Islam in United Kingdom

Growth Of Islam In United Kingdom; Role Of Media
Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

PG Dissertation submitted to Darul Huda Islamic University In fulfillment of requirements for the award of the degree of
Moulavi Fadhil Al-Hudawi
Submitted by:
Saeed Fasal
Guided by:
Muneer Hudawi Mavoor

DEPARTMENT OF DAWA AND COMPARATIVE RELIGIONS DARUL HUDA ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAPPURAM, KERALA, 676306 JANUARY 2012
APPROVAL CERTIFICATE
I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion, it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the award of the degree of Moulavi Fadhil Al-Hudawi Muneer Hudawi Mavoor Guide
I certify that this dissertation was submitted at the department of Department of Dawa and Comparative Religions to be considered for the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of Moulavi Fadhil Al-Hudawi Prof: Ali Moulavi Iringallore Class in-Charge, Department of Dawa and Comparative Religions
Received to be sent for evaluation on Office of Academic Affairs (signature and seal)
DECLARATION I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted as a whole for any other degrees at DHIU or other institutions.
Saeed Fasal Signature ..
Date
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DARUL HUDA ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY, MALAPPURAM, INDIA

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Copyright 2000 by Saeed Fasal All rights reserved. Growth of Islam In UK; Role of Media No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder except as provided below. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may only be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement. DHIU or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes. The DHIU library will have the right to make, store in a retrieval system and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other universities and research libraries.
Signature: Saeed Fasal Date:
Dedicated to My affectionate Uppa and Umma, AbooBakker Musliyar & Haleema, Dr. U. Bapputty Haji, Founder of Darul Huda Islamic University And my foremost teachers, who taught me to be graceful under hardships and humble in achievements.
Acknowledgement
This work is the result of an attempt to underline the role of media in empowering Islamic proceedings in United Kingdom, the most prominent nation in Europe in the all means of development. It is a research to find the possibilities and contributions of media, in presenting Islamic religion towards the Europeans. Because, I understand that , in this period of developing information technologies, media is the common medium of human communication, where, without the barriers of political, cultural and religious variations I assure that, if there a serious approach in applying of date to date developments occurring in information technology, Islam can wipe up the hollow allegations, and go forward with a great result. When I selected this subject, started this quest, a number of people swamped me with assistance and support to let this work finish. I express my deep gratitude to my guide and supervisor Mr. Muneer Mavoor for his enormous interest in the topic and the work, his guidance and encouragement motivated me a lot. I am also thankful to the faculties at the Department of Dawa and Comparative Religious study, Darul Huda Islamic University (DHIU); Prof: Ali Moulawi Iringallore, Head of Department and Mr. Anas Hudawi, Department Lecturer. I trace my thanks to the Darul Huda Library for the resources provided and facilities rendered, I am also pleased to the libraries of Al Jamia Al Islamiyya, Shanthapuram, and the Hira Library of Jamaath-e-Islami Hind Kerala state committee. It will be inadequate an incomplete without any expression to Darul Huda Islamic University, Kerala, where I spent my seminal years, looking for theological and material knowledge, I gratefully remember its founders, Marhoom C.H. Hyderoos Musliyar, Dr U. Bapputty Haji, M.M. Basheer and E. Muhammed Sir, whose sincere efforts were its basis. I convey my immense thanks to Dr. Bahauddeen Muhammed Nadwi the most reverent teacher and Vice Chancellor of DHIU and Dr. Bahauddeen Hudawi (Director of
NIICS), Dr. Zubair Hudawi (Registrar, DHIU), Dr. Faizal Mariyadu (Asst.Prof. Aligarh Malappuram Off Campus). Within the subject research, I have been met some fine personalities whose valuable supports and suggestions have inspired me a lot, one of them are Abdu Latheef Kuttikkattil (Programme Executive, India vision TV), Muhammad Hudawi (Researcher, Aligarh University), Jumail (Al Jamia Al Islamiyya, Shanthapuram), Zainul Abid (Indian Institute of Mass Communication, New Delhi), Peter .M (Devine Centre, Cochin), and Jiyad Mankada (Film Director), who awaked me about the vast possibilities of media in expressing our ideologies. I am satisfied with the great support of my friend Ashiq, for his inspirations to me, since eight years ago, a key reason for the changes of mine, what I am today. I am grateful to other friends, Asif Akhthar, Mumbai (Lecturer, Quwathul Islam Arabic College, Mumbai), Noufal Shahin, Al Ameen, Usman Kooriyadu (Alumni ,DHIU),Fasil, Thamleed, Mansoor Manjeri, Muhsin, Thajuddeen Valluvamram, Irfan Habeeb and Swadiq Ali, for their adding and addition to the subject with valuable references, even in their hard schedules. I respect with the extreme humility and pleasure the inspiration and care given by my respected parents who supported me with great expectation, and I am thankful with all my sisters who supported me with a lot of applauds in each of my achievements, and a brother, who followed me in his all steps of life, imitating my each abilities.
Contents
Acknowledg ement ......... 07 Abstract.. ............ 14 Introduction ................................ ................................ ............................. 18 Chapt er 1 Histor y o f mo dern E uro pe and Mus lims after the col laps e of Ottoman Empir e ................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 24 Europe after industrial revolution ...............................................................24 Impacts of industrial revolution ..................................................................27 Political impacts of industrial revolution ..................................................27 Social and cultural impacts of industrial revolution ...................................28 Economic impact of industrial revolution .................................................30 Status of Islam in Europe after 19th century .................................................30 Muslims in Europe after modernization .......................................................32 Hopes and challenges of Islam in Europe ....................................................34 Islam in Europe: rate of growth; true or false...............................................37 Islamization of Europe ...............................................................................38 The growth of Muslim communities in Europe .............................................40 The increasing visibility of Islam .................................................................41 In European public sphere ..........................................................................41 Muslims in Europe: Country guide ..............................................................43 Albania ..................................................................................................43 Austria ...................................................................................................44 Belgium..................................................................................................44
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Bosnia-Herzegovina ...............................................................................45 Denmark ................................................................................................45 France ....................................................................................................46 Germany ................................................................................................46 Italy .......................................................................................................47 Macedonia..............................................................................................47 Netherlands............................................................................................48 Serbia and Montenegro ...........................................................................48 Spain .....................................................................................................49 Sweden ..................................................................................................50 Switzerland ............................................................................................50 Turkey ...................................................................................................51 United Kingdom .....................................................................................51 Chapt er 2 Islam in Un ited K ingdom; A Status q uo Repo rt ................................ ...... 53 Introduction ..............................................................................................53 Status of Islam in UK ..................................................................................53 Islam in states of UK ..................................................................................55 England..................................................................................................55 Wales .....................................................................................................55 Scotland .................................................................................................56 Ireland ...................................................................................................56 Census Report of 2001; A Population study of UK Muslims ..........................58 Development of the Muslim Community in Britain .......................................59 Migration of Muslims after World War II ......................................................61 Muslims and Interfaith Relations with non-Muslims .....................................64
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Current Challenges of Muslims in UK ..........................................................66 Muslim Community Statistics in UK.............................................................67 Demographics ........................................................................................67 Education ...............................................................................................68 Poverty...................................................................................................69 Housing .................................................................................................69 Employment ...........................................................................................70 Crime.....................................................................................................70 Issues and concerns................................................................................71 Islamic movements in UK ...........................................................................72 Non-political religious groups .................................................................72 Non-religious political groups .................................................................77 Support and Criticism .............................................................................83 List of Affiliated Organizations and Institutions ...........................................85 British Muslims and multiculturalism ........................................................ 102 Radicalization among Muslims in the UK ................................................... 106 C hapt er 3 Islam and Media in Mo dern UK; A Met ho d of Em powerm ent ............... 108 Representation of Islam in Media .............................................................. 108 Chapter 3 ................................................................................................ 108 Islamic Media Unit ................................................................................... 112 The British Media and Muslim Representation: .......................................... 113 Expectations of Muslims; a survey Report ................................................. 113 Muslim Sensitivity of the media ............................................................. 115 Research results ................................................................................... 115 TV News Analysis ................................................................................. 115
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Muslim Representation in Cinema.......................................................... 116 Representation in English Literature ...................................................... 117 British Muslims understanding of Muslim Representation in the Media ...... 118 Geographical location and observation of media .................................... 118 Age groups and perception of media ..................................................... 118 Gender and perception of media ........................................................... 118 Birthplace and opinion of media ............................................................ 118 Level of Religiosity and sensitivity of Media ............................................ 119 Education and the perception of media .................................................. 119 Representation of Muslims in the British media ...................................... 119 Representation of British Muslims and non-British Muslims .................... 119 Islamophobia in Hollywood and British movies ....................................... 119 Different Representations in the Different Forms of Media ...................... 120 Ideological Representation: Encoded messages about Muslims ............... 120 What can media towards Islamophobia? ................................................. 120 Does media give an enough opportunity to Muslims? ............................. 121 Muslim expectations from the media ..................................................... 121 Muslim Expectations of the Government ................................................ 121 Muslim Youth and Muslim Media in Britain ................................................ 122 Muslim Publications in Britain A summary .............................................. 124 Presence of Muslims in Cyber world.......................................................... 127 Quilliam Press; a Title of Successful Mission .............................................. 128 Islamic Media institutions in United Kingdom ............................................ 131 Tele Vision Channels............................................................................. 131 Periodicals............................................................................................ 134
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Radio ................................................................................................... 136 Online TV ............................................................................................. 138 Conclusion .............................................................................................. 140
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Abstract: Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media
The studies and researches about the Islamic propagation in various part of the world are ongoing through the explorations of different scholars in the various universities. Most of the research scholars are depending historical, geographical and cultural methods, in which the alterations and evolutions of the society in accepting a neo culture and ideology is described, but, most of that works are concluding in a result of some reasons for the expansion of Islam throughout the world, good strength of armed force, geographical privilege factors, disadvantages of opponents, and the spiritual leaderships. Even though, the some results of their researches are acceptable conclusions, there are some another approaches of explorations which are likely to be studied. That is the medium of propagation, in the period of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) he was accepted a media of sending messengers, and by the period of Hadhrath Umer (R.A) he established the postal system as useful for common people also. And the gradual development of inter-relations by the improvements of media methods brought a number of changes in the history of Islam and Muslims. By the expansion of Islam in the medieval periods towards the Spain in North, Morocco in West, and the Indonesia in East, Islam was in its golden phase, that the well-built Ottoman Empire in one side and reverent spiritual leadership in another side. But, the comeback of crusaders to the bloody fields of Muslims, made them defensive in the movements. Even if suffered some autocracy of European powers, after the collapse of Ottoman Empire Islamic regions were scattered and gradually formed as independent sovereign countries. After the industrial revolution and the eventful two world wars, the cause of the whole world was in a way of developments, then, the Islamic countries also followed these changes to being sustained in the political map of the world. With nonaligned policies, Islamic countries were in an isolated situation, which they havent enough bilateral relations with the other prominent nations. As they started to change, the
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global power countries like U.S.A, U.K, France, Germany and Italy interested to invest in the Arab countries like, Saudi Arabia, U.A.E, especially in petroleum refining, it resulted for the growth of their economy and market. Actually, the financial growth of Muslim nations was the important reason for the expansion of Islam in the other parts of the world. Because, there were a necessity of financial support to presenting Islam in the richer societies, that there required a method of propagation in which the people can accept them easily, understand the ideology of Islam optimistically. That method was the media, which presented a number of modes for the communication, like, printing machine (newspapers, magazines), radio (audio broadcasting), telecommunication (telegram, telephone fax, and mobile phone), television (visual broadcasting, film production) and internet (e-mail, websites,). The growing possibilities of media have been utilized by the all religions, Christians have a mainstream presence and influence in the media, and Jews are the supreme in the every stages of media, and the most of media institutes in the world are controlled by the Christian-Jewish partnership, so Islam have to assure its presence in the media, and have a great task to doing something, but the some unexpected events and incidents made this attempts easiest than Muslims guessed, that the allegations and accusations of Zionists and orientalists towards Islam and Muslims, along with the attacks of 9/11, Islam got an ample attentions both positively and negatively. In Europe, this tendency echoed a great change in the attitude of Europeans in understanding other ideologies, as there came an situation of open discussions about Islam and its beliefs, which helped a lot of common peoples to know about Islamic concept of life. This was inspired many peoples to the path of peace, humanity, tolerance and brotherhood. This was reflected more in United Kingdom, France and Germany, as there formed a number of Islamic organizations aiming the propagation of Islam. They also followed the path of other religious organizations, established media institutions to promote Islamic ideologies to the non-Muslims and to educate its principle to Muslims also.
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Introduction
Over some years, the whole world s attention has been turning towards West and Europe, not because of their political regime or supremacy, but, by the growth of multiculturalism and globalization. As the whole world have surrounded to the capital cities of first world countries, like New York, London, Paris, etc. the concept of global market and global village was in part of the retaining of the title global economic supremacy. As after the world war second concluded, the global political superiority reduced in to the hands of US and USSR, and the attempts of these dominant countries to being premier reached them in to the struggle named Cold War, as a consequence of these interconflicts, there formed some formula of alliance in the world politics, that the administrations of US decided to be counter parted with the British empire as an alliance in facing the USSR, they focused the USSR and its colonies, with an unified policy and long term campaign against the soviet dominance. After the long period of a big gap, the alliance caught the incursion of Red Army to Afghanistan as a great loop-hole to finish off their Cold War in to an armed interference, as they helped Afghan Mujahids with their arm wealth, only to throttle the worlds second dominant power, to eradicate their parallel supremacy. The triumph of Afghan Mujahids on USSR was the triumph of US also, as the failure of Red Army made the globalization growing tremendously. Even though, now there are some supremacy contradictions within US and some countries like China, France and Russia, the total preeminence is under the policies of Uncle Sam. It is unknown to none, that the United Nations policies are signed under the internal and external affairs policies of US government, so there is no probability for an amendment to be passed without the interest of US government, or any agenda to be discussed, which is a bitter pill to swallow, as far as they are concerned. So we can answer in one sentence for the question why the West only..? the superiority of America and their alliances is an un-written supremacy in the current world.
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As a well outfitted countrys citizens, the peoples of Western supreme countries are fortunate in experiencing the new alterations, taking place in the world. As the new technologies in science and media information is become familiar with their generation, and many of investigations and explorations are taking place in the minds of western thinkers, scientists and technology experts, like Stephen Hocking, Steve Jobes, founder of Apple Technologies. As I mentioned above, the new generation of western countries is attracted in exploring new things, matters and whatever they faces, and they are so curious in current issues which occurs in the another parts of the world, as they involves in the matters, like the conflicts of Palestine-Israel, global terrorism, and the movements against the autocratic governments. The attacks of World Trade Center on 11September 2001 in New York were the most attentive event which caused for a lengthy discussions and debates on Islam and terrorism throughout the world, and the term Islam and Muslim were discussed in its all means, following to the 9/11 attack, the invasion of Iraq by Alliance Army of US and its alliance counterpart countries like Britain, France and other countries from European continent. The truth behind the 9/11 attack was the attempts of America to re-establish their sovereignty over the world, but by the fall of USSR, they faced a blankness for what they need, i.e., wealth and weapon, and some of their Intelligent Federal Bureau reported that also; the current economical status of US is sufficient for 60 years only, and to enrich the economical status of US, we would be compelled to find some another energy sources, like crude oil, bio-chemicals to produce enough petroleum and gas, and the precious metal collection of gold and aluminum. As the report referred, US have to ensure their supremacy over the world at any cost, as the external affairs ministry of George Bush suggested two policies of solution; the first one, to collaborate with the countries, as we can ensure the availability of what we need, the second, if they never cooperated with our policies, we will have to accept the militant way, this policy was applied and realized in Iran, when Iraq was attacked them. but, the US cant obstruct directly in to any country, until the attacks of 9/11, accusing Taliban, and Osama bin Laden, condemning all responsibilities of terror attack, the joint army of US and Britain
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entered the boarders of Afghanistan, and captured the whole control of the country by the support of regional, tribal groups in Afghanistan, like Kurds, Northern alliance of tribes, and the shia groups who were displeased in the Autocratic rule of Taliban. In Iraq, with the similar reason, the US wanted Saddam Husain to resign from his presidency, and to getting out of Iraq. Here, we can find out two global powers, one was empowered with their armory and external affairs hidden policies, and the another was enriched by their diplomatic policies towards the whole world, respectively US and Britain differs within them by this political approach, that, even though the Britain was supporting the militant actions of US (even as the part of their cooperation, but, for the upholding of supremacy in European continent, being the second in world), they have an eminent external policy, which was affable towards all countries, it may be to keep up the genial circumstance between Britain and other European countries, to avoid such situation of violence from or towards the first world neighbor countries like, Germany, France, Italy, Spain and Holland. The administrative centers of Britain have accepted a method of mutual understanding towards the second and third world countries also. Although, the commonwealth Immigration Act of 1961 brought a rule over the migration, the SouthAsian peoples migration was continuous. As the industrial revolution broke out, the Act was became pathetic and lost its relevance. Not only in the case of Britain, but, we can observe this tendency in the diplomacy of Germany and France also, as the Turkish migration to the Germany was grown due to the bilateral agreement between the German Federal Republic and Turkey government in 1961, as a result , after the fifty years, the immigration statistics of 2011 pointed to a huge growth of Turkish population, there were some another reasons for the migration; that, the numbers of Acts which supported for the migration; like the Nationality Act of 2000, Act of green Card system (2000) which aimed specifically at recruiting IT professionals, and the protracted process of adopting the Immigration Act, which was came in force in January 2005. Just like the Germany, France also have a record of migration, which includes the migrants from Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Turkey, Sub-
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Saharan Africa, Middle East and the remaining Asian countries, along with their neighbor countries also. In the states of United Kingdom, the great centre of globalization, there were an absolute change in the political and cultural aspects, but it was resulted only after the twentieth century. Due to the revolution of information technology, a number of job vacancies were came out in UK, as the British administration forced to re-establish their foreigners immigration policy to be simplified, as a large total of South-Asian peoples were landed with the purpose of single job, and there werent any reason of migration or stable settlement, but after their arrival in the public sphere of British life, most of them were settled in UK as constant. Gradually, the cultural conflicts between the immigrants and British origins made situation of mutual understanding, which influenced the cultural visualization of European society. After the hysterically migration of South-Asians to Britain, the cultural aspect of Western people was altering to the other sides of spirituality and mysticism which had changed the whole attitude of Western peoples in a large scale. As the secularism have weakened the Christianity also along with Islam, the transformation of Christians as secularist or diplomatic, fetched a plain attitude for understanding the other ideologies. Somewhere, these studies and explorations resulted for a big ideological conflicts and explosions, like the Orientalism, as the intervention of west intellectuals in the principles of Islam and Muslim, like the issues of Jihad, Zakath and the head-scarf. Even in the present century, the term Islam and Muslim is the worthy debate issues, as the cultural spheres of European mainstream is coming forward to honor such a religion or community, the bilateral relationship of European countries with the Arab nations have turned it as flexible also. In this study, as an approach of role of media in the commonization of Islam in United Kingdom, I would like to probe the contributions of media in its every means. As a medium to communicate, express ideas, the mode of media is elastic than other Medias of oral, or posting letters. As we know, by the invention of printing machine by Thomas
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Guttenberg, the communication between peoples were got faster, and there came out many printing presses and publishing houses, as it resulted for a great change of human history, newspapers and some kind of books, reached in to the commons, and local peoples became closer about the incidents and events happens in the world. This tendency of quickly-information gave the society, some extra-visions on their dailydeeds, and there became a situation of self-determining in all aspects of their life, i.e. the print media have sophisticated the common peoples ideology. It got fast by the invention of Radio by Marconi in 1895. After this eventful decades, a revolution was occurred in the communication, as it developed to the next phase of information method; that the mass communication. The unexpected changes was followed to the invention of radio, Public Radio Stations(1916), Audio Broadcasting(1919-1950), FM Radio Stations (1933) Color Televisions(1900-33), Film(1920s), TV Channels(1937s), Internet(1979-85)and Mobile Phone(1980s). From this ongoing alteration, the last two means (Internet and Mobile Phone) of communication was the most popularized modes, which attracted all categories of peoples, commons or executives. When the new technologies were applied in the both modes, those became as the part of their daily life. The survey reports are exposed the details of internet users and mobile phone users, as most of them are observing this communication mode as an unavoidable things in their daily life. By the introducing of third and fourth generation technologies, now a mobile user can utilize the different choices of internet, searching all websites, social network sites, which facilitates data collection, video browsing, chatting, and all kinds of information. With this valuable medium, peoples could exchange their knowledge and experiences to others, and share their personal matters to their relatives, as the whole world followed this medium as a common platform for inter-relation, there formed a global knowledge as the consequence of globalization. By the commonization of knowledge, the issues, discussed throughout the whole world, got a worldwide attentions and reactions by these medias, some issues formed as a global issues, like the Israel-Palestine conflict and terrorism, and most of global citizens interfered in such issues with their attitudes and
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judgments. Gradually the world became an opened book where nothing is hidden, here questioned the stability of spirituality and cultural ideologies; that, the issues concern religious affairs uplifted many controversies, like the book of Selman Rushdie The Satanic Verses, which opened noisy debates and discussions about the right of expression. Islam-the rapid burgeoning religion- has to face such circumstances of defense, else from the initial period of globalization. And many of thinkers have fought with the ideologies of Islam, as the readings about Islam and Muslim expanded due to the incessant issues and controversies, like the Jihad, Head Scarf and Islamic politics, which echoed in different countries of world, like USA, France, Spain, Germany, Italy and Holland. Even though like these issues promoted Islam as a research subject at all over the world, and inspired some of western people towards Islam, Islam and Muslims have to sponge down the filthy allegations towards Islam, as there were some negative concepts in common people, which were extended by the accusations of Zionist thinkers and writers. To resist these allegations, and to prove the factual features of Islamic ideology, Islam have to find a solution, which will inaccurate the wrinkled concepts of anti-Islamist peoples. There were no answers but the media representation of Muslims, which will resists their attacks as the same method of their allegations. The Islamic Organizations, centered in UK, unified for this goal devoid of their ideological conflicts. This was key reason for empowering the media presence of Islam, although late, the Islamic media have acquired a great role in disarming anti-Islamists. In coming pages I opine about the role of media in the expansion of Islamic movements in Europe generally and in United Kingdom with a specific observation.
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Chapter 1
Chapter 1
After the collapse of Ottoman Empire;
History of modern Europe and Muslims

