Question.

Sampling and measurements of different water quality parameters and surface water bodies need a systematic monitoring programme, starting from identification of pollution sources, selection of parameters of interest, sampling strategy design, laboratory analysis and data handling and interpretation. Make a literature survey and design a monitoring programme for a fresh water lake.

INTRODUCTION Water is one of the most important and basic natural resources. Water is not only one of the most essential commodities of our day-to-day life but the development of this natural resource also plays a crucial role in economic and social development processes. While the total amount of water available in the world is constant and is generally said to be adequate to meet all the demands of mankind, its quality and distribution over different regions of the world is uneven and causes problems of scarcity and suitability (Mauskar, 2007). Water quality is a complex subject which involves physical, chemical, hydrological and biological characteristics of water and their complex and delicate relations. From the user's point of view the term "water quality is defined as "those physical, chemical or biological characteristics of water by which the user evaluates the acceptability of water (Meybeck et al, 1996). Lakes can be subject to several influences that cause water quality to vary from place to place and from time to time. It is therefore important to conduct preliminary investigations to ensure that sampling stations are truly representative of the water body. Where feeder streams or effluents enter lakes there may be local areas where the incoming water is concentrated because it has not yet mixed with the main water body. Isolated bays and narrow inlets of lakes are frequently poorly mixed and may contain water of a different quality from that of the rest of the lake. Wind

action and the shape of a lake may lead to a lack of homogeneity for example when wind along a long narrow lake causes a concentration of algae at one end (Usha et al, 2006).

Summary of monitoring of surface water quality

Figure 1: Flow diagram of surface water quality monitoring

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(Source: Fakue et al, 2006.) MONITORING Monitoring is defined by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), as the programmed process of sampling, measurement and subsequent recording or signaling or both, of various water characteristics, often with the aim of assessing conformity to specified objectives. This general definition can be differentiated into three types of monitoring activities that distinguish between long-term, short-term and continuous monitoring programmes as follows: Monitoring is the long-term, standardised measurement and observation of the aquatic environment in order to define status and trends. Surveys are finite duration, intensive programmes to measure and observe the quality of the aquatic environment for a specific purpose. Surveillance is continuous, specific measurement and observation for the purpose of water quality management and operational activities (Chapman, 1996). MONITORING STRATEGY Due to economic and practical considerations, monitoring network design, sampling frequencies, choice of variables and frequency of laboratory analysis should be determined on the basis of the information requirements, the hydraulic and hydrologic constraints, variability in water body characteristics, the end-use of water that drains to and from the water body, the overall objectives of the monitoring programme and finally of course on costs involved and budgets allocated to the programme. It is also important to optimise the amount of efforts required and information generated and its importance to fulfill the set objectives. The main objective of the design should be to minimise the cost of monitoring without sacrificing the desired information to the level of precision (Bartram and Ballance 1996).

Preliminary surveys
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This provides opportunity to assess the sampling network and provide indications of whether more (or possibly fewer) samples are needed in order to gain knowledge of the water quality at various points throughout a water body. Preliminary survey it is important to test assumptions about the mixing of lakes at the selected sampling sites and times (Dsilets, 1988). In a lake it may be necessary to sample at different points to determine whether water quality can be estimated at a single point or whether the lake behaves as a number of separate water body with different water quality characteristics. It is also essential to investigate variation in water quality with depth and especially during stratification. Lakes are generally well-mixed at overturn, that is when stratification breaks down and sampling from a single depth or the preparation of a composite sample from two depths may adequately represent the overall water quality (Chapman, 1996). Preliminary surveys also help to refine the logistical aspects of monitoring. For example, access to sampling stations is tested and can indicate whether refinements are necessary to the site selection. Sampling sites could also be found to be impractical for a variety of reasons, such as transport difficulties. Similarly, operational approaches may be tested during the pilot project and aspects such as the means of transport, on-site testing techniques or sample preservation and transport methods, can be evaluated. Sample volume requirements and preservation methods can then also be refined. Preliminary surveys also provide opportunities for training staff and for ensuring that staff is involved in the planning process. Such involvement, together with the undertaking of preliminary surveys, may often avoid major problems and inefficiencies which might otherwise arise (Chapman, 1996)

