
dx
. Then
dy
=
d
2
x

= 3
dx
sin x = 3y sin x.
dt dt dt
2
dt
Thus the dirential equation can be written as a system:
dx
= y = f
dt
dy
= 3y sin x = g
dt
Equilibria: f = 0 y = 0 and then g = 0 gives sin x = 0
x = n, n is an integer. Since the original equation is
for x only, the equilibrium is x = n, n is an integer.
_
f
_
_
0 1
_
f
x y
Jacobian A =
g g
= .
x y
cos x 3
Since cos x has dierent values at even and odd we separate
even and odd integers to have two sets of equilibria, x = 2n
and x = (2n + 1) , n is an integer.
_
0 1
_
For the equlibria x = 2n, A = . The eigenvalue,
_
1
1
3
_
, satises det (A I) = det
1 3
= 0
3
94 3
2
+ 3 + 1 = 0 =
2
=
2
(both negative).
Thus the equlibria x = 2n are stable nodes.
_
0 1
_
For the equlibria x = (2n + 1) , A = .
1 3
The eigenvalue, , satises
_
1
_
det (A I) = det
3
= 0
1
2
+ 3 1 = 0 =
3
9+4
=
3
13
(one positive, one
2 2
negative).
Thus the equlibria x = (2n + 1) are unstable saddle points.
21. Graph using software. Same phase plane as in Figure 6.4.5.
23. Graph using software.
0
-2

2
0 2 3 4 5
184 CHAPTER 6
25. Graph using software.
0
2
-2

0 2 3 4 5

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Solutions Manual to

(from integration table) to integrate and

in z and t and can be solved by separation of variables as

becasue e = 0 , t. So a simple exponential, Ae

at t = 1 we must have lim x(t) = x(1) 2e

Using x(0) = 0 we get c

Using x(0) = 2 we get c

1. Thus the solution is

whose solution with initial population P (0) is P (t) = P (0)e

5. Here, P (0) = 1500, t = 1 hour, P (1) = 2000. So P (t) = P (0)e

t = [ln (T 30) ln (170)] = ln

dS2 18S1 dS2 18S1 18S2

Using initial condition v(0) = 0 we have, c = 1960. Hence

(b) v (10) = 1960

Using the condition v(5) = 12600 we have,

(t) = sin t + t cos t c

(0) = 3 for the rst solution

sin (2t)) + 4v sin (2t) = 0, since the v

LINEAR SECOND AND HIGHER-ORDER DIFFERENIAL EQUATIONS 35

2. Thus the general solution

8i.Thus the general

2.Thus the general

Thus the general solution is x = c

Thus the general solution is x = c

58. The phase

58 cos (5t + 1.1659) .

3 + 1 = 2. The phase angle

3 + 1 = 2. The phase angle

16 + 48 = 8. The phase angle

2i. Hence the general solution is

5t. Using the initial conditions

5t. The amplitude is

The dierential equation describing the motion is

20 and the phase angle is

4mk, then damped oscillation.

4mk, then overdamped.

4mk, then critically damped.

2.6 THE METHOD OF UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS

Using the initial conditions we get, 0 =

Equating the coecients of like terms we have,

Equating the coecients of like terms we have,

Equating the coecients of like terms we have,

Equating the coecients of like terms we have,

(r 2) (r 3) = 0 r = 2, 3. Thus e and e are independent

in the homogeneous part of x

(r 3) (r 4) = 0 r = 3, 4.Thus e and e are independent

independent homogeneous solutions. Here the rst forcing term is

homogeneous solutions. The rst forcing term is of the form

(r + 1) = 0 r = 1 with multiplicity 1. Thus e

independent homogeneous solutions. The forcing term is of the

Equating the like terms we have,

The second forcing function e is not a homogeneous solution

Now combining them we have the form as

59 LINEAR SECOND AND HIGHER-ORDER DIFFERENIAL EQUATIONS

21. Substituting x = e in the homogeneous part of x

4mk is the damping coecient for the critically damped

LC. Thus the motion is q (t) = cos

(r + 1) (r + 2) r = 1, 2. Thus the general

= 2i. Thus the general solution is

7. Thus the general solution is

Thus {cos t, sin t} is a fundamental set of solutions and here f =

x = ( ln |sec t + tan t| + sin t + c

solutions. The Wronskian, W t t