Introduction
The in it ial chapt er o f t his st ud y is an appro ach t o wards hist o r y o f Euro pe and Muslims, aft er co llap se o f well- syst emat ized emp ire o f otto mans, wit hin t he co nt inuo us wars t o crusad ers and t he int er co nflict s o f t he emp ire. Ho wever, t he st ud y a lso enqu ir ing abo ut t he reaso ns o f co meback o f Mu slims t o Euro pe wit hin so me decades, s ho wing so me fact o rs like ind ust r ial revo lut io n and mo d ernizat io n. Here, t he st ud y go ing t hro ugho ut a t ime line based research, first ly, it exp lains abo ut t he Euro pe aft er t he indu st r ial revo lut io n, alo ng wit h it s imp act s, fo llo wing t his st ud y, a revise abo u t st at us o f Islam in Euro pe aft er 19 t h cent ur y especially aft er t he t wo wo rld wars. Aft er t he mo d er nizat io n, t he Muslims o f Euro pe faced so me k ind o f challenges o f d iscr iminat io n, o f reco gnit io n and o t hers. Ho wever, Islam was incr easing in Euro pe gradually. T he chapt er will sho w a p ict ure o f Isla mic Euro pe, even t ho ug h o ur research area is UK and it s st at es, it is co mpu lso r y t o kno w abo ut Islamic at mo sp here o f Euro pe at first , and t his is t he reaso n fo r includ ing t his chapt er in t o my st ud y. 1
Europe after industrial revolution

1
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As a part o f o ur research st ud y, we have t o det er mine t he bo rder o f mo d er n Euro pes hist o ry at fir st , When we co nsider ing t he hist o r y o f mo d er n Euro pe, t he per io d o f indu st r ial revo lut io n will t aken as t he milest o ne, changed Euro pe fro m it s agr ar ian and hand icraft eco no my t o an ind ust r ial and machiner y eco no my. The chang e o f it s pro cess began in Eng land in eig ht eent h cent ur y and spread to t he ot her part s o f t he wo r ld. Eng land had a majo r ro le as t he Eng lish eco no mic hist o r ian Ar no ld To ynbee po pu lar ized t he indu st r ial revo lu t io n. Indu st r ial r evo lut io n main ly fo cused o n bo t h t echno lo g ical and so cio eco no mic cu lt ur e and it s feat ures have in cluded b y t echno lo g ical changes as fo llo wing : 2 (1) The use o f new basic mat er ia ls chie fly ir o n and st eel (2) The use o f new energ y so urces includ ing bo t h fuels and mo t ive po wer such as co al, st eam eng ine, elect r icit y, and pet ro leu m (3) Invent io n o f new machines lik e sp in n ing jenn y and po wer lo o m (4) New o rganizat io n o f wo rk as fact o r y syst em (5) Impo rt ant develo p ment s in t ranspo rt at io n and co mmu n icat io n e.g.: st eam ship, aut o mo bile, airp lane, t elegrap h, rad io and t elevis io n. (6) Increasing ap p licat io n o f science t o indust r y The t echno lo g ical changes as ment io ned abo ve mad e po ssib le a t remendo usly incr eased use o f nat ural reso urces and t he mass pro duct io n o f manu fact ured go o ds.
Industrial revolution, Britannica encyclopedia
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The ind ust r ial revo lut io n was no t o nly present ed d evelo p ment s in ind ust r ial sp her e, but also in no n- ind ust r ial sp her e also ; (1) Agr icu lt ural imp ro vement s. (2) Eco no mic chang es, which bro ug ht a wid er d ist r ibut io n o f wealt h. (3) Po lit ical chang es reflect ing t he shift in eco no mic po wer. (4) Sweep ing so cial changes, resu lt s fo r gro wt h o f cit ies and wo rk ing class. (5) Cu lt ural t ransfo r mat io n o f a bro ad o rder. Influences o f indust r ial r evo lut io n b y mo d er nizing t he Euro pe mad e t heir cu lt ural and t rad it io nal life st yle t o a labo ur syst em. As a resu lt o f t he indu st r ial revo lut io n nu mbers o f fact o ries were came, but t he per io d of first indu st r ial revo lut io n(1760-1 8 30) was largely co nfined and
co ncent rat ed o nly in Br it ain, d ue t o t heir mo no po list ic po licy, fo r bad e t he expo rt o f machiner y, sk illed wo rkers and manu fact ur ing t echn iques, t his mad e t he Br it ish mo no po ly co nt inu es fo r a lo ng p er io d. But , aft er po pu lar izing t he t echno lo g ies so me o f Br it ains saw t he ind ust r ia l o pport unit ies in abro ad as mo re pro fit able, while co nt inent al Euro pean bu sinessmen so ught to lure Br it ish t o know ho w to t heir co unt r ies. By t he beg inn ing o f t went iet h cent ur y, t he revo lut io n reached in it s seco nd p ha se, k no wn as t he second ind ustrial revolution, t hen t he ma n have reached t o t he st age o f exp lo it ing man y nat ural and synt het ic reso urces, no t hit hert o ut ilized ; lig ht er met als, new allo ys and s ynt het ic pro duct s such as p last ic as well as new energ y reso urc es co mbined wit h t hese are d evelo p ment s in machiner y t o ols and co mput er t hat have g iven r ise t o auto mat ic fact o ry syst em.
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By t he invent io n o f co mput er t echno lo g y, t he ind ust r ia l face o f Euro pe was abso lut ely chang ed, t hat t he qualit y o f pro duct io n and manu fact ur ing bro ug ht a wo rldwide market fo r Euro pe, esp ecially fo r Unit ed Kingdo m and it s st at es.
Impacts of industrial revolution

Chang es o f Euro pe by indu st r ial revo lut io n mad e many k ind s o f imp act s also , we can co nsider t hat in t hree t ypes; (1) Po lit ical impact s o f indu st rial revo lut io n (2) So cial and cu lt ural impact s o f indust r ial r evo lut io n (3) Eco no mic impact s o f indu st r ial revo lut io n
Political impacts of industrial revolution
In t he beg inn ing o f sevent eent h cent ur y, t he po lit ical p ict ure o f who le wo rld was a co lo nia l abst ract o f Euro pe; t hat , t he mo st o f wo r ld was u nder t he co mmo nwealt h ro le o f Br it ish mo no po ly. Fro m t he I ndo nesia, t he east er n t ip o f wo r ld t o t he west ern st at es o f Amer ican co nt inent , a nu mber o f co lo nial st at es were u nder t he Br it ish g o ver n ment and t he o t her part s o f t he wo r ld were belo ngs t o France, Po rt ugal, Po land and Ho lland. Befo re t he indu st r ial revo lut io n and d eco lo nizat io n, po lit ical po wer o f who le Euro pe was in t he hand s o f po pe o f Vat ican. Even t ho ug h t her e were sp ecific ru ler s o r kingdo m fo r each co unt ries and st at es, po pe was co nt ro lled all o f t heir st at es, as t he po pe det er mined to t hem t he areas o f t heir t rade mark et co lo nies when t hey became in co nflict s. Th is was co nt inued to t he end o f sixt eent h cent ur y, but , so met imes po pe faced suc h co nd it io ns, which mad e him co nfu sio ns to t ake any det er minat io n, as a resu lt , t he po wer o f po pe was challenged and t he po lit ica l int er vent io n o f
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po pe made t he co lo nia l po wers defend ing t he Vat ican, reducing t heir po wer o nly t o t he sp ir it ual leader ship. This bro ught a vit al change in t he po lit ical aut ho r it y o f Euro pean st at es and beca me t urning po int o f mo der n Euro pe; ret urning fro m a Chr ist ian st at e to a secu lar st at e. The st at es, released fro m t he po wer o f p o pe, t urned t heir at t ent io n t o t he ut ilizing o f t heir co lo nia l po wer, resu lt ing a wo r ldwid e market fo r Euro pean pro duct s. At t he same t ime, they co llect ed and expo rt ed t he essent ial go o ds t o refine fro m t heir fact or ies and have impo rt ed as t rade goo ds in t heir co lo nial mark et . Even t ho ug h t he e xt er nal affa ir s o f Euro pean st at es became st ro nger by t he po lit ical co lo nial po licy, t he int er nal po lit ical st ruct ure o f Euro pean st at es have changed t o t he secu lar supremacy and many o f t heir peo p le became less at t end ing upo n t he relig io u s feat ures
Social and cultural impacts of industrial revolution
The indu st rial revo lut io n has u lt imat ely r esu lt ed as po sit ive changes fo r so ciet y and help ed t o creat e a bet t er wo rld. The indu st r ial revo lut io n was r ig ht ly favo urable fo r all aspect s o f so ciet y, especially fo r t he midd leclass which saw t remendo us changes in t heir life st yle. In t he per io d o f eig ht eent h cent ur y, mo st o f go o ds were no t available t o t he midd le-class cit izens, because o f t he goo ds rar it y and hig h co st , but , t his was to change wit h t he ad vent o f indu st r ial revo lut io n. The rad ical revo lut io n wo u ld fir st lead t o a so lut io n fo r t he rar it y o f pro duct s, which was du e to t wo reaso ns; t he sp eed o f wo rkers and t he sho rt age o f able wo rkers. The t wo causes fo r t he rar it y o f impo rt ant pro duct s have reso lved by mechanisat io n where t he incr easing use o f t echno lo g y a llo wed fo r a fast manu fact ur ing pro cess. The mechanisat io n also reso lved ano t her
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impo rt ant pro blem t hat prevent ed access t o essent ia l go o ds fo r t he midd le class, t he exp ense o f go o ds have reduced. As a d ir ect resu lt o f mechanisat io n, especia lly in t he, med icine, t ext ile go o ds. Fina lly, t he main co nt r ibut io n o f indu st r ial revo lut io n was t he pro liferat io n o f cheap but essent ial go o ds t hro ugh co mmo n co nsu mer mark et s In t he cu lt ural aspect , indust r ial revo lut io n have bro ug ht a majo r chang e in t he sp here, t hat ; t he change fro m p er io ds o f po pe-co nt ro lled Euro pe to so me secu lar st at es resu lt ed fo r a ver y impo rt ant chang e, t hat ; by t he po pu lar iz ing o f indust r ial machin er y revo lut io n t o t he ot her part s o f wo r ld, especially t o t heir co lo nies made a pu sh pu ll react io n in t he fact o ries by get t ing jo bs fo r sk illed co lo ny cit izens as wo rkers in t he fact o ries, and migrat ing t o t he Euro pe, t his was belo nged to a lo ng per io d and also t he st at es o f Euro pe enco uraged t he migrat io n fo r effect ive pro duct ivit y o f fact o ries. Migrat io n resu lt ed fo r a cu lt ural changes t hat t hey were fro m t he d ifferent part s o f t he wo rld lik e fro m no rt hern Afr ica and so ut h Asia, as mo st o f t hem no n- Chr ist ians, t his reaso ned fo r a cu lt ural co nflict t hat mad e a challeng es fo r t he mo no po list ic relig io u s aut hent icit y o f po pe and Vat ican, and event ually, Euro pe became t o a
st age o f suppo rt ing secu lar id eo lo g ies.
We can descr ibe abo ut t he gro wt h o f po pu lat io n aft er t he mid o f sevent eent h cent ur y, i.e. at t he dawn o f indu st r ial revo lut io n t he wo r ld s hu man po pu lat io n at t ained a 57% gro wt h resu lt ed 700 millio n o f p eo p le, and it reached o ne billio n in AD1800. In previo us per io d s, many o f dangero us d iseases like b lack p lagu e were reduced t he gro wt h o f wo rld hu man po pu lat io n , in a t ime 75 millio n o f peo p le were dead b y p lague, but by t he birt h o f ind ust r ia l revo lut io n, med ic ine, pr imar y needs wit h liv ing st andard, came in t o t he lo cal peo ples and midd le class p eo p les.
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Therefo r e, t hey co u ld defend such lik e d iseases. I n t went iet h cent ur y, t here are repo rt ed a 400% po pu lat io n incr ease in a sing le co unt r y, no w we can underst and t hat ; since t he 250 years fro m t he beg inn ing o f t he ind ust r ial r evo lut io n u nt il t o day t he wo rld hu man po pu lat io n has st rengt hened by six billio n peo p les. 3
Economic impact of industrial revolution
It was o nly t ill t he ind ust r ial r evo lut io n, t hat t he eco no mic st at us o f who le Euro pe and each st at es was based o n t he hand icraft indu st r y and t here have t o use a nu mber o f u nsk illed labo urs fo r ver y lit t le jo bs wit h a scale o f min imu m vague. T he changes t oo k place in t he ind ust r y dur in g t he indust r ial revo lut io n pro vid ed a so lut io n fo r t his pro ble m, becau se fact o ries requ ired a lar ge wo rk space and wo rk fo rce, t hat t he fact o r ies incr eased in size, nu mber and pro ductiv it y. There want ed fo r mo re unsk illed labo ur t o man, t he machines and t he eno r mit y o f t he fact o ries want ed an equ ally eno r mo us labo ur st rengt h and led t o gett ing mo re emp lo yment o ppo rt unit ies. This meant t hat , t he mo st fam ilies go t an ext ra so urce o f inco me fo r t heir daily life and t his mad e t hem abet t er st andar d o f liv ing.
Status of Islam in Europe after 19th century