Reconnaissance survey Most water quality monitoring programs have the objective of defining pollution, and relating it to its sources. After this the reductions in discharges, which are necessary to remedy the problem, can be determined. A few days spent reviewing all available reports and records concerning the water quality of all waste discharges and of the receiving water body may save several days of field work and may prevent the collection of useless data. It is important to make a reconnaissance survey of the lake during the planning stage, noting all sources of wastes that might contribute a potential pollutant, and all uses and abstractions of the water. This action will
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also include a survey of background information such as geography, topography, climate and weather, hydrology, hydrogeology, land use, urbanization, industrialization and agriculture, including farming around the lake (Mauskar, 2007). The survey may include acquisition of following information: Location map Background information on water body Human activities around the water body like mass bathing, melon farming, cattle wading Identification of potential polluting sources Water abstraction quantity and uses Water flow regulation - schedule, quantity (Mauskar, 2007).

WATER QUALITY MONITORING OBJECTIVES General objectives Assessment of surface water quality ( i.e fresh water lake) Specific objectives

Identification of pollution sources of fresh water lake Identification of the extent of pollution of fresh water lake Identification of state and trends in water quality, both in terms of concentrations and effects. Establishment of pollution control strategies

POLLUTION SOURCE OF THE FRESH WATER LAKE Discharge of domestic wastewaters Industrial wastes Agricultural activities, such as animal husbandry pesticide spraying or fertilizer application Navigation Illegal fishing like using dynamites and chemicals
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Crude dumping which pollute water by leaching when it rains

NETWORK DESIGN In designing the sampling network, it is important to consider optimum number of sampling location, sampling frequency and parameters required to fulfill the desired objectives.

PARAMETERS Physical parameters

pH: low level of pH value in the lake is due to the heavy freshwater inflow into the lake.
Dissolved oxygen (DO). The dissolved oxygen concentration depends on the physical,

chemical and biochemical activities in the water body, and its measurement provides a good indication of water quality. Changes in dissolved oxygen concentrations can be an early indication of changing conditions in the water body. The high level of DO may be
attributed to the self purification capacity of flowing water, aquatic plants photosynthetic efficiency and air flow. The low level of DO in water is stressful and benthic organisms may become vulnerable to hypoxia.

Total dissolved solids (TDS): TDS is the measure of total contents of both organic and inorganic materials present in the samples. Temperature must be measured in situ because a water sample will gradually reach the same temperature as the surrounding air. Temperature is measured with a glass thermometer, either alcohol/toluene-filled or mercury filled, with 0.1 C graduations, or an electronic thermometer of the type that is usually an integral part of a dissolved oxygen meter or a conductivity meter.

Chemical parameters

Alkalinity due to carbonates exists in water system in the form of sodium or calcium compounds. Accumulation of larger quantity of bicarbonates may be due to organic decomposition and depletion in water level (Standard Methods 1976).
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Free CO2. Low level of free CO2 might be either due to its consumption in carbon assimilation or its complete conversion into carbonic acid and ultimately into stable carbonates and bicarbonates.

Nitrate is the most highly oxidized form of nitrogen compounds, is commonly present in surface and ground waters, because it is the end product of the aerobic decomposition of organic nitrogenous matter. Significant sources of nitrate are chemical fertilizers from cultivated land and drainage from livestock feedlots, as well as domestic and some industrial waters. The determination of nitrate helps the assessment of the character and degree of oxidation in surface waters, in groundwater penetrating through soil layers, in biological processes and in the advanced treatment of wastewater.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) BOD indicates the presence of organic load in a water body, the maximum tolerance limit of which is 3ppm for public water. BOD is the amount of oxygen required by the living organisms engaged in the utilization and ultimate destruction or stabilization of the organic matter. The increase may be due to community activities. The high BOD and low DO may indicate the pollution.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). COD determination is a measure of the oxygen equivalent of the portion of the organic matter in a sample that is susceptible to oxidation by a strong chemical oxidant. The high COD values might be attributed to the nutrient enrichments, high salinity and sulphate content. COD test is helpful in indicating toxic condition and the presence of biologically resistant organic substances.

Bacteriological analysis: The occurrence of coliform group, total coliform, faecal coliform, Escherechia coli, Enterobacter, Klebsiella citrobacter and faecal streptococci in aquatic medium has been used as principal ecological indicators of water pollution. Presence of coliform count in the water sample also point towards pollution of the lake and leads to pathogenic fish diseases (Mauskar, 2007).