By t he r ise o f nat io n st at es and t he beg inn ing o f t he deco lo nizat io n
pro cess, we can find t he who le Mu slim wo rld invo lved in fo ur ma jo r
Source: United Nations Population Division, Briefing Packet, 1998 Revision of World Population Prospects; and the World Population Prospects, the 2006 Revision.
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int ellect ual mo ve ment s o verwhelming co nt empo rar y Mu slim co mmu n it y, t hat ; 4 (1) Nat io nalis m (2) Islamis m (3) West er nizat io n (4) St at e ideo lo g y
t he int ellect ual st at us o f t he
Nat io nalis m was mo re reflect ed in t he midd le east reg io ns, and aft er t he fall o f o tto man emp ir e it reached in t o t he peak o f nat io nalist mo ve ment s as each o f Arabian st at es and reg io ns want ed to fo rm o f t heir o wn nat io ns as it resu lt ed t he co mmu n it y o f Arabia been scat t ered abo ut to t en nat io ns as we see no w. Ear lier t ime, befo re t he fall o f o tt o man emp ir e in 1 9 t h cent ur y, t he challenges fro m Euro pean Chr ist ian st at es awakened t he cent ral aut ho r it y o f o tto man emp ir e fro m it s sno o ze, and t he same t ime t hey set to lau nc h an amb it io u s pro gram o f mo d er nizat io n, t his gave t he o t to man so ciet y a co meback and breakt hro ugh fro m t he t op do wn fo r a great resu lt , t he u lama o f o tto man so ciet y suppo rt ed t he mo d er nizat io n, as t hey ho pe t he welfare o f ummah wo u ld be safeguard ed but , even t ho ugh t he o tto man
su lt ans put t heir weig ht behind t he tha nzi mat, t he t reat y t o kamalians, t he pro cess d id nt prevent t he decline o f t he emp ire by t he end o f wo r ld war 1. Ho wever, befo re t he co llapse o f t he emp ire t heir int elligent sia saw t he west er nizat io n o nly so lut io n t o t he backwardness o f t he Mu slim st at e. As ment io ned ear lier, b y t he end o f 18 t h cent ur y, Mu slims have migrat ed and set t led in Euro pe as small gro ups and co mmu n it ies. Co ns ider ing t he key reaso n fo r t his mig rat io n, we can u nder st and t hat ;
4
The Muslim world in the 21st century; challenges and promises, by Ibrahim M. Abu Rabi
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aft er 1945, t he po st -war Euro pean eco no my need ed mo re labo urer s t o t heir fact o ries, t hen t he Euro pean st at es reached to a so lut io n fo r t his cr isis, as t he recent ly d eco lo nized reg io ns o f t he wo r ld, by t heir po o r eco no mic, educat io nal co nd it io n, lead t o t he Euro pean fact o ries. Because o f t his pro cess, wit hin t wo decades, t he nu mber o f fo reig ners in Euro pe incr eased and mo st o f t hem were fro m no rt her n Afr ica and so ut h Asia, t he Muslim majo r it y r eg io ns. The wo rkers have main ly bro ught fro m t he rural areas o f t he Mu slim wo r ld. I n add it io n, t he o ld co lo nial and nat io na l relat io nship was su fficie nt in det er min in g immigr at io n pat t erns. That t he so ut h Asians set t led main ly in Unit ed Kin gdo m, wher e t he No rt h Afr icans and Turks set t led in France and Ger man y respect ively.
Muslims in Europe after modernization

The per manent set t lement o f Muslims in Euro pe mad e a st r id ent d iscu ssio ns and debat es abo ut t he d iversit y o f Euro pean so ciet ies, and it is impo rt ant t hat , we have t o regard t here abo ut t he hist o r ical p lace o f mino r it ies in t he var io us st at es in Euro pe, befo re appr eciat ing t he nuances o f t he d iscu ssio ns and debat es in each nat io nal back gro und, here we ca n id ent ify t hree fo r emo st fact o rs t hat put up wit h t he so cial mo del o f eac h nat io ns 5 (1) The relat io nship bet ween po lit ical and relig io us aut ho r it ies. (2) Ext ent o f decent ralizat io n o f po lit ical po wer. (3) The leg al st at us o f migrant s in t he ho st count r y. These var iat io ns reflect ed upo n t he t ype o f int egrat io n po licies, t hat is used t o pro vide fo r mino r it ies, by t his st ud y, we co u ld classify t hree ma in so cial mo dels ut ilized b y Euro pean Unio n st at es;
5
Jamal Malik, introduction, Muslims in Europe: From the Margin to the Centre (Munster: LIT-Verlag,2004).
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(1) Like t he guest worker mo del where mig rant peo p les were seen t o have a t empo rar y presence, t his was dep lo yed in Ger many, Au st r ia and Swit zer land, (2) Abso rpt io n, where migrant s were seen t o be per manent and t hey emp lo yed fo r t he ind iv idu al int egrat io n, in t o t he cu lt ur e o f t hat st at e and t here migr ant s were d isco uraged fro m fo rmat io n o f co mmu n it ies. France is t he pr imar y examp le o f su ch a co unt r y. (3) The et hnic mino r it ies wit h d iffer ent fo r ms o f mu lt i-cu lt ur alism. There were preser vat io n fo r each cu lt ur al id ent it y and so me de gree o f p lur alism was refo r med, lik e Br it ain -o ur resear ch area- and Scand inavia n co unt r ies. 6 Aft er t he set t lement o f Mu slims and g ett ing per manent cit izenr y i n Euro pe t hey faced challenges o f represent at io n, reco gnit io n, debat es aro und id ent it y and d iscr iminat io n. As well as t he gamut o f ever y da y issu es lik e t he per missio n o f halal foo d, bur ial ser vices, p lann ing per miss io n fo r mo sque bu ild ing co nst ruct io n, fo r mat io n o f Mu sli m educat io nal inst it ut io ns and dress requ ir ement , t he lat t er has been t he issu e o f o ne o f t he mo st vo cifero us d ebat es st radd ling mu ch o f t he Euro pean u nio n like t he Issues o f head scar f and veil as it was banned in France fo llo wing t he ban o f relig io u s symbo ls in educat io nal inst it ut io n. And at t he same t ime t he decis io ns aro und t he limit s o f free speech have also been impo rt ant like t he sat anic ver ses issu e in t he un it ed k ingdo m in t he lat e 1980- in which t he bo o k was descr ibed t o be pro fane and hazardo us t o wards Muslims and t he co nt ro versy abo ut Theo van bo ughs murd er, a Dut ch film maker who was cr it ical o f Mu slim int er na l pr act ices and t he cart oo n co nt ro versy o f Danish news pap er which pr int ed cart oo ns illu st rat ing t he pro phet Mu hammad wit h a bo mb in his t urban.
Source; Europe, Muslims In. Islamic Encyclopedia of Britannica, page:193
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Seek ing so lut io ns fo r such issues cro sswa ys o f Euro pean u nio n st at es to represent t heir vo ices t o go ver nment and t he desire o f int er lo cut o rs to t ake Mu slim pro blems in t o a so lut io n reached immed iat ely lik e t wo recipro cal issues, as t he reflect io n o f the pro cess, in so me Euro pean co unt r ies Mu slim no n-go ver nment al o rganizat io ns (NGO) have bee n est ablished, o ft en co mp et ing wit h each o ther fo r aut ho rit y. Alt ho ug h, Muslims ar e no w co ns idered t o be set t led cit izens in several Euro pean st at es, refer ence t o t hem as immigrant s can st ill be heard in so me p laces even aft er t hree o r fo ur generat io n o f presence, t hat has been mu ch d ialo gue o n t he ident it ies o f Muslim s, part icu lar ly, g iven t he hist o r y o f migrat io n and set t lement , so me researchers co nver se o f a t ransfer fro m an racial an even o ld t r iba l d iffer ences. Ho wever, st ay pro no unced in man y co mmu nit ies. 7
Hopes and challenges of Islam in Europe

Here, we can u nder st and t he Muslims in Euro pe, t hey are facing so me issu es amo ng and abo ut t hemselves, so me o f who m are first , seco nd o r even t hird generat io n, migrat ed fro m p o st -co lo nies o ut sid e Euro pe. As t his bro adest debat e is abo ut t he level o f freedo m and pro bable fo r cu lt ural and relig io u s mu lt ip lic it y t hat t he mino r it ies can have wit hin an apparent ly secu lar and p lural Euro pean so ciet y. Und erst and ing mo re exclu sively, t he back gro und o f current issues and event s has pro mo t ed t he reduct io nist - mo no lit hic view o f Mu slims, which do es no t , ho wever, appreciat e t he int r icac y o f t he cir cu mst ance. Hence, t here is a need to und erst and bo t h t he pred icament and t he ho pe o f Euro pean Islam, an argu ment against a mo no lit hic view o f t he u mmah. T hese issu es ar e, o ff
Daniel, Norman Islam and the west :the Making of an image,Edinburgh,1960
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co urse, no t merely mat t ers o f scho lar ly d isco urse, alt ho ug h t hat o ft en feeds and is fed by pu blic argu men t s. The po pu lar co nt ro versies
co ncer ned bro aden to clash o ver such var io u s issues as t he reco g nit io n o f Muslim o rganisat io ns as inst it ut io n o f pub lic law, t he accept abilit y o f Islamic relig io us inst ruct io n, o f t he pu blic call t o prayer s o r t he wear ing o f head scar ves at scho o l. T hese debat es have led t o an gr o wt h o f t he pub lic sp here in d iffer ent Euro pean co u nt r ies. Maybe mo st st rik ing in al l t his is t he increasing co nfidence o f Mu slim o rganizat io ns and var io u s sect io ns o f t heir co mmu nit ies, and fero cio usness t hat t he Euro pean majo r it ies aro und t hem have t o o bserve wit h a new realis m and sensit iv it y. Wit h in t hese challeng es, t he quandar ies o f immigrant Muslim familie s co nclud e in t he idea o f Islam sig nifying a co o perat ive ident it y t hat defines so cial r elat io nship s, nat io nal and po lit ical alliances, while at t he same t ime it p lans t he ro ut o f Mu slims t o chase in t o secu lar aut o no mo us spaces. Being a Mu slim in Euro pe fo rces Islam o ut o f it s st at us as a co mmu nal, cu lt ura l o r so cial g iven, relig io n ent ers t he sp here o f
ind iv idual cho ice, and su bsequent ly t hat o f qu est io ning. This fig ht t akes d ifferent fo r ms, lead ing amo ngst other cho ices to secu lar, or
ind iv idu alized o r pr ivat ized Islam. So me Mus lims are inco rpo rat e sever al d ifferent appro aches in reso lvin g t he o rders o f I slam wit h ever yday life in t he west . It may have been argu e t hat t his po nder ing act is charact er ist ic o f majo r it y o f Mu slim immigrant s in Euro pe. Ho wever, t he st rugg le fo r reco gnit io n is mo st no t iceable I t he co nt ext o f sha riah and Mu slim mino r it y r ight s which is impo rt ant in o rder to facilit at e int egrat io n. In fact , Islamic law do es no t disregard st at e laws, as has been st at ed by so me lead ing Muslim o rganizat io ns in Euro pe. Ho wever, t he app licat io n o f sh aria h rules is dep endent upo n nat io na l
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legal syst ems, t her efo re, t he leg al syst em app lied to M uslims in Euro pe canno t be mu lt icu lt ural in t he sense o f reco gnis ing separat e gro up r ig ht s, but has t o appro ach wit h new cho ices, ijthihad being o f pr ime sig nificance. Whet her t he pro gresses o f a Euro pean sha riah will t ake t his and ot her asp ect s int o acco unt is yet t o be seen. This u ncert aint y o rig inat ed fro m t he realit y t hat Islam in Euro pe lo o k lik e Makah befo re t he hijra in which Muslims were a min ia t ure co mmu n it y, no t t he verd ict gro up and no t even a part icu lar ly do minant and influ ent ial gro up. Bes ides t he u nlimit ed ar ms o f t he pro phet (PBUH) reaching fro m majo r it y Mu slim co unt r ies int o t he Diaspo ra, and alo ng wit h t he new med ia used by Muslims t hem selves, we also wat ch, t he o ppo sit e flo w: t he migrant s ext ended at t ent io n to t heir nat ive so ils. G iven t he fact t hat lo ca l nat io nal TV neit her sat isfies t he emo t io nal, mo ra l and int ellect ual need s o f t he migrant s, no r addresses t heir pro blems, t hey mo re and mo re t urn o n t he way t o t he cu lt ural niches and new, virt ual, sp heres pro vid ed fo r b y Arab ic/Urdu /Turk ish channels. But it is no t o nly t he pro grammes fro m back ho me t hat int erest s spect ato rs. Increasing ly, po pu lar and in flu ent ia l are pro grams t hat dea l wit h migr ant issues, t hu s pro vid ing ideas and incent ive o n int egrat ing I slamic ally. Mo reo ver, t hey co mp ensat e fo r o rient alist images by creat ing po sit ive self- imag es fo r t he
Arab ic/Turk ish/Urdu speak ing co mmu n it ies. A po sit ive self- image is also pro duced by and in t he co mp lex net wo rk o f Suf i cu lt s, which has emerged in Br it a in. T hey are t rans- lo cal and t rans- nat io nal fo r an u nder st and ing o f an emerg ent new so cialit y amo ng Br it ish Pak ist anis in t he UK. I n Br it ain, Muslims ar e d iv ided nat io nally and et hnically, as well as by re lig io u s t end encies. Amo ng Suf i fo llo wers, co nnect io ns are est ablished t hro ugh mys t ical int imacy wit h a liv ing o r dead saint o r sh eikh in so cial net wo rks t hat ext end bet ween cit ies in
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Br it ain nat io nally and t rans- nat io nally, t o Pak ist an. Alt ho ug h all id ent ify t hemselves as Suf is, rit ual o bser vances var y bet ween Suf i gro ups in Diaspo ra, an examp le being t hat o f rep lacing t he annual urus (celebr at io n) annual fest ival. On t he o t her hand, t he scient ific exp lanat io n o f t he Quran t hro ugh co mp lex nu mer ical t ot alling served t o pro ve no t o nly t he p lausib ilit y o f Islam, but also t he br illian t char isma o f t he o rders ho ly man, who is no t simp ly a ar bit rat o r figure but a cent re figure o f st imu lat io n and t he lo cu s o f a nat io nal and int er nat io nal o rganizat io na l syst em o f so cial r elat io ns.
Islam in Europe: rate of growth; true or false

Dur ing t he last 20 year s, t he t ot al nu mbe r o f Muslims in t he wo r ld has been increas ing bit by bit . Info r mat io n o f t he year 1973 sig n ifies t hat t he wo rld po pu lat io n o f Muslims was 500 millio n; no w, it has at t ained 1.5 billio n. in o ur day, ever y fo urt h p erso n in wo r ld is a Muslim; it is pro bable t hat t he po pu lat io n will carr y o n t o increase and t hat Islam will beco me t he wo r ld s lead ing relig io n. The reaso n fo r t his fir m r ise is no t o nly t he gro wing po pu lat io n in Mu slim co unt ries, but also t he increasin g nu mber o f peo p le who are accept ing I slam, a o bser vable fact t hat has added mo ment u m, especia lly aft er t he attack o f t he wo r ld t rade cent re in New Yo rk o n Sept ember 11, 2001. This att ack, cr it icized by ever yo ne especially Muslims, has sudden ly t urned peo p les co ncent rat io n
(especially west er n cit izens) t o Islam. Peo p le in t he west are chat t ing a lo t abo ut what k ind o f relig io n Isla m is , why t he Quran says, what co mpu ls io ns co me wit h being a Mu slim, and ho w Muslims are requ ired t o co nduct t heir relig io us affairs. Lik e t his int erest has o bvio usly bro ug ht abo ut a rise in t he nu mber o f p eo p le wo r ldwide t urning t o sho re o f Islam. Therefo r e, t he u sually heard pred ict io n aft er 9/11 t hat t his at t ack wil l chang e t he co urse o f t he wo r ld hist o r y has, in a sense, is near t o beco me
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t rue. The pro cess o f ret urning t o relig io u s and sp ir it ual valu es, which t he wo rld has been exp er ienc ing fo r a lo ng t ime, has beco me a t urning t o Islam. The ext ra o rdinar y nat ure o f what is t ak ing p lace can be seen when o ne set s o ut t hese develo p ment s regard ing t his t rend, which we have st art ed to read abo ut in newspap ers o r here o f in t elevis io n repo rt ers. These develo p ment s, generally repo rt ed as ju st o ne element o f t he days agenda, are act ually ver y impo rt ant ind icat io ns t hat Islamic mo ral values have begu n t o spread ver y rap id ly acro ss t he who le wo r ld. As in t he rest o f wo rld, Isla m is in t he mid st o f a rap id gro wt h in Euro pe. This develo p ment has been at t ract ing mo re att ent io n in recent years, as evidenced by t he many t heses, repo rt s, and art icles pu b lish ed o n t he p lace o f Muslims in Euro pe and d ialo g ue bet ween Euro pean so ciet y and Muslims. Alo ng wit h t hese academic repo rt s, t he med ia has carr ied frequ ent repo rt s abo ut Islam and Muslims . The root o f t his int erest lies in t he co nt inual gro wt h o f M Mus lim po pu lat io n figures in Euro pe, and t hat t his incr ease canno t be ascr ibed so lely t o immigr at io n. While immigrat io n cert ainly has had a sig nificant o n t he Muslim po pu lat io ns gro wt h, so man y researchers have addressed t his mat t er fo r qu it e ano t her reaso n: hig h co nversio n rat es. A Ju ne 20, 200 4 st o ry o n NTV News, head ed I slam is t he mo st rap id ly expand ing relig io n in Euro pe, dealt wit h a repo rt drawn u p by t he French do mest ic int elligence agency. The repo rt st at ed t hat t he nu mber o f t ho se co nvert ing t o Isla m in west er n co u nt ries had r isen st ill furt her, part icu lar ly in wake o f t he 9/11 at t acks. Fo r examp le, t he nu mber o f co nvert s to Islam in France increased by bet wee n t hirt y t o fo rt y t ho usand s last year alo ne.
Islamization of Europe
39
Muslims are no lo nger o ut siders in E uro pe. There ar e t hree main develo p ment s, which o ccurred in t he Muslim co mmu n it ies o f West er n Euro pe o ver t he past few decades, (1) Ongo ing pro cess fo r inst it ut io nalizat io n o f t he est ablish ment o f Islam in Euro pe, includ ing t he gro wt h o f mo squ es, I slamic scho o ls, so cial, cu lt ural, and even po lit ical net wo rks. (2) E mergence o f I slamic relig io u s leader ship in Euro pe, in t he fo r m o f imams as a majo r vo ice o f Muslim co mmu n it y o n so cial issues o f impo rt ance in Euro pean so ciet ies. We can co nsid er t hese t wo
develo p ment s as t he islamizat io n o f Euro pe. (3) Re-Isla mizat io n o f Euro pe, by t his develo p ment , we refer t o t he re Islamizat io n o f t he secu lar Muslims in Eu ro pe. The empo wer ment o f Islamic relig io u s lead ership in t he 1990 s in
Euro pe has also meant t hat t he secu lar and o ft en left -wing lead ership o f migrant o rganizat io ns t hat represent ed Muslims in 1970 s and 1980 s, have t aken a back seat t o relig io u s leader s, who no w co me int o sig ht to t he dr iving vo ice o f t he Euro pean Mu slim co mmu nit ies. The secu lar elit e had been no t o nly t he spo kesmen o f t he migrant Muslim co mmu nit ies, but also t he part ners o f go ver nment in t he effo r t to st rengt hen mino r it ies, and mo squ es were seen by t he same secu lar elit e as int ransigent p laces wo rking fo r t he agenda o f t he Isla mic co unt r y o f o rig in. At t he same t ime, imams were seen as react io nar y and co nt ro lling, and wo rk ing fo r t he go ver nment o f t he co unt r y o f o rig in, rat h er t han wo rk ing fo r migrant s to achieve mo re legal r ig ht s in t he so ciet y in which t hey lived. No wadays, ho wever, t here is less d iv is io n wit hin t hese Mu slim co mmu nit ies and t he fo r mer ly secu lar leader s expr ess agr eement wit h t he r elig io u s leader s t hat an Islamic id ent it y is ver y impo rt ant . Here we can find o ut t hree main develo p ment s acco u nt fo r t he islamizat io n and re-Isla mizat io n o f Euro pe:
40
(1) The gro wt h o f Muslim co mmu nit ies in Euro pe. (2) The incr easing vis ib ilit y o f Islam, in Euro pean pu blic space. (3) The po lit ic al mo bilizat io n o f Muslims in Euro pe.
The growth of Muslim communities in Europe

In Euro pe, t here are many k ind s and gro ups o f Mu slims. So me o f t hem are in t he basis o f t he d iver sit y o f t heir belief and pract ices. Lik e Su nni and shiya, gro ups and so me o f t hem are in t he basis o f reg io n, which t hey migrat ed fro m, lik e Pak ist an i Mu slims, who are t he larg est Mu slim gro up in Br it ain a lo ng wit h so me o f Mo ro ccans, Alg er ian, and gu lf st at e Muslims. 8 In Ger many and net her lands, Turk ish Mu slims are at least t hree d ist inct ive gro ups; mili gu rus, dianet, and sulei mangi. The
Net her lands also has a co ns iderable nu mber o f Mo ro ccan Mu slims and Sur inamese Mu slims. In Fr ance, t here are fo ur millio n Mu slims and as in Spain and Be lg iu m, mo st o f t hem are fro m Mag hreb, wit h sma ll Turk ish and Afr ican mino r it ies. 9 Many Pak ist ani, Kurd ish, and Mu slims fro m fo r mer Yugo slavia have set t led in Scand inav ia. T here are also small nu mber s o f d ifferent et hnic Muslim gro ups in a ll o f t hese st at es. Mo reo ver, t here are Muslim po lit ical refug ees in t hese co u nt r ies; mo st o f t hem are Kurds, o r who co me fro m Alban ia and fro m Yu go slavia.
Bernard Lewis and Dominic schnapper, Muslims in Europe (London: printer 1994);Jorgen Nielsen, Muslims in western Europe, 2nd edition (Edinburgh university press,1995);and Lars Pederson, newer Islamic movements in western Europe; research in migration and ethnic relations (London: Ashgabat,1999)
9
France has a distinctive conception of citizenship that has led the country not to endorse the council of Europes charter on the recognition of national minorities. This is because France argues that there are no national minorities in France, only citizens. See also martin schain and martin Baldwin Edwards, the politics of immigration: introduction, west European politics 17:2, 1994,PP. 1-16
41
It is a d ifficu lt t hing, t o get an accur at e est imat e o f t he act ual nu mber s o f Muslims in Euro pean co unt r ies, becau se no t o nly do t he est imat es o f legal immigrant s d iffer, but also t here is small in t he way o f reliab le in fo r mat io n o n t he nu mbers o f illeg al immigrant s. On t he o t her hand, fo llo wing t he rat es o f current po pu lat io n gro wt h, Muslims are likel y t o o ut nu mber no n- Mus lims in Euro pe by 2050. In many o f t he main Euro pean cit ies, wit h t he lit t le birt h rat es amo ng nat ive po pu lat io ns, Muslim scho o lchildr en will be in t he mainst ream w it hin t he next decades. Euro pean nat io nal go ver nment fo cu s o n t he Mu sl im po pu lat io ns wit hin t heir o wn co u nt r ies, and po lit ical elit es co nfident ially express anxiet y abo ut t he po ssib le abilit y o f t he go ver nment s o f Isla mic st at es to assemb le t hat racial co mmu nit y.
The increasing visibility of Islam In European public sphere

Over t he past t hree decad es, Islam has beco me increasing ly vis ib le in Euro pean pu blic sp her es. Mo squ es, halal fo o ds, Mu slim cu st o ms and ways o f dress, are all incr easing ly co mmo n in Euro pean co unt r ies. Besid es t ho usands o f mo sques, Isla m has reached in a space o f co mmo n peo p le. The first ever mo sq ue in Euro pe was bu ild in t he 12 t h cent ur y by mo o rs, in Andalu ca, so ut her n Spain. T he Al Ham rah, mo sque has been a mag net fo r t he gro wt h of Spains Mus lim co mmu nit y, which is large l y
co ncent rat ed in t he so ut h o f t he co u nt r y. La Grand e Mo squee de Par is was co mp let ed in 1 926, and was a g ift fro m t he King o f Mo ro cco. Moro cco was a French co lo ny at t he t ime, and France accept ed t he g ift as a gest ure o f fr iend ship, and u sed as an ap pro pr iat e venue t o receive t he King whe n
42
he vis it ed t he cit y. T he largest and hig hly st ruct ured mo sques in Euro pe to day t hat have been bu ilt in recent year s, o r t hat are p lanned in t he near fut ure, are also largely suppo rt ed by fund ing fro m Isla mic st at es, t he grand mo squ e o f Hyd e park in Lo ndo n, fo r examp le, was fu nded wit h suppo rt fro m t he Gu lf st at es. Br it ain and Net her land s have ser ved as examp les to ot her Euro pean co unt r ies in ho w t o acco mmo dat e t he Mu slim co mmu nit ies. Majo r super mark et s in bo t h co unt r ies, have recent ly int ro duced majo r sect io n fo r halal fo o ds. In bot h co unt r ies, t here appears t o be mo re willing ness t o acco mmo dat e cu lt ural d ifferences t han in so me o t her Euro pean co u nt r ies. Ho wever, Muslim vis ib ilit y and pu blic pr o minence seem o ut o f pro po rt io n to t heir real nu mber s fo r so me reaso ns: 10 (1) t hey are usually co ncent rat ed in t he lar ge cit ies and clu st ered
to get her in cert ain neig hbo urho o ds, as member s o f t he ho st cu lt ure seems to be slipped o ut o f t heir o wn co nt ro l. (2) Due t o t he back gro und o f inexpert immig rant s, who are regu lar l y
uneducat ed, t hey feel est ranged in as much as many o f t hem care fo r t heir languag es and mo re, are d issimilar in clo t hing, fo o d and way o f life. (3) The fact t hat , increas ing nu mber s o f co nv ert s in t o Islam in majo r
Euro pean co unt r ies su ch as Fr ance and Brit a in, (50,000 in each in t he past decad e), so me o f who m became famo u s. (Lik e Cat St evens who became Yusu f u l Isla m) o r infa mo u s ( i.e., Rich ard Reid), t ho ugh it co nt r ibut es o nly marg inally t o demo grap hy, p lays a gro wing ro le in t he vis ib ilit y o f t he Mu slim co mmu nit y.
10
The Islamic challenge in Europe, by Raphael Israeli, 17:19, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick(USA) and London(UK)
43
In bo t h Br it ain and t he Net her lands, t here are also Muslims represent ed at t he hig hest level o f nat io nal go ver nment . In t he Ho use o f Lo rd, t here are Mu slim me mber s as ap po int ed by t he Ho use o f Lo rd, and t here have elect ed mo re member s o f Mu s lims in Ho use o f Co mmo ns. In Dut ch par lia ment seven Mu slims are represent ing fro m fo ur po lit ical part ies 11
Muslims in Europe: Country guide

As mentioned above, Islam is broadly considered Europe's best growing religion, with migration and above average birth rates leading to a quick increase in the Muslim population. The correct number of Muslims is difficult to establish however, as census statistics are often questioned and several countries decide not to compile such information in any case. Here we submit only an average numbers of Muslims in the basis of nations:
Albania
Total population: 3.1 million Muslim population: 2.2 million (70%) Background: Religious worship was banned in Albania until the change from Stalinist state to democracy in the 1990s. Islam is now openly recognized as the country's major religion and most Albanians are Sunni Muslim by virtue of the nation's history: The Balkans has had centuries of association with the faith as many parts of it were part of the Turkish Ottoman Empire. While the empire is long gone, the culture remained in
11
Modernizing Islam, edited by John L. Esposito and Francois Burgat pp: 197
44
place. Significant populations of Albanian Muslims exist in a number of other European countries. 12
Austria
Total population: 8.2 million Muslim population: 339,000 (4.1%) Background: Large numbers of Muslims lived under Austrian rule when BosniaHerzegovina was seized by Austria-Hungary in 1908. Many of Austria's Muslims have families in Turkey and others arrived from the Balkans during the 1990s wars - partly because of historical ties. Islam has been recognized as an official religion in Austria for a lot of years, meaning that it has a role in the religious teaching in schools. Vienna has historically been regarded as the point where the Islamic world reached its most western point, a critical battle in Austria in the 16th century marking the beginning of the decline of the Turkish13
Belgium
Total population: 10.3 million Muslim population: 0.4 million (4%) Background: Islam is one of seven recognized religions in Belgium, a status that brings it a number of subsidies and official roles, such as providing teachers. Despite this
12
Sources: Total population - Albanian Institute of Statistics, 2005; Muslim population - UK Foreign Office.
13
Sources: Total population - Statistics Austria, 2005 figures; Muslim population - Statistics Austria, 2001 figures.
45
there have been complaints of discrimination. Unemployment and poor housing have been one such cause of tension. There have also been claims of discrimination against women in traditional dress. A majority of Belgium's Muslims are of Moroccan or Turkish origin; many others are from Albania. (Citizenship is available after seven years) 14
Bosnia-Herzegovina
Total population: 3.8 million Muslim population: 1.5 million (40%) Background: Bosnia-Herzegovina is still recovering from the bloody inter-ethnic war of 1992-95. Around 250,000 people died in the conflict between Bosnian Muslims, Croats and Serbs. Almost 8,000 Muslims were killed by Bosnian Serbs at Srebrenica in 1995 - Europe's worst atrocity since World War II. Many Muslims were displaced, as were members of other communities. A peacekeeping force remains in the country, whose frontiers have long been considered the western borders of the Islamic faith in Europe.15
Denmark
Total population: 5.4 million Muslim population: 270,000 (5%) Background: In the 1970s Muslims arrived from Turkey, Pakistan, Morocco and the former Yugoslavia to work. In the 1980s and 90s the majority of Muslim arrivals were
14
Total population - Statistics Belgium 2001; Muslim population - US State Department.
15
Total population - Agency for Statistics Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2003 figures; Muslim population - US State Department.
46
refugees and asylum seekers from Iran, Iraq, Somalia and Bosnia. Access to housing and employment has been sources of concern for Muslims in Denmark. (A minority have citizenship).16
France
Total population: 62.3 million Muslim population: Five to six million (8-9.6%) Background: The French Muslim population is the largest in western Europe. About 70% have their heritage in former north African colonies of Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. France favors integration and many Muslims are citizens. Nevertheless, the growth of the community has challenged the French ideal of strict separation of religion and public life. There has been criticism that Muslims face high unemployment and often live in poor suburbs. A ban on religious symbols in public schools provoked a major national row as it was widely regarded as being a ban on the Islamic headscarf. Late 2005 saw widespread and prolonged rioting among mainly immigrant communities across France. 17
Germany
Total population: 82.5 million Muslim population: 3 million (3.6%)
16
Sources: Total population - Statistics Denmark, 2004 figures; Muslim population - US State Department
17
Sources: Total population - National Institute for Statistics and Economic Studies, 2004 figures; Muslim population French government estimate.
47
Background: The majority of the Muslim population is Turkish, with many retaining strong links to Turkey. Others arrived from Bosnia and Kosovo during the Balkan wars. Until recently Muslims were considered "guest workers", who would one day leave the country - a view that is changing. Racist violence is a sensitive issue, with the authorities trying a range of strategies to beat it. Steps are being taken to improve integration18
Italy
Total population: 58.4 million Muslim population: 825,000 (1.4%) Background: The Muslim population is diverse, the largest group coming from Morocco. Others are from elsewhere in North Africa, south Asia, Albania, and the Middle East. Most arrived from the 1980s onwards, many of them as students. Italy is working to formalise relations between the state and the Muslim community. Up to 160,000 Muslims are Italian born. Most Muslims have the right to reside and work in Italy, but are not citizens.19
Macedonia
Total population: 2.1 million Muslim population: 630,000 (30%)
18
Sources: Total population - Federal Statistical Office, 2004 figures; Muslim population - Federal Ministry of the Interior estimate.
19
Sources: Total population - Italian National Statistical Institute; Muslim population - UK Foreign Office.
48
Background: Macedonia's largest religion is Macedonian Orthodox, but almost one third of the population describe themselves as Muslim. Macedonia was spared the interethnic violence that affected much of the Balkans following the break-up of Yugoslavia. But in early 2001 rebels staged an uprising demanding greater rights for the ethnic Albanian minority - a group which includes most Muslims. With EU and NATO support a deal was reached offering them greater rights, although some have been unhappy with the pace of change. The US State Department suggests that religious freedom is generally respected and that "societal discrimination is more likely to be based upon ethnic bias" than religion.
Netherlands
Total population: 16.3 million Muslim population: 945,000 or 5.8% Background: The integration of Muslims remains a concern for the Dutch government, particularly after a film-maker critical of Islam was murdered in 2004 by a radical Islamist. Further tensions surround the view held by some that there is a high level of crime among Muslim youths and a problem with unemployment. In the 1950s Muslims arrived from the former colonies of Suriname and Indonesia. One of the most important groups is the substantial Somali minority. Others are from Turkey and Morocco. The Netherlands favors multiculturalism, essentially the accommodation of different groups on equal terms. 20
Serbia and Montenegro
Total population: 10.8 million (including Kosovo); 8.1 million (excluding Kosovo)
20
Sources: Total population - Statistics Netherlands, 2005 figures; Muslim population - Statistics Netherlands, 2004 figures
49
Muslim population: Serbia and Montenegro - 405,000 (5%); Kosovo - about 1.8 million (90%) Background (excluding Kosovo): Within Serbia and Montenegro the predominant religion is Serbian Orthodoxy. Islam is the second largest faith, with Muslims accounting for about 5% of the population, rising to about 20% in Montenegro. The Muslim community is considered one of seven "traditional" religious communities. Religion and ethnicity remain closely linked across the country and discrimination and tensions continue to be reported. Kosovo background: The late 1990s saw devastating conflict after the Kosovo Liberation Army, supported by the majority ethnic Albanians - most of whom are Muslim - came out in open rebellion against Serbian rule. Yugoslav President Slobodan Milosevic began "ethnic cleansing" against the Kosovo Albanian population. Thousands died and hundreds of thousands fled. NATO intervened between March and June 1999 with a 78 day bombing campaign to push back Serb forces and Kosovo remains under UN control. The ethnic Albanian community has expressed frustration at the length of time being taken to decide Kosovo's future status. Attacks against Kosovo's remaining minority Serb population have caused concern.21
Spain
Total population: 43.1 million Muslim population: 1 million (2.3%) Background: Almost eight centuries of Moorish rule over Spain came to an end in 1492, providing the country with a strong Islamic legacy, particularly in its architecture. The modern Muslim population started to arrive in significant numbers in the 1970s. Many were Moroccans coming to work in tourism and subsequent growth came when
21
Sources: Total population - UK Foreign Office; Muslim population - US State Department
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their families joined them. The state recognizes Islam, affording it a number of privileges including the teaching of Islam in schools and religious holidays. There have been some reports of tension towards Muslim immigrants. Spain was shaken in 2004 when terror attacks by suspected radical Islamists killed 191 people on Madrid commuter trains. 22
Sweden
Total population: 9 million Muslim population: 300,000 (3%) Background: The Muslim population is broad - with significant groups from Turkey, Bosnia, Iraq, Iran, Lebanon and Syria. The size of the Muslim population is such that representative bodies receive state funding. Sweden favors multiculturalism and immigrants can become citizens after five years. Sweden prides itself on its tolerance, but there has been criticism that Muslims are too often blamed for society's problems. 23
Switzerland
Total population: 7.4 million Muslim population: 310,800 (4.2%) Background: Official figures suggest the Muslim population has doubled in recent years, but some sources say there are also about 150,000 Muslims in the country illegally. The first Muslims arrived as workers in the 1960s, mostly from Turkey, the former
22
Sources: Total population - Spanish National Institute of Statistics, 2005 figures; Muslim population - US State Department.
23
Sources: Total population - Statistics Sweden, 2005 figures; Muslim population - US State Department.
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Yugoslavia and Albania. They were joined by their families in the 1970s and, in recent years, by asylum seekers. (Comparatively few have citizenship.)24
Turkey
Total population: 68.7 million Muslim population: 68 million (99%) Background: Although Turkey is a secular state, Islam is an important part of Turkish life. Its application to join the EU divided existing members, some of which questioned whether a poor, Muslim country could fit in. Turkey accused its EU opponents of favoring a "Christian club". Membership talks were formally launched in October 2005, with negotiations expected to take 10 years. Most Turks are Sunni Muslim, but a important number are of the Alevi branch of Shias.25
United Kingdom
Total population: 58.8 million Muslim population: 1.6 million (2.8%) Background: The UK has a long history of contact with Muslims, with links forged from the middle Ages onwards. In the 19th Century Yemeni men came to work on ships, forming one of the country's first Muslim communities. In the 1960s, significant numbers
24
Sources: Total population - Swiss Federal Statistical Office, 2003 figures; Muslim population - Swiss Federal Statistical Office, 2000 figures.
25
Sources: Total population - Turkish State Institute of Statistics, 2003 figures; Muslim population - US State Department.
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of Muslims arrived as people in the former colonies took up offers of work. Some of the first were East African Asians, while many came from south Asia. Permanent communities formed and at least 50% of the current population was born in the UK. Significant communities with links to Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Somalia and the Balkans also exist. The 2001 Census showed one third of the Muslim population was fewer than 16 - the highest proportion for any group. It also highlighted high levels of unemployment, low levels of qualifications and low home ownership. The UK favors multiculturalism, an idea shared by other countries which, in general terms, accepts all cultures as having equal value and has influence over how government engages with minorities.26
26
Sources: Total population - Office for National Statistics, 2001 figures; Muslim population - Office for National Statistics, 2001 figures.
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Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Islam in United Kingdom; A Status quo Report