SAMPLING STRATEGY
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Lakes are subjected to considerable variations from normal causes such as seasonal stratification, rainfall, run-off and wind. Selection of location, depth, and frequency of sampling depends on local conditions and the purpose of the investigation.

Selection of sampling location Lakes can be subject to several influences that cause water quality to vary from place to place and from time to time. It is, therefore, prudent to conduct preliminary investigations to ensure that sampling stations are truly representative of the water body.

Avoid areas with excessive turbulence because of the potential presence of toxic vapor Avoid sampling at the weirs because such locations tend favor retrieval of lighter-thanwater, immiscible compounds. Collect samples beneath the surface in quiescent areas If composite sample are required, take care that the sample constituents are not lost during compositing because of improper handling (Greenberg 1992).

Wind action and the shape of a lake may lead to a lack of homogeneity; for example when wind along a long, narrow lake causes a concentration of algae at one end. Sampling Equipments Equipment to be used to collect samples must be appropriately cleaned and decontaminated, field meters should be calibrated according to the manufacturers instructions and sufficient sample bottles prepared. The chemical elements of interest in subsequent laboratory analysis dictate the type of container to be used for sampling, sample treatment such as filtration and/or refrigeration, and for sample storage, example plastic or borosilicate glass (Minerals and nutrient advisory note, 2009). Equipments for fresh water lake sampling include Container for field measurements and sample bottles for dispatch to laboratory Filtration equipment Field parameter meters or test kits (Such as Alkalinity/acidity test kit)
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Powder-less nitrile gloves Portable refrigerator and appropriate preservative, such as Nitric acid for preservation of samples before laboratory analysis Personal Protective Equipment, first aid and communication equipment.

Sampling frequency The sampling frequency is governed by the level of variation in water quality of a water body. If variations are large in a short duration of time, a larger frequency is required to cover such variations. On the other hand, if there is no significant variation in water quality, frequent collection of sample is not required, also objectives of the project, budget, intended water use and the safety of the site. Sample Labeling Label the sample container properly, preferably by attaching an appropriately inscribed tag or label. Alternatively, the bottle can be labeled directly with a water-proof marker. Information on the sample container or the tag should include: Sample code number (identifying location) Date and time of sampling Source and type of sample pre-treatment or preservation carried out on the sample Any special notes for the analyst Samplers name

Sample preservation Once samples have been collected, the following procedure should be followed:

Transfer the sample(s) into suitable, labeled sample containers. Preserve the sample if appropriate, or use pre-preserved sample bottles. Do not overfill bottles if they are pre-preserved. Cap the container, place in a ziploc plastic bag and cool to 4oC. Record all pertinent data in the site logbook and on field data sheets.
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Complete the Chain of Custody record. Attach custody seals to cooler prior to shipment. Decontaminate all sampling equipment prior to the collection of additional samples with that sampling device.

LABORATORY WORK For laboratory work, the laboratory in charge should maintain a bound register for assignment of work. This register would link the laboratory sample number to the analyst who makes specific analyses on the parameters to be analyzed such as pH, EC, BOD with an estimate of time for performing the analyses. Each laboratory analyst should have his/her own bound register, where all laboratory readings and calculations are to be entered and results must be recorded in a register containing data record sheets after the analysis (Mauskar, 2007).

Laboratory Analysis The laboratory analysis is to be performed by the laboratory staff within stipulated time and precision. It is observed that many laboratories have their own procedures that are followed and use different units to present the results. In order to make the procedures uniform and also presentation methods uniform a guideline is prepared (Mauskar, 2007). Examples of the analytical methods prescribed for some parameter along with measurement are:Parameters pH Electrical Conductivity Dissolved Oxygen Unit S/cm mg/L Measurement pH meter Conductivity meter DO Meter or Winkler modified method

DATA MANAGEMENT Data Storage

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All parameters should be recorded except heavy metals and trace organics that may be analyzed in the water quality monitoring programme currently envisaged. Record of analyses for heavy metals and trace organics which would be performed on a limited number of samples would be kept separately in a similar format (Bartram, 1996). Data Validation

Absolute checking or Data entry Checking if data is within the detection limits of a particular method Checking if the data is within the expected ranges for a parameter Checking if there are too many (or too few) significant digits reported Checking if data are physically or scientifically possible (general checks) Checking correlation of parameters like BOD/COD relation, TC/FC relation, EC and TDS.