Introduction
This chapter will discuss in short about the early migration of Muslims into Britain. It outlines the contributing features for such immigration and grants the problems faced by early immigrants. It examines immigrants proposals to live as Muslims and their encounters with other faiths, especially Christianity. The chapter highlights some of the contemporary problems faced by the community living in Britain, like the terms, Islamophobia and terrorism. The chapter also describes above current condition of Islam and Muslim in UK, especially about the internal affairs of different groups of Muslims, based on their migration, origin nation of them and the reasons of their migration too. Here, the research is going through the states of United Kingdom, analyzing their status among others, calculating the developments of Muslim community in Britain. As a historical approach, the chapter is turning its attention towards the British Muslims and their improvements after the Second World War, and Interfaith Relations with nonMuslims. And finally, the subject study is concludes with a short explanation of Islamic movements in UK, introducing some Islamic organizations and their activities trough out the states of United Kingdom.
Status of Islam in UK
Islam has been present in the United Kingdom since its formation in 1707; however it was not legally recognized until the Trinitarian Act in 1812. Today it is the second largest
54
religion in the country with estimates suggesting that by 2010 the total Muslim population had reached 2.869 million. The growing number of Muslims has resulted in the establishment of more than 1,500 mosques. The majority of mosques are Sunni; in 2010, the affiliation of the mosques was, 65% Deobandi27, 20% Barelvi28, 6% Salafi29, 3% Maudoodi30-inspired; of the remainder many were part of other Sunni traditions or unaffiliated, while 66 were Shi'a31 (4%). The majority of mosque managers are of Pakistani and Bangladeshi origin, with many Gujarati, and fewer Arab, Turkish and Somali managed entities. There are a number of UK-wide Islamic organizations, including; the British Muslim Forum, the Ahmadiyya Muslim Association UK 32 , the Islamic Society of Britain, the Muslim Council of Britain, the United Kingdom Islamic Mission (UKIM), the Sunni Dawat-e-Islami, the World Islamic Mission, the Sufi Muslim Council, the Mosques & Imams National Advisory Board, Minhaj-ul-Quran UK, the Muslim Public Affairs
27
Deobandi is a group originated from India. Centered in Darul Uloom, Deoband, a cultural city of Uttar Pradesh, India. The migration from pre-division India caused for large scale of settlement in UK. Deobandis are following Salafi Islam.
28
Barelvi is the extreme Sunni group, which is derived from Ray Bareli, a place from Uttar Pradesh, India. The foremost leader Sheikh Ahmed Raza Khan was their spiritual inspiration who strengthened them to such improvements.
29
Salafism was initially came from Najd, an urban city of Saudi Arabia, and spread throughout the whole world. They were lead under the theological and spiritual leadership of Muhammad bin Abdul Vahab.
30
Maudoodism is state of ideology which established by Abul Ala Moudoodi, a religious scholar from Karachi, Pakistan.they argues that the whole countries of world, which are governed by non-Muslims, are Dar-ul-Harb, ie then the Muslims have to fight to them and conquir that country to establish there an Islamic government.
31
Shia group is a cluster of many sub-groups, who are supporting Ali(RA) as they are accusing that Imam Ali(RA)was ought to appointed as the first Khalifah, but, Imam Abu Backer(RA) detained that position.
32
Ahmediyya Muslim Organization is the platform of Ahmediyya Muslims, who believe that; there will be a Prophet after the wafath of Muhammad (PBUH), and that Prophet is Mirza Gulam Ahmed Qadiyani.
55
Committee UK, the Muslim Parliament of Great Britain and the Muslim Educational Trust. A 2009 survey of the attitudes of British Muslims found them to identify more strongly with the UK than the rest of the population, with a much higher regard for the country's institutions, and to be more tolerant towards people of other religions. However, the vast majority of them have strongly conservative views on moral issues such as homosexuality and extra-marital sex, both differing dramatically from those held by the rest of the British population. The vast majority of Muslims in the UK live in England and Wales: of 1,591,000 Muslims recorded at the 2001 Census, 1,536,015 were living in England and Wales, where they formed 3% of the population in 2001; 42,557 were living in Scotland, forming 0.84% of the population; and 1,943 were living in Northern Ireland.
Islam in states of UK
England
In England Islam is the largest non-Christian religion, with most Muslims being immigrants from South Asia (especially from India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh) or descendants of immigrants from that region. Many others are from Muslim-dominated regions such as the Middle East, Somalia and Malaysia, while some came from Equatorial African countries such as Nigeria, Uganda and Sierra Leone According to the 2001 census, 1.54 million Muslims live in England and Wales, where they from 3.3% of the total population. According to research by The Times, there were 2.4 million Muslims in the United Kingdom in 2009. in 2010 a study by the Pew Research Center argued that there were 2.869 million Muslims in Britain.
Wales
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Regarding Wales as separate state, Islam is the largest non-Christian faith in Wales, with 22,000 members recorded in the state at the 2001 Census.. The first purpose-built mosque in Wales was built in Cardiff in 1947, and that is also the first officially registered mosque in the UK. Today, Wales has about 40 mosques, most of which are in Cardiff, with others in Aberystwyth, Bangor, Barry, Haverford west, Lampeter, Llanelli, Neath, Newport, Port Talbot, Swansea and Wrexham. In 2008, plans were announced to build an Islamic Centre in Carmarthen. A college for training Muslim clerics has been established in Llanybydder in Carmarthenshire. New Muslim Network Wales was established in the later part of 2001 to provide support and advice to converts to Islam and their non-Muslim family. The group also provides advice to Mosques and other Islamic organizations on Dawah work & community relations. In 2003, the Muslim Council of Wales was established with affiliates across Wales to represent the Muslim community in the public sphere.
Scotland
The larger immigration of Muslims to Scotland is relatively a recent phenomenon. The bulk of Muslims in Scotland come from families who immigrated during the late 20th century. In Scotland Muslims represent 0.9% of the population (42,557), with 30,000 in Glasgow. Muslims are the third largest non-Christian group after atheists and agnostics. Many Scottish Muslims are of South Asian origin, especially from Pakistan. The first Muslim student in Scotland was Weir Beg from Mumbai. He is recorded as being a medical student who studied at the University of Edinburgh within 1858-59. Because of the large production of goods and Glasgow's busy port many lascars were employed there. Dundeewas at the peak of importing jute; hence, sailors from Bengal were a feature at the port. In 1903, nearly a one third (5,500) of all boarders were Muslim lascars.
Ireland
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The known history of Islam in Ireland dates to the 1950s. The number of Muslims in the Republic of Ireland has enlarged since the 1990s. Even though, the most of those are not Irish nationals. The organizational history of Islam in Ireland is complex, not least because of the vast variety of cultural backgrounds of Irish Muslims. However, the foremost Islamic Society in Ireland was established in 1959. It was formed by students studying in Ireland and was called the Dublin Islamic Society (later called the Islamic Foundation of Ireland). then there was any mosque in Dublin. The students were used their homes and later rented halls for Jum'ah (Friday) and Eid (Muslim holiday) prayers. In 1976 the first mosque and Islamic Centre in Ireland was unlocked in a four story building at 7 Harrington Street, Dublin. Among those who donated to the venture of the Mosque and Islamic Centre was the late King Faisal of Saudi Arabia. In 1981 the Ministry of Endowment and Islamic Affairs of Kuwait sponsored a full time Imam for the Mosque. In 1983 the present building of the Dublin Mosque and Islamic Centre was bought, renovated and the headquarters of the Society moved from Harrington Street to South Circular Road, Dublin. As the result of Irish Muslims intervention and influence in governmental affairs, In 1992 Moosajee Bhamjee became the first Muslim Member of Irish Parliament. According to the 2006 Irish census, there are 32,539 Muslims living in the Republic of Ireland. Representing a 69% increase over the figures for the 2002 census (19.147). In 1991, the number of Muslims was below 4000 (3.873). Islam is a minority religion in Ireland, behind Roman Catholicism and members of the Church of Ireland (incl. Protestants). The 2006 census recorded the number of Roman Catholics at 3,644,965, with 118,948 Church of Ireland, including Protestants. In terms of numbers, Islam in Ireland is relatively insignificant, and although Muslims can claim to be the third largest faith group in Ireland. They also lagged significantly behind those who claimed to have no religion, at 175,252, and those who did not state a religion, at 66,750. The Muslim community in Ireland is not just small but diverse and its numbers are not determined by the country's history to the same extent as the UK and France, where the
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majority of Muslims are immigrants or descendants of immigrants from former colonies, or Germany and Austria, where the majority of Muslims are Turkish migrant workers and their descendants. Just over 55 per cent of Muslims were either Asian or African nationals with 30.7 per cent having Irish nationality. The census also revealed that of the 31,779 Muslims resident in Ireland at the time of the census, 9,761 were Irish nationals, less than the number of Asians (10,649) although more than the 6,909 African nationals. The Muslim immigration in the end of the 90s was caused by the Irish economic boom and asylum seekers from diverse Muslim countries, but because of the economic situation in Ireland many Muslims are returning to Muslim countries and the Islamic population is decreasing rapidly with many mosques closing.
Census Report of 2001; A Population study of UK Muslims

The Muslim Population of England and Wales is 1.54 million. The Muslim Population of Scotland is about 42,000 The Muslim Population of Ireland is about 66,000 Total Muslim population 2.6 million.
The Local Authority Districts with the highest Muslim populations are: Tower Hamlets - 71,000 (36% of population)) New ham - 59,000 (24%) Blackburn - 27,000 (19%) Bradford - 75,000 (16%) Waltham Forest - 33,000 (15%)
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Lupton - 27,000 (15%) Birmingham - 140,000 (14%) Hackney - 28,000 (14%) Pendle - 12,000 (13%) Slough - 16,000 (13%) Brent - 32,000 (12%) Red bridge - 29,000 (12%) Westminster - 21,000 (12%) Camden - 23,000 (12%) Haringey - 24,000 (11%)
Development of the Muslim Community in Britain

Even though Muslim migration to Britain started from the middle of nineteenth century, the direct chance was brought about in 1869 by the opening of the Suez Canal33. This made the trade between Britain and its colonies easy, and a dependent force of employees to work on the ships and in the ports. The clear choice of such laborers was the Yemenis. They were the foremost group of Muslim migrants who arrived at the British ports of Cardiff, Liverpool, Pollock shields and London. Within 1890-1903, nearly forty thousand
33
Suez Canal was built by Ottoman Empire in1869. Many of European countries used this rout as the easiest way to contact with their trade markets and colonies in Asian continent, like France, Great Britain and Portuguese etc. but when Egyptian ruler Jamal Abdul Nassir nationalized the rout of Suez Canal, Israel came to fight with Egypt to withdraw their determination of nationalization.
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seamen arrived on British shores and about thirty thousand of them, according to one report, spent some part of their lives in Britain. Without any doubt, there was a language barrier between the Yemeni workers and their British employers; they solved it in tribal method. Yemeni workers, upon their arrival at British ports, gave themselves to a particular leader for their every day requests and work requirements. The leaders were generally chosen because of their relatively better communication skills, and their consciousness of employers needs and government requirements. Sometimes this journey period could be extended by months, and this could be a very difficult time for Yemeni sailors. Bit by bit, some of them began to settle for longer periods and married local British girls. 34 In port cities like Cardiff and Liverpool, there are now several generations of Muslims in the community. On the one hand, then, we have the British Empire, which attracted increasing numbers of immigrants to Britain, at the same time as on the other, we have native Britons who were attracted to the faith and beliefs of these immigrants. Pursuant to their regular visits to Muslim countries, these Britons were attracted by the spiritual feature of Islam. Others came into contact with Muslim professionals and students in Britain because they mingled with the British upper classes; they shared a similar background. These two factors played an important role in establishing Islam in Britain. (Siddiqui, 2000) 35 During the second part of the previous century and until the beginning of the Second World War, two key institutions came out, one in Liverpool and the other in Surrey. William H Quillam, a trial lawyer in Liverpool, visited Morocco in 1887. There he was attracted to Islam, and soon became a Muslim, founding The Liverpool Mosque and the
34
Settlement of Yemeni and other Arab citizens in the localities of Britain caused for a multiculturalism and it impacted for a vital change in the religious concept of European peoples.
35
Muslims In Britain: Past And Present by Ataullah Siddiqui, The history of Islam in Britain and the challenges facing the Muslim community today.
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Muslim Institute. He edited The Islamic World and The Crescent, a weekly publication in which he wrote broadly about Islam and Muslims. Quilliam also established Madina House, a house for orphans in Liverpool. His works attracted both Muslims and nonMuslims alike and also seem to have had a lasting audience abroad. He received a personal gift from the King of Afghanistan and the Ottoman Sultan invited him to visit Istanbul and soon appointed him as Sheikh ul-Islam. The Muslim Institute established a Muslim College where it enrolled both Muslim and non-Muslim students. Quilliams activities attracted a large number of critics. The second important institution was initially begun by Dr Leitner, a Hungarian Orientalist who established a mosque there in 1889, and as a result, the place was abandoned for the next twelve years, until Khwaja Kamaluddin from India arrived in 1912. Kamaludins only purpose was to eradicate misunderstandings about Islam in Britain and maybe he expected that this would also influence and lessen misconceptions about Islam throughout the Empire. In 1913, he began publishing a monthly journal, Muslim India and Islamic Review which later changed to Islamic Review. The Working Mission enjoyed large improvements when Lord Headley converted to Islam. He came into contact with Islam when he went to India in 1896 as a contract engineer. After Headleys arrival, Kamaluddin and Headley gave direction to the Mission. In 1914, Headley established The British Muslim Society, aspiring to give a appropriate image of Muslims and Islam as part of British society. While The Working Mission advanced, in London Marmaduke Pickthall proclaimed his conversion to Islam. He also joined with The Working Mission. Pickthall translated the Quran into English and published a journal from London called The Muslim Outlook. In this way, Britain's relation with Islam continued to deepen at the intellectual sphere as well as in the grassroots. Levels.36
Migration of Muslims after World War II
36
Source: Muslims in Britain: past and present, by Ataullah Siddiqui
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The migration of Pakistani bunches (including Bangladeshis) to Britain had its beginning in colonialism. For example, a batch of soldiers who joined the British army in the war were placement to the British islands, and many of them began to settle there. In the opening, however, they were very little, but, after the partition of India and Pakistan, there happened a dislocation of huge populations, mainly in the Punjab and Mirpur (a significant sector of the populations who joined the British army), who then began to look to their future in Britain over a longer term. The second significant factor which contributed to migration was the construction of the Mangla Dam in Pakistan. As an effect, this displaced about 100,000 people, especially the Mirpuris. With their reward money, some settled in other parts of Pakistan; others, however, looked for the sponsorship of their families in Britain and then settled there in large numbers. Their initial aim was to earn sufficient money to buy a plot of land and build houses for their families and settle in Pakistan. The quick increase in demand for unskilled labors in British industries also caused for a large scale of immigration. The economic atmosphere in post-war Britain altered speedily. There were less jobs and few opportunities for people compared with the early 1950s. As a solution, the government compelled to limit the migrant workers and in 1961, the commonwealth Immigration Act was passed which came into force the following year. Perhaps, this Act was the turning point in the growth of the Muslim population in Britain. The eighteen month long gap between the passing of the Immigration Act and its enforcement gave time for expression for those who were working in Britain: did they want to return to their native country, or make Britain their home? Basically, the Act forced restrictions on adults aiming to work in Britain. By 1964, the Ministry of Labor stopped surrendering permission for the unskilled to work in Britain. The result of this legislation was such that each single male who had formerly shared a house with others, now started searching for houses for their families in a close by neighborhood. Previously their families arrived; the immediate worry of the parents was for their children. They wanted to educate religious education by teaching the Quran, essential beliefs and the practices of Islam to their children. This meant allocating a house for their childrens education in the neighborhood
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and using the same house for the five daily prayers. Muslim nutritional laws saw the development of halal butcher shops and the import of Asian spices. This also gave birth to the Asian corner shops in Britain. In this way, the growth of the Muslim neighborhood had begun. The second wave of migration came from East African countries. Asians, who were occupied in the wholesale and retail trade markets in Africa, provided the essential banking and financial services. Their contribution in the economy was checkered by the policy of the newly independent African countries. Banks and private businesses were nationalized. This left Asian businessmen and their families with a bare choice between African enterprise, under strict rules, or leaving the country. They decided for the second. A large number of Asians had British passports, and so, they determined to come to Britain. This resulted in the Commonwealth Immigration Act of 1968, which removed the right of entry to the U.K. for passport holders living abroad. By the early 1960s, there looked like to have been a significant determination by Muslim countries to send their students for higher education in Britain. This was confirmed by a slow but steady growth in student populations from Malaysia, Iran, Pakistan, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and the Gulf countries. These overseas students started to shape Islamic Societies in various British universities. This was within the framework of University and Student Union policies. In 1962, the Islamic Societies felt the need to form a Federation of Islamic Societies in order to give fundamental directions to new students arriving in Britain, and amenities for Friday prayers in university campuses. They also held annual Islamic Weeks, consisting of lectures, exhibitions and video shows and in general, they helped Muslim students with support for their needs. Regularly, a number of students decided to stay and came to play a leading role within the community. A number of organizations also o established including The Muslim Council of Britain, The U.K. Islamic Mission (1962), The Muslim Student's Society (1962), The Union of Muslim Organizations (1970), The Islamic Council of Europe (1973), Young Muslims (1984), The Islamic Party (1989), The Islamic Society of Britain (1990), and, more recently, The
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Muslim Parliament, The UK Action Committee of Islamic Affairs, The World Islamic Mission, JamiatUlama -e- Islam and many others. These Muslim organizations and their role is beyond the scope of this chapter.
Muslims and Interfaith Relations with non-Muslims

Muslims have played a vital role and shown a reliable awareness in interfaith activities. The formation of The World Congress of Faiths and Abdullah Yusuf Alis participation in that organization has been mentioned elsewhere. However, the coming of Muslims on British shores and cities has been a stable source of curiosity for the churches. The dilemma of the early migrants attracted church responses towards the end of the last century and early this century. The organized dialogue between Christians and Muslims started with the importance on good community relations and inter-religious understanding. The idea came firstly from local churches, where the inner city population was comparatively large, and the local authorities faced an extraordinary challenge of community relations. Against this background, as far as we know, the first bi-lateral dialogue between Christians and Muslims took place in May 1973 with the theme Islam in the Parish. The outcome of this dialogue was the formation of a panel of Muslims and Christians, which in fact set the theme of the following second and third bi-lateral dialogues between the two communities. The Family in Islam and Christianity (1974) was the theme of the second, and Worship and Prayer in Islam and Christianity (1975) was the theme for the third meeting. All three dialogues were held at Wood hall, Weatherly, with the collaboration of the local authority, and the proceedings were edited by the Community Relations Chaplaincies of Bradford and Wakefield, and published by the Bradford Metropolitan District Community Relations Council. By 1974, churches initiated to feel the need to conduct a survey of Muslims in Britain. The British Council of Churches (now Council of Churches for Britain and Ireland (CCBI)) jointly appointed an advisory group to study the presence of Islam in Britain. The Rt. Rev. David Brown, Bishop of Guilford, also then a member of the panel of Muslims and Christians of the Weatherly dialogues, was selected as the Chairman of this advisory group. He was
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chosen because of his experience of working amongst Muslims in Middle East and Africa. But before the Committee could produce their findings, the World Festival of Islam (1976) caught the attention of the British people. The advisory panels conditions of suggestion were now broadened, and the question of the Festivals impact was incorporated. The advisory panel produced its findings in 1976 and published them under the tile `A New Threshold: Guidelines for the Churches in their Relations with Muslim Communities. This discussion between Christians and Muslims has continued ever since, with formal and informal discussions and debates on different matters being a regular feature between the two communities. Multi -lateral dialogue though, began with the formation of The World Congress of Faiths, and at grass-root levels the initiative began in 1972. Jews, Christians and Muslims took initiatives to meet regularly and the stated aim was to provide a forum in Europe for meetings among members of the three religious communities who share a belief in one God, and find their roots in the figure of Abraham. Since 1974, the JCM dialogue group has met bi-annually at the Hedwig Dronfeld Haus Bendorf in Germany, and is tremendously presented by young people from Britain and Germany. Their autumn gathering is completely for women. This week-long meeting provides an chance to observe each others way of living, of praying and to understand what the other holds so valuable. Another multi-lateral dialogue is The Leeds Concord Inter-Faith Fellowship. Here Muslims encounter not just Jews and Christians, but also Hindus, Buddhists and Sikhs, many seeing these faiths at close quarters for the first time. The constant growth of interfaith organizations at local and local levels encouraged The British Council of Churches and its Committee for Relations with people of other Faiths to form links with existing interfaith organizations. A new organization was established in March, 1987 called Interfaith Network, with the purpose of providing a service to existing interfaith organizations. Over the last ten years, it has been capable to offer a inimitable stage for its allied member organizations to discuss burning issues among themselves, and together with government bodies, secular institutions and the media.
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Current Challenges of Muslims in UK

Muslims in Britain came, awesomely, from Muslim majority countries such as Pakistan, Bangladesh and the Middle Eastern countries. Arriving in a non-Muslim society, they faced language difficulties, cultural worries, and educational opportunities; all in all, an irresistible condition. A important number of immigrants thought they were entering into a Christian country. The observation of the West and Western countries, such as Britain, was of a Christian population, full of religious spirit, with churches full on Sundays. What they saw, though, was a totally dissimilar and unexpected image of a secular, modern culture where Christianity is marginalized. It has only a decorative reason but little value in the everyday lives of people. Besides, critical study about God, prophets, especially Jesus, and religion in general were vilified on television and in their daily meetings with fellow workers in factories and other places. These views on religion, in general, mystified the Muslim community. This insight, rightly or wrongly, remains in the Muslim mind. Furthermore, the migrant communities own understanding of Islam was marinated with their cultural understanding of Islam. Thus customs and traditions have played an important role in defining their religion in Britain. The native community supposed the newly arrived Muslim community as having a monolithic culture with monolithic practices and religious attitudes. They saw Asian, but little difference from Sikhs, Muslims or Hindus. The enlargement of Muslims in Britain has formed a generation gap in some ways. In the beginning days of migration and settlement, Muslims brought imams to run their local mosques and educate their kid basic Islamic teachings. The growing use of imams from villages of the Indian sub-continent and the dependence of the worshippers of a mosque on day-to-day fiqh issues seems then, a problem rather than a cure. Theological issues, rather than the jurisprudential issues of living in Britain, have hardly been touched upon by imams, nor do they think there is an urgency to do so. They guided for daily prayers,
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they conduct marriages, lead janazah (funeral) prayers and perform similar other necessities of the worshippers. However, very few possess the skills and the vision to understand the meaning of living as a Muslim in a multi-religious society. The community has understood this gap and opened up centers to train their imams. But the tragedy is that the syllabus of such centers hardly reflects modern challenges and wants. The only variation between an imported imam and a local trained imam lies in the reality that the latter can express his message in English, whilst the former cannot. Today, the Muslim community in Britain is a relatively settled community. The idea of going home one day is rarely heard. As far as the youth are concerned, there are two tendencies: one who associates with the religious ethos, and the other more inclined to bhangra culture. The two tendencies, though, have one thing in common: they are both troubled groups. The future course of Muslims in Britain largely depends upon their choice of future directions.
Muslim Community Statistics in UK