Statistical analysis and Presentation Some simple statistical analysis for the data is required to summarise the data to transform them to aid understanding or to compare them with a water quality standard such as annual mean, standard deviation, trend, seasonal changes for certain parameters. The data after analysis can be presented in different format. For a lake usually lake profiles are commonly presented (Bartram 1996). Data Interpretation This involves understanding on the water chemistry, biology and hydrology. Normally lake water data analysed and interpreted in terms of chemical quality, quality fluctuations and their possible effect on different uses in an ecosystem. A comparison is made with predefined criteria or standards set for protection of different uses. The quality fluctuation is explained in view of possible sources of pollution and their fates in aquatic environment and their effects (Gilbert, 1987). Graphical Presentation Time Series Graphs Histograms
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Pie Charts Profile Plots (lake profiles) Geographical Plots (contours)

Quality Assurance This is an important foundation to data analysis and use. The effective quality control procedures during sampling and analysis help to eliminate sources of error in the data. This is mainly based on the procedures regarding sample collection, labeling, preservation, transport etc. A standard analytical procedure for the analysis of each parameter giving results of acceptable accuracy is required (Golterman, 1983). Fresh water lake pollution control

Industrial waste treatment using natural phenomenon (stabilization ponds) before discharge into the fresh water lake

Formulation and enhancement of waste disposal acts or policy to ensure safety and quality of surface water bodies

Control of agricultural runoff from entering the lake which can lead to eutriphication Proper solid waste disposal Proper fishing and navigation practices

Dissemination of the data from monitoring programme Results from monitoring programme are disseminated using simple language where by all community understand it .This process is done through different ways such as; Seminars bronchus, drama. They advertize through Mass median, mass compain and through public gazette (publish). Conclusion A systematic monitoring program of surface water bodies such as lakes aid in protection of human health as it evaluate the effectiveness of pollution control through several strategies. As
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monitoring program is an important issue, the government should provide effective support through provision of enough facilities like quality laboratories with standard equipments to fulfill the intended purposes. Sanitary education should be provided to the society on the issue of surface water pollution covering on effects of water pollution and some local treatment method which does not need laboratory skills. References

Bartram, J and R. Balance, 1996. Water Quality Monitoring - A Practical Guide to the Design and Implementation of Freshwater, Quality Studies and Monitoring Programmes. United Nations Environment Programme and the World Health Organization.

Chapman, D. 1996. Water Quality Assessments: A Guide to the Use of Biota, Sediments and Water in Environmental Monitoring. 2nd edition, Chapman & Hall, London.

Dsilets, L, 1988. Criteria for Basin Selection and Sampling Station Macrolocation. Inland Waters Directorate, Water Quality Branch, Scientific Series No. 164. Environment Ottawa Canada.

Demayo, A. and A. Steel, 1996. Data handling and presentation. Water Quality Assessments. A Guide to the Use of Biota, Sediments and Water in Environmental Monitoring. 2nd edition, Chapman & Hall, London.

Fakue et al, 2006. Sustainable built environment Voll. II Monitoring of Surface water quality. Department of Marine Civil Engineering, Takai University, Orido, Shimizuku, Shizuoka, Japan.

Gilbert, R.O. 1987. Statistical Methods for Environmental Pollution Monitoring. Van Nostrand, London.
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Golterman et al, 1983. Study of the Relationships between Water Quality and Sediments Transport. A Guide for the Collection and Interpretation of Sediment Quality Data. Technical Papers in Hydrology No. 26, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris.

Greenberg et al, 1992. Standard methods for examination of water and waste water, 18th Ed. American Public Health Association, Washington DC.

Minerals and nutrient advisory note, 2009. Methodology for the sampling of surface waters, Department of resources, Northern territory Government. Available at www.nt.gov.au , retrieved on 12th Dec 2011.

Meybeck et al, 1996. Strategies for water quality assessment. Water Quality Assessments: A Guide to the Use of Biota, Sediments and Water in Environmental Monitoring. 2nd edition, Chapman & Hall, London, 23-57.

Mauskar, J. M, 2007. Guide lines for water Quality Monitoring, Ministry of Environmental and Forest, Central pollution control. East Arjun, Nagar, Delhi-32.

Usha et al, 2006. Freshwater Lakes - A potential source for aquaculture activities, Department of Zoology, Quid-et-Millet College for Women, Chennai, India.

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