Below is shown a review of statistics of the UK Muslim Community. They highlight our poor ignore across many social areas. With the help and the support of community, Muslims, will work to make eternal reformation in a number of these areas, including Education, Health, Employment, as well as taking on many of the issues and concerns highlighted.
Demographics
In 2001, there were 1.6 million Muslims living in the UK, compared to a total population of 58.7 million people. Three quarters of Muslims (74%) are from an Asian cultural background, mostly Pakistani (43%). From whole population of Muslims 46% had been
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born in the UK, and 34% is under 16 years of age, and 38% of Muslims are living in London.37
Education
In 2001, there were 371,000 school-aged (5 to 16 year old) Muslim children in England and after three years, in 2004, 67 % of Indian, 48% of Bangladeshi and 45% of Pakistani pupils gained five or more grades A+ to C at GCSE (or equivalent), compared with 52% of White British pupils. But, unfortunately, 31% of young British Muslims leave school with no qualifications compared to 15% of the total population. Within the last decade, a significant revolution have broke out in Muslim community, that a numbers of educational institutions are established throughout the states of United Kingdom. In the under graduation and post graduation level there are about ten institutions, like The Muslim College London W5, London Open Academy - London, NW3 (Islamic & Arabic higher studies by distance learning), London Open College London, SW6, London School of IT - London, E7, Islamic College for Advanced Studies - London, NW10, Islamic Online University (IOU) - Bishops Stratford,
CM23(conducting Online Tuition Free - BA in Islamic Studies), Muslim Community College - Leicester, LE5, Mark field Institute of Higher Education (MIHE) - Mark field, LE67. Besides these higher educational institutions, there are some another institutions like, Adult Education Centre, After School Clubs, Child Minders, Day Nurseries, Educational Associations, Employment Agencies, Hifdh Schools, Islamic Educational Services, Madrassahs, Pre-schools, Primary schools, Private Tuition Centers, Quran Tutoring Centers, Secondary Schools, and Weekend Schools also.
37
(Survey, 2001)(Source: National Statistics 2001 Census)
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Poverty
It is a naked reality, that the 35 % of Muslim households have no adults in employment, (more than double the national average). It is the major reason for the growth of poverty rate. (Oxford, 2001) 38 Just fewer than three-quarters of Bangladeshi and Pakistani children (73%) are living in households below the poverty line (60% of median income). This evaluates with under a third (31%) for children in all households. 39 In 2001, 13% of Muslim men and 16% of Muslim women reported not good health. These rates, which take explanation of the difference in age structures between the religious groups, were higher than those of Jewish and Christian people, who were the least likely to rate their health as 'not good'.
Housing
In the light of 2001 census, 52% of Muslim households did not own their own home. And 28% of Muslim households were living in social rented housing that is accommodation rented from the council or housing association. Muslim households were the most expected to experience overcrowding. One third of Muslim households (32%) lived in overloaded accommodation.40
38
(Source: Muslim Housing Experience, Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies)
39
: Department for Work and Pensions. Households below Average Income 1994/5 2000/01) (Source
40
(Source: British National Statistics 2001 Census report on faith)
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Employment
In 2004, 28% of 16-24-year-old Muslims was unemployed. This compares with only 11% of Christians of the same age. In same year, a fifth of Muslims were self-employed. And almost seven in ten (69%) Muslim women of working age were economically inactive.41
Crime
After the popularization of the term islamophobia, Muslims of western world has to face both direct and indirect discrimination from their native peoples, in a survey, there reported that; 47% of Muslim students have experienced Islamophobia, without any involve in such crimes. 42 However, the common criminal condition of British Muslims is not little, almost 10% of the prison population is Muslim; two-thirds of who are young men aged 18-30. Comparing to majority of Christians, it is too large. 43 Between 2001 and 2003 there was a 302% increase in stop and search incidents among Asian people, compared with 118% among white people. 44 towards minorities. It denotes the rate of discrimination
41
(Source: Social Trends No. 36, 2006)
42
(Source: FOSIS (Federation of Student Islamic Societies) survey, 2005)
43
(Source: Prison Service statistics, 2004)
44
(Source: Home Office, Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice System, 2004).
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Issues and concerns
A sense of identity for many young Muslims is formed from a mixture of experiences within the community, educational institutions, religion and family. Yet many young Muslims feel they have an inadequate grasp of their own heritage and history, against which to balance the other influences in their lives. Young Muslims are worried about the way they are understood by the public depicted in the media. 45 Discussion between young people on the Muslim Youth Helpline, a confidential helpline for young Muslims, has included topics such as ineffective services for young Muslims; discontent over foreign policy; and the difficulties of integrating when people have the dual identity of being British and a Muslim. A survey of 136 Muslim young people (of which 51 responded to an online survey and 85 took part in a direct survey, 40% of the 51 Muslim young people replying to the online survey considered the standard of service condition in their local area to be poor, with 15% describing it as terrible. Most of participants in face to face survey of 85 young people agreed that the lack of information about what was available in their local areas was an important reason why they do not take up more activities. A noteworthy majority of the youthful people considered their local mosque a focal point for community involvements and support, where they go to volunteer study and engage in spiritual activities. 74% of young people believed that the delivery of youth services should reproduce the religious and cultural sensitivities of the users. And this is most significant that the 86% of Muslims feel that my religion is the most important thing in my life. And 37% of 16-24-year-olds prefer to live under sharia law compared to 71% of
45
(Source: Young Muslims Speak, Peace Direct, 2006)
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55+ year olds. According to Muslim women 74% of 16-24-year-olds would prefer to choose to wear the veil, compared to 28% of 55+ year olds.46
Islamic movements in UK
Non-political religious groups
Tablighi Jamaat
Britain is the current centre of Tablighi Jamaat in the West, with the Dewsbury Central Mosque in West Yorkshire serving as its European headquarters, although the group is highly decentralized. It has been claimed that terrorists have used membership of this apolitical group as cover, and that it has served as a first stop to violent extremism. But although its fundamentalist ideas are appealing, its apolitical stance means that many move on. It has even been criticized by some Muslims for failing to condemn Israel or release comments in support of Muslims in Chechnya, Kashmir and elsewhere. Tablighi Jamaat attracts a wide range of individuals, from business and political leaders to those seeking to turn their lives around after going off the rails. Its anti-Western, isolationist and fundamental characteristics also draw young Muslims who are disillusioned with modern society.
Deobandism
Deobandism advocates a return to traditional interpretations of Islam and is often associated with Tablighi Jamaat. Some have argued that it has connections to violent groups like al-Qaeda and the Taliban, but its followers claim these groups have distorted their faith. Deobandism is now the dominant force in British Islam. Riyadh ul Haq reportedly in line to become the spiritual leader of Britains Deobandi adherents runs an
46
(Source: Living apart together: British Muslims and the paradox of multiculturalism , Policy
Exchange, 2007).
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Islamic Academy in Leicester and used to be imam at Birmingham Central Mosque. One of the main reservations concerns its alleged advocacy of separatism. It is claimed that Riyadh ul Haq has urged Muslims to segregate themselves from non-Muslims; he has reportedly stated that friendship with Christians and Jews makes a mockery of Allahs religion, that football is a cancer that has infected our youth, and that music is the Satanic web Jews spread to corrupt Muslim youth. It has also been claimed that he has argued that Muslims ought to shed blood overseas in jihad, in defense of Islam.
Salafism (Saudi-Wahhabism) (dawa):
Salafism in the UK is organized under the name of Markaz Jamiat Ahl-e-Hadith and is centred at the Green Lane Masjid/Mosque in Birmingham. There are over 40 M.J.A.H branches throughout England and two based in Scotland. The Green Lane Mosque was brought to national attention when the Channel 4 Dispatches program stated to reveal hateful sermons delivered at the Mosque; speaker after speaker uttering. Salafism has come under inspection because groups such as al-Qaeda and the Taliban illustrated their interpretation of Islam from Salafist origins. However, as Trevor Stanley notes, there are various groups of Salafis who claim to be true Salafist and who consider others such as al-Qaeda as takfiris or ex-communicators. While they share similar beliefs about the interpretation of a pure form of Islam also, they disagree over the means of changing society either through dawa or through violence. An article in the Studies in Conflict & Terrorism Journal argues that there are three different types of Salafists: (a) (b) (c) Purists, Politicos Jihadists.
Hizb-ut Tahrir (Liberation Party)
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Hizb-ut Tahrir was founded in 1953, in Jordanian-ruled Jerusalem by Taqiuddin al Nabhani with the goal of uniting Muslims under one supreme Islamic state or caliphate. Officially, HT disavows violence, but defends the right to self-defense (by means of violence). The organizations lack of clarity on this issue leaves it open to accusations of promoting violence. The group is said to be at its strongest and best organized in Britain (although membership remains low in comparison to other groups) and Corydon Mosque has been considered a base for HT events and operations. HT first became prominent in the UK in the mid-1990s with a noticeable presence on university campuses. In fact, throughout its history, there has been a keen focus on recruiting university students. HTs leader in Britain during the mid-1990s was Omar Bakri, who left the group in 1996 to form the more radical Al-Muhajiroun. The group seemed to fade in the late 1990s, but has re-emerged in an ostensibly more respectable incarnation. Following the attacks in London on 7 July 2005, the British government sought to ban HT, but was forced to back down after police Intelligence agencies reported that there was no direct and explicit connection between HT and violent extremism. HT was, however, banned from UK university campuses by the National Union of Students, although it is thought to continue to operate covertly. Controversy surrounding the group continues. In a 2007 BBC Panorama programme, a former member argued for the organization to be outlawed in Britain, claiming that the softer image presented by HT Britain is a ploy to enable its continued legal functioning. He also claims that Asaf Hanif and Omar Sharif, the two British citizens responsible for a terrorist attack on a bar in Tel Aviv in 2003, were members of HT in Britain, and that Bilal Abdulla was also part of HT circles with Maher in Cambridge.
Al-Muhajiroun, the Savior (or Saved) Sect and Al Ghurabaa
Al-Muhajiroun was founded by Sheikh Omar Bakri Mohammed in 1996, and he shared leadership with Anjum Choudary. Its version of Islam is described as neo-Kharijite, which is a sect of Islam distinct from Sunni and Shia. The group gained notoriety when it held the now infamous Magnificent 19 conference glorifying the 9/11 hijackers at Fins
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bury Park Mosque. It has been reported that three of the 9/11 hijackers were connected with the group in Germany, and former students from British universities have been discovered fighting amongst terrorists abroad at one point leading the Russian government to ask Britain to ban the group when British students were found fighting in Chechnya. Al-Muhajiroun disbanded in 2004 in anticipation of a ban, and split into two separate groups, The Savior Sect and Al Ghurabaa. These two groups were banned under the British Terrorism Act of 2006, but by the time the ban had come into force these groups had already created dozens of front organizations, many of which were located in Britain. There is evidence to suggest a link to violence. Abu Izzudeen and Sulayman Keeler both found guilty of inciting terrorism were members of both groups. Other alleged members include Abdul Saleem, 32 years old, charged with inciting terrorism, but cleared of fundraising; Ibrahim Hassan, 25 years old, charged with Steve Bloomfield, Raymond Whitaker and Sophie Goodchild, Islamic group in secret plan to recruit UK students,
Islamic Council of Britain
This organization was actually formed by Abu Hamza and centered on the Fins bury Park Mosque. It was responsible for organizing the infamous conference held there celebrating the 9/11 attackers. It seems it was disbanded with the arrest and conviction of Abu Hamza and the instatement of new mosque leadership (the mosque is now known as the North Central London Mosque). Alleged Jamaat-e-Islami Affiliates, Jamaat-e-Islami is primarily an Islamist political party based in Pakistan. It was founded in 1941 by Abu alAla al-Mawdudi and is the oldest political party within Pakistan. Jamaat-e-Islami opposes all types of Westernization, including democratically structured government and seeks to establish an Islamic state in Pakistan. JI also supports, and is affiliated with, the Muslim Brotherhood. There is disagreement over whether JI supports or condones violent struggle. But US intelligence claims to have found links between JI and Al-Qaeda after the arrest of Khalid Sheik Mohammed and other Al-Qaeda members in the homes of JI members. While Jamaat-e-Islami does not have an explicit party or group in Britain,
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some commentators have claimed that a number of British Muslim organizations including the Muslim Association of Britain, the Islamic Foundation, and the United Kingdom Islamic Mission have close ties to Jamaat-e-Islami (Bright 2007). Ed Hussain has claimed that East London Mosque is controlled by the Bangladeshi JI and that the mosque serves as a gateway to extremism
Muslim Association of Britain
MAB was founded in 1997 and describes itself as a mainstream grass roots organization which actively seeks to drive out the misunderstandings about Muslims and helps to act as a bridge to promote better understanding between the UK and the Muslim World. It has worked intimately with the Stop the War Coalition and the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. It has been blamed of links to Hamas and other such groups. Policy Exchange claims it is the closest thing in Britain to the Muslim Brotherhood and Jamaat-e-Islami and MP Louise Elman claims that Azzam Tamimi has been an adviser to Hamas and a spokesperson for the Muslim Brotherhood. She also quotes him in a number of occasions making comments in defense of suicide bombers in Palestine as martyrs: as he says; do not call them suicide bombers, call them Shuhada (martyrs; because they (Israelis) have guns. We have the human bombs. We love death, they love life; For us Muslims, martyrdom is not the end of things, but the beginning of the most wonderful of things. He made the following comment to the BBC: Sacrificing Me for Palestine is a noble reason. It is the straight and true path to pleasing God and I would do it if I had the chance. Although individual allegations have been made, there is no evidence to suggest MAB has played any role in violent extremism in or towards the UK. Jamaat-e-Islami, Hizbul Mujahideen & Al Qaeda, South Asian Analysis Group,
Islamic Party of Britain
The Islamic Party of Britain formed in 1989 with the purpose of encouraging public debate about the Islamic alternative. Being the first and foremost national Islamic political organization in the UK and the only Islamic political party in the non-Muslim
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Western world, it has helped Muslims to add confidence in the political dialogues, it has researched Islamic answers to contemporary matters and come up with credible policies on economy, environment, health, education, social affairs, international relations, and many other aspects of modern life. It has provided perfect, well presented information about Islam to the general public, and many have found their way to Islam through its energetic approach. Giving the Muslims of Britain, a voice in matters relating to the future of British society features, along with the objectives of the party, as helping them to go forward with their planning and organization to improve their situation in a world ruled by prejudiced forces with anti-Islamic sentiment. Its main efforts are, however, directed at the majority of nonMuslims living in the West, who are to be offered realistic choices to the rising problems of modern society and may be helped to understand that as an ideology and way of life Islam, is better to the unsuccessful principles of capitalism and communism. Such encounter has to be public, and this, not the desire for minority representation, is the party's motivation when participating in local and national elections. It is entirely financed by subscriptions and individual donations and is independent of any domestic or foreign government or organization. Non-religious political groups In recent years, there has been a significant rise in the amount of political activism within Muslim communities in the UK. This developed in two impressions: first, that flashed by the build up to the attack of Iraq in 2003, and second following 7/7 when communities decided to organize themselves helped by a colossal influx of government funding for capacity building. This activity is, on the whole, completely non-violent and groups include the Asian Youth Movement (which no longer exists); the Stop the War Coalition; the Respect Coalition; School Students against War (affiliated with Stop the War); the Socialist Workers Party; Globalize Resistance; Permanent Revolution (UK); and the Workers Power. Most groups are small-scale, tend to have regional bases rather than
78
national reach, and are often allied to other issues, such as housing, foreign policy, deprivation, student politics, and so forth. Only the Stop the War Coalition is large enough to value a detailed description, and is also important because it is linked to and spawned so many of the other movements and organizations
Stop the War Coalition
The Stop the War Coalition is imperative for a number of causes: it gained huge grip politically; it attracted a massive following, not just in the UK but in many other countries; it became a central figure for other protest; and because it brought Muslims and non-Muslims working together for a common goal. The key actors in the movement are the Socialist Workers Party and the Muslim Association of Britain (mentioned in the previous section); and its most notable members are George Galloway, Tony Benn, Tariq Ali and Salma Yaqoob. One of the other interesting things about the Stop the War Coalition is that it managed to extent the generational divide that runs deep within many Muslim communities, where older generations have often tended to stay out of formal politics. While the Coalition was led by the young, it attracted older participants, too. As Mobeen Azhar said of the Coalitions activity in Leeds, I have grown up in a climate of disagreement and apathy in the mosque. My peers (and organizations like MPAC) will bear testament to the frustration of a lot of in my generation with the depoliticized mentalities so inevitably associated with many of our religious leaders. To get my 23 parents generation engaging, talking and organizing was a very personal breakthrough for me (Briggs 2007). In most cases, these non-violent forms of political activism make a positive contribution to political and civic life in the UK and are empowering for communities which suffer high levels of deprivation (and are therefore in need of activism to change their circumstances). They might also prove to be part of the solution to violent extremism. As Salma Yaqoob says, the leading nature of Muslim radicalization in Britain today points not towards terrorism or religious extremism, but in the opposite direction: towards political engagement in new, radical and progressive coalitions that seek to unite Muslim with non-Muslim in parliamentary and extra-
79
parliamentary strategies to affect change. She added, it is only by hopeful the widening of this progressive expression of Muslim radicalism that the political purchase of strategies based on either terrorism or Muslim sectarianism can be reduced -Yaqoob . Some have sought to present these movements as dangerous and have described emergence as a sign of the Muslim communitys desire for separatism, but this is not supported by polling which shows that young Muslims are keen to engage.
Islamic Society of Britain (ISB)
The Islamic Society of Britain (ISB) is not a profit based organization. Established in 1990, ISB is one of the first organizations that sought to evolve a uniquely British flavor to Islam. The important features of ISB are; (1) (2) To promote greater understanding and awareness of Islam. To organize, educate and enhance the development of British Muslim
communities. (3) To encourage positive contribution to British society and the promotion of social justice. We ISB is one of the largest national networks of British Muslim volunteers, successfully harnessing the broad skills base of their members, who hail from a variety of backgrounds stay at home mums and dads as well as doctors, lawyers, teachers The Islamic Society of Britain has played an important and positive part in how British Muslims think about their faith. Some of our innovative activities often broke new ground, emboldening and empowering many others to create projects of their own. The Islamic Society of Britain views Islam as a religion of peace and a continuation of age-old teachings from God to humanity. Not as a new religion, but as a way of life that
80
has a strong focus in spiritual terms on the worship of one God, and in social terms on justice and equity between people.
Muslim Council of Britain (MCB)
The Muslim Council of Britain is a national representative Muslim umbrella body with over 500 national, regional and local organizations and institutions from different ethnic and sectarian backgrounds within British Islamic society, like mosques, charities and schools. The MCB is promised to work for the common good of society as whole; encouraging individual Muslim organizations to play a full and participatory role in public life.
Aims and Objectives
(1) To promote cooperation, consensus and unity on Muslim affairs in the UK. (2) To encourage and strengthen all existing efforts being made for the benefit of the Muslim community. (3) To work for a more enlightened appreciation of Islam and Muslims in the wider society. (4) To establish a position for the Muslim community within British society that is fair and based on due rights. (5) To work for the eradication of disadventages and forms of discrimination faced by Muslims. (6) To foster better community relations and work for the good of society as a whole. In its earlier name, National Interim Committee for Muslim Unity (NICMU) was decided to form a vast platform for whole Muslims of UK , as representing all of them. As a result, on 25 May 1996 the Coordination council supported for the establishment of an umbrella body as named The Muslim Council of Britain. And it was officially inaugurated on 23 November 1997 at Brent Town Hall, by representatives of more than 250 Muslim South-Asian organizations from all part of Britain. The primary Secretary
81
General was Iqbal Sacranie (1997-2006), as he received a knighthood in the 2005 Queens Bithday Honours List for his longstanding service to the Muslim community and interfaith dialogue. Now (from 20 June 2010) Mr Farooq Murad is the secretary General of MCB, who is a proffessional management and training consultant, and was chairman of Muslim Aidcharity from 2004 to 2008.
Programmes
Mosques & Imams National Advisory Board (MINAB) In 2006, MCB along with other major organizations launched Mosques & Imams National Advisory Board (MINAB), an independent self-regulatory body to supervise mosques, train imams, set out core standards and constitutions, and promote best practice in the British mosques. This movement was commended by Communities Secretary Hazel Blears. Islam is Peace The MCB supported the Islam is Peace advertising campaign which aimed to break down barriers of suspection and division, challenge stereotypes, combat prejudice, and offer an opportunity for strengthening the values of respect, tolerance and peaceful coexistence. Books for Schools In 2004, the MCB launched a books for Schools program to provide high quality Islamic resources for mainstream primary schools in the UK. The material was put together by educationalists and teachers, with reference to the RE Non Statutory Framework (QCA). Resource packs include Islamic projects, objects, audio/visual sources, booklets, card model kits, and posters. Know Your Rights and Responsibilities
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In 2004, the MCB printed half a million copies of a pocketbook Know Your Rights and Responsibilities which were distributed across Britain. According to Iqbal Sacranie, the chief of MCB, the pocketbook sought to reassure South-Asian Muslims about their rights and remind them of the responsibilities we all share to help build a more just and cohesive society. This also encouraged British South-Asian Muslims to participate in the mainstream political parties with a view to seeking the common good, and listed the police anti-terror hotline number while describing the averting of possible terrorist attacks as an Islamic imperative. The pocketbook has been updated and translated in to the Urdu, Bengali, Gujarati and Arabic languages. Mosque 100 This programme, started in summer 2007, targets 100 medium sized Mosques and SouthAsian Muslim organizations from across the country, aiming to empower and capacity build within a year by providing training and access to resources. Assessing the performance of this programme will depend on a number of criteria, including number of voluntary and community groups assisted and the organizations ability to access information on specific topics. Political interferences Following the 7 July 2005 London bombing, the MCB issued statements expressing its disgust at the events, saying all of us must unite in helping the police to capture these murders. The Muslim Council of Britain has condemned the US-led invasion of Iraq, which they said highlighted a massive disconnect between public opinion including Muslim opinion on the one side and the political classes on the other the group condemns terrorism by Muslims and non-Muslims alike, and has urged Muslims to help in the fight against terrorism. Following allegations that police had wire-tapped a Muslim MP, the council said it was vital to hold to account the improper behavior of senior police officers.
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In February 2006, the MCB urged MPs to vote for the Lords Amendment to the Terrorism Act 2006, which removed the glorification of terrorism clause from the bill. They stated that the bill was perceived as unfairly targeting Muslims and stifling legitimate debate. The bill was eventually passed without the amendment by325 votes to 277. The MCB has cooperated with trades union, for example by issuing a joint statement with the Trades Union Congress urging better community relations and encouraging Muslims to foreign trades union. On 3 March 2008, the MCB criticized the Foreign Secretary David Milibands response to Israels killing of over 100 Palestinians in Gaza as blatantly one sided, and said: if we are serious about wanting peace, we must act as honest brokers not partisan bystanders. When schoolteacher Gillian Gibbons was jailed in Sudan for allowing her class to name a teddy bear by the same name as the Islamic prophet Muhammed , the MCB condemned the incident as a gross overreaction and said the Sudanese authorities lacked basic common sense. Jyllands Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy When editorial cartoons of the Prophet Muhammad were printed in the Danish daily Newspaper Jyllands-Psten on 30 September 2005, the MCB saw them as reflecting the emergence of an increasingly xenophobic tone being adopted towards Muslims in parts of the Western media and argued that: We should not let our treasured freedoms in Europe to be battered by those intentionally seeking to irritate hatred and division between communities. At the same time, they said they regarded the violent threats made against Danish and Euro citizens by some groups in the Muslim world as completely unacceptable.
Support and Criticism
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Between 2001 and 2007, the Muslim Council of Britain (MCB) expressed its unwillingness to attend the Holocaust Memorial Day ceremony and associated events, due to the ongoing genocide and violation of Human Rights I the occupied Palestinian territories, in Jammu and Kashmir and elsewhere. Iqbal Sacranie stated that the MCB were one with fellow members of the British Jewish community in their pains and anguish over this savage and shameful event in recent history. This policy was criticized by Labor MP Louise Ell man and Terry Sander so of the British National Secular Society, among others. In the later years they called for the day to be replaced by a Genocide Memorial Day. On 3 December 2007, the MCB voted to end the boycott. Assistant General Secretary Inayat Bunglawala argued it was inadvertently causing hurt to some in the Jewish community. It drew criticism for this from some, for example Anas al Tikriti, who said: rather than a mere commemoration of victims of one of the most terrible crimes in history, Holocaust Memorial Day has become a political event which lionizes the state of Israel, turning a cooperative screen eye to the infinite sufferings of Palestinians at the hands of Israelis in every single day. On 3 January 2006, Iqbal Sacranie told BBC Radio 4s PM programme he believes homosexuality is not acceptable and denounced same sex civil partnerships is harmful. He was criticized for this standpoint by gay rights campaigners, such as Peter Tatchell, who called for a dialogue between the MCB and gay organizations. In April 2007, the MCB formally stated its support for the Equality Act, which outlaws discrimination the grounds of sexual orientating. It was commended for this move by some, for example Brain Whitaker, who said: the Muslim Council of Britain has begun to move towards accepting homosexuality. The opposition of the Council to the glorification of terrorism clause in the Terrorism Act 2006 and to British policy in Iraq was subject to both praise and criticism. Sunny Hundal wrote in an exchange with Sir Iqbal Sacranie: In order to defeat violent extremism , we must understand what motivates these people and what turns them to into killers. What puts them in that frame of mind? The Iraq war alone is not enough. He also
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criticizes what he saw as close links between the MCB and Labor Party. Sacranie conceded that propaganda literature may well play a role, but emphasized: such propaganda can only be effective because of the conducive atmosphere we have helped create. The MCB has been criticized by Martin Bright, among others, for falling to be truly representative. He said, in response to an article by Madeleine Bunting: any body that represents itself as speaking for the Muslim community must demonstrate that is entirely non sectarian and non-factional. The MCB has consistently failed in this area and the Government should consider cutting allies until it has thoroughly reformed itself. Madeleine Bunting disagreed, saying: to the extent that the government over-relied on the MCB, it was due to the laziness of the government wanting only to hear one voice. She said it would be absurd to exclude the MCB, the biggest Muslim organization in this country and the one that has achieved the greatest degree of non factionalism and nonsectarianism.
List of Affiliated Organizations and Institutions

Org Name Town or City Web site
National
Association of Muslim Schools Council of Nigerian Muslim London London Islamic London London London Birmingham Birmingham Birmingham Bradford www.mjah.org www.fosis.org.uk www.indianmuslim.org.uk www.islamicforumeurope.com www.isb.org.uk www.dawatul-islam.org.uk Birmingham www.ams-uk.org
Organisations Da'watul Islam UK & Eire Federation of Students
Societies (FOSIS) Indian Muslim Federation Islamic Forum Europe Islamic Society of Britain - National Jama'at Ahle Sunnat UK Jamiat Ahl-e-Hadith UK Jamiat-e-Ulema Britain
86
Muslim Association of Britain Muslim Doctors and Dentists
London
www.mabonline.net
Association Muslim Students Society UK & Eire Muslim (London) Muslim Women Society (MWS) Muslim Women's Association The Council of European Jamaats UK Islamic Mission (National) UK Turkish Islamic Association World Federation of KSIMC World Islamic Mission Young Muslim Organisation UK Young Muslim Sisters (UK) Young Muslims UK (National) Welfare House Trust
Birmingham Manchester
www.mdda.org.uk mssuk.net/aboutus/mission.htm
London Manchester London Peterborough London London Middx Tadworth London Rochdale Halifax
www.mwht.org.uk www.islamicgarden.com
www.coej.org www.ukim.org
www.world-federation.org
www.ymouk.com/
www.ymuk.net
Regional
Union of Muslim Organisations Walsall Southwark Muslim Forum (SMF) Council of Mosques Tower Hamlets Muslim Council of Wales The Bolton Council of Mosques Confederation of Sunni Mosques Midlands Council of Mosques, London & Southern Counties Federation of Muslim Organisations Leicestershire Islamic Branch Lancashire Council of Mosques Northern Ireland Muslim Family Forum Europe North Sunderland Blackburn Belfast www.islamicforumeurope.com www.lancashiremosques.com Leicester www.fmo.org.uk London Birmingham Walsall London London Cardiff Bolton www.muslimcouncilwales.org
87
Association (NIMFA)
Local/Specialist
Muslim Heritage Trust Ltd Arqam Foundation Newcastle Central Mosque Masjid Al Tawhid UK Action Committee on Islamic Affairs Muslim Solidarity Committee Northern Ireland Muslim Family Association (NIMFA) Sri Lanka Muslim Congress Sri Lanka Islamic Forum Al-Mahdi Institute M.A. Al-Kharafi Islamic Centre Preston Muslim Society, Quwwatul Islam Masjid Europe Trust Mushkil Aasaan Anjuman-e-J'afariyya, Community of Watford Waaberi Community Development Association (WACODA) Islamic Foundation for Ecology & Environmental Science Palestinian Forum in Britain Harrow Central Mosque Human Appeal International UK Islamic Council Save Chechnya Campaign Ltd Abrar Islamic Foundation The Wharf Muslim Association An Noor Birmingham London Harrow Manchester Sheffield London London Dagenham London www.savechechnya.org www.abrar.org.uk/ara www.wharfma.com www.ifees.org.uk www.pfb.org.uk www.harrowmosque.org.uk www.hai.org.uk London Muslim Hertfordshire Lancashire Birmingham London Belfast London London Birmingham Camberley Al-Mahdi Institute www.camberleymosque.co.uk Surrey New Malden www.ukacia.com London London Newcastle Upon Tyne www.newcastlecentralmosque.com www.arqam.co.uk
88
Markazul-Uloom Al-Islamiyya Teebah Islam Expo Ltd Islamic College for Advanced Studies Renaissance Readers Club Watford Association Islamic Forum Cheshire Central Jamia Masjid (Southall) Aalami Majlise Tahaffuze Khatme Nubuwwat Abdullah Quilliam Society Abu Hurairah Academy Al Muntada Al Islami Trust Al-Asr Scholastic Research Estb. Al-Falah Al-Furqan Charity Trust Al-Hijra Somali Community Al-Hijrah School Al-Jamiah Uloom Lancs) Al-Muttaqiin Al-Risala School Al-Zaitoona Arabic School Anjuman-ECentre Ansar Finance Anjuman-E-Farogh-e-Aza Anjuman-e-Saifee Arab Lawyers Association Ar-Rahman Academy of Cultural and Religious Activities Assoc. of Muslim Teachers and Lecturers Association of British Hujajj Ja'afriya Al-Zahra Al-Islamiyah (Darul Mosque & Welfare
Rotherham London Neasden London UK, Slough www.islamic-college.ac.uk
Watford Cheshire Middx
www.watfordmosque.org.uk
London Liverpool www.wslhost.co.uk/abuhaurairah London Hounslow Bradford London London Birmingham www.hijrasom.org.uk www.alhijrah.com www.almuntada.org.uk www.imam-alasr.com
Bolton Surrey London Surrey
www.al-jamiah-al-islamiyyah.org.uk
www.al-zaitoona.tripod.com
Watford Manchester Middlesex Leicestershire London www.ansarfinance.com
Wembley
www.arrahman.co.uk
Blackburn Birmingham www.amr.org.uk
89
(Pilgrims) Association of Muslim Lawyers

Association of Muslim Governors
High Wycombe www.muslimgovernors.org www.masjidusunnah.com Cardiff London www.ampwales.co.uk www.amrnet.demon.co.uk
Assunnah Islamic Centre Association of Muslim Professionals Association of Muslim Researchers Association Disabilities Azan Community Services Birmingham London Oldham Wembley London London Essex Bedford Belfast Education London Birmingham Blackburn of Muslims With London
Association Azhar Academy Azmat-e-Islam Mosque Baitul-Aman Islamic Mission Balham Mosque Battersea Mosque & Islamic Centre Bazme Tolu-e-Islam, London Bedford International Islamic Society Belfast Islamic Centre Bengali Centre Birmingham Central Mosque Blackburn Council of Mosques Blackpool Islamic Community Centre & Mosque Bolton Mosques Council for Community
www.azharacademy.org
www.balhammosque.org
belfastmosque.tripod.com
www.centralmosque.org.uk
Blackpool
Community Care Bolton Muslim Welfare Trust Bosnia - Herzegovina Islamic Centre Bradford Muslim Welfare Society Brent Islamic Circle Brighton Islamic Mission Bristol Islamic Schools Trust British Merton Brondesbury College For Boys Muslim Association of
Bolton Bolton London Bradford London Sussex Bristol www.bist.org.uk
London London www.bcbcollege.com
90
Caribbean Islamic Association Central Jamia Masjid (Southall) Central Jamia Masjid (Wakefield) Central Sharif Jamia Mosque Ghamkol
London London Wakefield www.south:wallmosque.org.uk
Birmingham
Childrens Relief Fund Community Care Management Ltd (CCM) Confederation of Sunni Mosques Midlands Council of Indian Muslims Council of Islamic Affairs, Council of Mosques, London & Southern Counties Council of University Sheikhs Coventry Cross Mosque & Islamic Comm. Centre Croydon Mosque & Islamic Centre Dar Al-Arqam Islamic Centre Dar Uloom Al-Arabiya Al-Islamiya (Bury) Darus Salam Mosque (Leicester
Markfield
www.communitycaremanagement.co.uk
Birmingham London Blackburn
London London
London Surrey London www.croydonmosque.org www.mcwg-arqam.org.uk
Bury
www.inter-islam.org
Mosque Trust) Daubhill Muslim Society Denvision Dudley Muslim Association Dulwich Islamic Centre East London Mosque Trust Ltd Edmonton Islamic Centre Education Aid Elland Mosque Association
Epsom & Ewell Islamic society
Leicester Lancashire Manchester West Midlands London London London London Eland www.londonmuslimcentre.org.uk www.eicalmasjid.com www.educationaid.org.uk www.dudleymuslims.co.uk
European
Academy
for
Islamic
www.eaisonline.com
91
Studies European Institute Of Human Science

Federation of Muslim Organisations Leicestershire
Ceredigion Leicester Leicester
www.eihs.org.uk www.fmo.org.uk www.aqsa.org.uk
Friends of Al-Aqsa Gardens of Peace, Muslim Cemetery Trust Ghour Ghusti Welfare Association Granby Somali Women's Group Gulzar-e-Madina Mosque Halal Monitoring Committee-HMC
Hanafi Sunni Muslim Circle - UK
Essex Birmingham Liverpool Leicester Leicester Blackburn Watford London
www.gardens-of-peace.org.uk
www.halalmc.co.uk/
Harbour World Of Children Haringey Islamic Trust
Harrow Islamic Society Hendon Mosque & Islamic Centre Helping Hands For The Needy Hinckley Muslim Association Hounslow Jamia Masjid Horn Stars Human Relief Foundation Human Relief Foundation
Human Rights Society of Pakistan
North Harrow London www.hendonmosque.co.uk www.helpinghandsworldwide.com Leicester Ashford London London Bradford London Harrow Wolverhampton Bradford London Leicester Dewsbury
Bartley, West Yorkshire
www.hounslowmosque.co.uk
www.hrf.co.uk www.hrf.co.uk
Husayni Madrasah Ibn Rushd Society Immigrants Funeral Society

Imperial College Islamic Society
union.ic.ac.uk
Indian Muslim Association Indian Muslim Patel Society

Indian Muslim Welfare Society
www.imws.org.uk
Institute of Islamic Banking and Insurance London www.islamic-banking.com
92
International Dialogue
Forum
For
Islamic London www.islam21.net
International Institute of Kashmir Studies International Mission International Association UK Interpal Palestinians Relief and London London Oxford London Sheffield Bradford
Leicester Branch
London Khatme-e-Nubuwwat Bolton Qirat & Naat Lancs
Development Fund Iqra International Iqra School Oxford (Institute) IQRA Trust ISB ISB-Halifax Branch ISB ISB Tower Hamlets Islam Expo IslamicCentre-Stoke Islamic Forum Europe (West
www.interpal.org www.iqrainternational.org
www.iqratrust.org
London
www.isb.org.uk www.islamexpo.com
Trent
Midlands Branch)Islamic Forum Europe Islamic Forum Europe Islamic Forum Europe Islamia Schools' Trust Islamic & Cultural Society of Harrow Islamic Academy Islamic Association of North London Islamic Centre, Birmingham Islamic College For Advance Studies Islamic (Tottenham) Islamic Computing Centre Islamic Council of Europe Islamic Culture and Education Centre Community Centre
Birmingham Luton Branch Oldham Bradford London London Cambridge London Birmingham London www.islamic-college.ac.uk www.islamicacademy.ac.uk www.ianl.org.uk
London London London London
www.icctottenham.org.uk
www.islamicculturalcentre.co.uk
93
Islamic Education Society (Nur UlIslam Mosque) Islamic Education Trust (Masjid AlFalah) Islamic Centre Islamic Educational & Recreational Institute Islamic Forum Europe Loughborough www.islamicforumeurope.com Middx Educational & Cultural Birmingham Leicester Blackburn
Loughborough Branch Islamic Forum Europe - Manchester Branch Islamic Forum Europe - North Branch Islamic Forum Europe - South Branch Islamic Forum Europe (London) Islamic Foundation Islamic Foundation for Ecology & Environmental Science Islamic Relief (London) Islamic Relief Agency (ISRA)
Manchester Sunderland London London Markfield
www.islamicforumeurope.com www.islamicforumeurope.com www.islamicforumeurope.com www.islamicforumeurope.com www.islamic-foundation.org.uk
Birmingham London
www.ifees.org www.islamic-relief.com
(Birmingham) Islamic Resource Centre Islamic Shariah Council Islamic Society (Coventry) Islamic Society of Britain - Berkshire Branch Islamic Society of Britain - Bradford Branch ISB - Glasgow Islamic Society of Britain - Ilford Branch Islamic Society of Britain - Liverpool Branch
Islamic Society of Britain - Manchester Islamic Society of Britain - National
Birmingham Kingston London Coventry
www.isra.cix.co.uk
www.islamic-sharia.org
Slough
www.isb.org.uk
Bradford Glasgow
www.isb.org.uk www.isb.org.uk
Ilford
www.isb.org.uk
Liverpool
Manchester
www.isb.org.uk
www.isb.org.uk www.isb.org.uk
94
Islamic Society of Britain - Woking Islamic Society of Britain (Birmingham) Islamic Society of Britain Luton Islamic Society of Britain-London Islamic Students Society (U.W.S) Ittehadul Masjid Jame Mosque (Leicester) Jamia Masjid (Blackburn) Jamia Mosque (Hansdworth Islamic Centre) Jamia Mosque and Islamic Centre Jamia Musjid (Doncaster) Jamia Musjid (Rotterham) Jamait Al Nissa Jamiat Ahl-e-Hadith (Bradford) Jamiat Ahl-e-Hadith (Derby) Jamiat Ahl-e-Hadith (Dewsbury) Jamiat Ahl-e-Hadith (Leytonstone) Jamiat Ahl-e-Hadith (Maidstone) Jamiat Ahl-e-Hadith (Redhill) Jamiat Ahl-e-Hadith (Skipton) Jamiat Ittihad Ul-Muslimin (Glasgow Central Mosque) Jamiate Nizame Islam K S I Muslim Community of Milton Keynes Kafel Fund (UK) Karima Institute Kashmir Council For Human Rights
West Byfleet Birmingham Luton Essex Swansea Huddersfield Leicester Blackburn Birmingham Birmingham Doncaster Rotherham London Bradford Derby Dewsbury London Maidstone Redhill Skipton
www.isb.org.uk www.isb.org.uk www.isb.org.uk www.isb.org.uk
www.ahlehadith.co.uk www.ahlehadith.co.uk www.ahlehadith.co.uk www.ahlehadith.co.uk www.ahlehadith.co.uk www.ahlehadith.co.uk www.ahlehadith.co.uk
Glasgow Birmingham Milton Keynes London Nottingham Otterbourne
www.glasgowcentralmosque.com
www.karimia.com
Khazinat Al-'Ilm Khawateen Kingston Muslim Association Kokani Muslims - Golders Green Kosova Islamic Centre U.K. Kurdish Association in Britain KSIMC KSIMC Ladybridge Muslim Society
Lancashire Council of Mosques
Leicester London Kingston Middx London London Birmingham

London-Stannmore
www.kingstonmosque.org.uk
http://www.kicuk.org
Bolton G.M.C Blackburn London Leeds Leeds www.leedsgrandmosque.org.uk www.lancashiremosques.com
Lebanese Muslim League Leeds Grand Mosque Leeds Islamia Girl's School
95
Lewisham Islamic Centre

Leytonstone Islamic Association
London London
Livingston Mosque and Community Centre London Guildhall University Islamic Society London School of Economics Islamic Society Madani Jamia Masjid
Madinatul Uloom & Islamic Centre Madinatul Uloom Al-Islamiyah
Livingston
London
London Huddersfield Bradford Kidderminster
www.lse.ac.uk
Madni Jamia Masjid & Islamic Centre Madras-E-Naqibul Islam Madressa Alarabia Alislamia Majlis Sautul Quraan Majlis Ulama-E-Shia (Europe) Makki Masjid (Sheffield)
Manchester Islamic Schools Trust Markazi Mosque & Islamic Centre
Sheffield Blackburn Glasgow Accrington Middx Sheffield Manchester Sheffield London Huddersfield Blackburn Muslim Leicester Blackburn Blackburn Preston Blackburn Blackburn Blackburn Blackburn Huddersfield Welfare London www15.redstation.co.uk www.tauheedulislam.com
Masjid and Madrasah Al-Tawhid Masjid Noor (Huddersfield) Masjid Tauheedul Islam Masjid Centre Masjide Al Hidayah Masjid-e-Anisul Islam
Masjid-e-Falah, Muslim Society
Umar/
Evington
Masjid-e-Irfan Masjid-e-Rizwan Mosque Masjid-e-Sajideen Masjid-e-Saliheen Masjid-e-Usman Mauritian Association Islamic
96
Mayfair Islamic Centre M. A. Al-Kharafi Islamic CentreCamberley Mediconcern Memon Association Mosque & Islamic Centre Mushkil Aasaan Muslim Enterprise Development
London
Surrey Manchester Leicester Edinburgh London www.discover-islam.com
Service (MEDS) Muslim Hands International Memon Association UK Mosque & Islamic Centre Muath Welfare Trust / Bordesley Centre Muslim Aid Muslim Association of Bradford
Liverpool Nottingham London Walsall www.muslimhands.org www.memon.org.uk www.aishamosque.org
Birmingham London
www.al-bab.com www.muslimaid.org
(Central Mosque) Muslim Burial Council of
Bradford
www.geocities.com
Leicestershire Muslim Care Muslim Community and Education Centre Muslim Council of Southampton Muslim Cultural and Welfare
Leicester London
www.mbcol.org.uk www.care.mcmail.com
London Southampton
www.mcec.org.uk www.mcs-online.org
Association of Sutton Muslim Cultural Heritage Centre Trust Muslim Directory Muslim Education Centre Muslim Council Muslim Education Forum Muslim Educational Consultative Education Co-ordinating
Surrey
London London Leicester
www.mchc.org.uk www.muslimdirectory.co.uk
East Croyden Birmingham
Committee Muslim Educational Trust
Birmingham London www.muslim-ed-trust.org.uk
97
Muslim Foundation Handsworth Muslim Information Centre Muslim Investment Corporation Ltd Muslim Khoja Shia Ithna-Asheri Community of Leicester Muslim Relief Organisation Muslim Shia Ithna-Asheri Jamaat of Essex Muslim Sisters Jamaat Muslim Teachers' Association Muslim Welfare Association of Vale of Glamorgan Muslim Welfare Board Muslim Welfare House Muslim Welfare House
Birmingham London London
Leicester London
Chelmsford London Surrey Vale Glamorgan London Durham Glasgow Newcastle upon of
Muslim Welfare House Muslim Welfare House Muslim Welfare Institute Muslim Welfare Trust Muslim Women's Helpline Muslim World League Muslim Youth Helpline Muslimaat - Sheffield Assoc of Muslim Women Muslimaat UK Narborough Road Islamic Centre Nasserpuria Memon UK Neeli Mosque & Islamic Centre Newham North Islamic Association Nuneaton Muslim Welfare & Cultural Assoc Omar Welfare House Paigham-e-Islam Trust Pakistan Association -
Tyne Sheffield Blackburn Leicester Wembley London Middlesex www.amrnet.demon.co.uk www.wamy.co.uk www.myh.org.uk www.mwhs.org.uk
Sheffield London Leicester Wembley Rochdale London www.muslimaatuk.com
Nuneaton Leeds Birmingham Leicester
98
Pakistan Workers Association Pakistani Association Liverpool Palestinian Return Centre Peace by Peace Charity Preston Muslim Society, Quwwatul Islam Masjid Preston School Preston Muslim Society - Jamea Mosque Preston Muslim Society - Masjid-eSalaam Qirat & Naat Association Blackburn UK Quranic Study Circle Rahman International Reading Muslim Council Redbridge Association Ilford Islamic Centre Redbridge Muslim Womens Social Group Searah Studies Society Seerah Foundation Selbourne Muslim Welfare Society Shah Jahan Mosque Shah Poran Masjid and Islamic Centre Trust Shia Ithna Ashri Islamic Centre Shia Ithna-Asheri Community of Middx (SICM) Somali Speakers Association Somali Welfare Centre Somali Women's Group South London Mosque & Islamic & Chigwell Muslim Muslim Girls Secondary
London Liverpool London www.prc.org.uk/english www.peacebypeacecharity.org
Lancashire
Preston
Preston
Preston
Liverpool Sheffield Reading www.readingmuslimcouncil.org.uk
Ilford, Essex Ilford, Essex
Essex London London West Yorkshire Woking www.shahjahanmosque.org.uk www.searah.co.uk
London Glasgow
Middlesex London London Liverpool London
www.sicm.org.uk
www.streathammosque.org
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Centre Al-Nissa Association Medina Mosque Trust Southward Association Solihull Association Sri Lanka Islamic (UK) Association Trust Steven Centre Mosque Sunni Razvi Muslim Society Sussex Muslim Society Sutton Islamic Centre Ta Ha Publishers Takaful Trust Taleem (Scotland) Tawak'kuliah Islamic Society The Islamic Association of Lincoln The Islamic Centre & Leicester Central Mosque Leicester London
The Khoja Shia Ithnasheri South London Jamaat
Southampton Southampton Women's London www.smwa.org.uk
Muslim
Muslim
Community www.smca.org.uk
London age (or) Muslim Steven Community age Central Steven age, Hertz London Sussex Sutton London London Network Glasgow Bradford Lincoln
www-slia.uk.org
www.stevenagecentralmosque.com
www.taha.co.uk
Trust/Muslim
www.islamiccentre.org
The Muslim Khoja Shia Ithna-Asheri Community of Peterborough The Liverpool Islamic Institute and Mosque The Popda Society
The Swahili Community of the UK
Peterborough
Liverpool Walsall London Birmingham London Essex www.ymuk.net website.lineone.net
The Young Muslims (Birmingham) Tottenham Mosque Trends Magazine
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UK Islamic Education Waqf UK Islamic Mission (Birmingham Central) UK Islamic Mission UK Islamic Mission (Burleys) UK Islamic Mission (Cardiff)
UK Islamic Mission (East Ham)
London
www.ukim.org
Birmingham Bradford Burleys Cardiff London
www.ukim.org www.ukim.org www.ukim.org www.ukim.org www.ukim.org
UK Islamic Mission (Glasgow North) UK Islamic Mission (Glasgow) UK Islamic Mission (Hull) UK Islamic Mission (Keighley) UK Islamic Mission UK Islamic Mission UK Islamic Mission (Luton) UK Islamic Mission UK Islamic Mission UK Islamic Mission (Oldham) UK Islamic Mission UK Islamic Mission UK Islamic Mission UK Islamic Mission UK Islamic Mission (Walsall) UK Islamic Mission UK Islamic Mission Midland Zone UK Islamic Mission North Zone UK Islamic Mission Scotland Zone UK Islamic Mission South Zone UKIM ( Manchester South) UKIM (Ibrahim Mosque, Plaistow) UKIM (Madina Masjid) UKIM (Masjid & Islamic Centre, B'ham) UKIM (Masjid Noor, Blackburn) UKIM (Nelson Branch) Birmingham Blackburn Nelson Glasgow Hull Keighley Leicester Liverpool Lupton
Manchester(north) New Malden, Surrey
www.ukim.org www.ukim.org www.ukim.org www.ukim.org www.ukim.org www.ukim.org www.ukim.org www.ukim.org www.ukim.org www.ukim.org www.ukim.org www.ukim.org www.ukim.org www.ukim.org www.ukim.org www.ukim.org www.ukim.org www.ukim.org www.ukim.org
Oldham Peterborough Rochdale Sheffield

Birmingham south
Walsall Wolverhampton Birmingham Oldham Glasgow West Cliff on Sea Manchester London Nelson
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UKIM (New Malden Ladies Circle) UKIM Jamia Mosque UKIM West London Islamic Centre
Union of Muslim Families (UK)
New Malden London London London Bradford London London www.utrujj.org London Hampshire London London www.almahdi.org.uk www.uwt.org www.westlondonislamiccentre.co.uk
Ummah Welfare Trust United Somali Benadir Council United Islamic Association Utrujj Foundation Waqf Al-Birr Educational Trust Wessex Shia Ithna Asheri Jammat WF Noor Ul Islam Trust Wimbledon Mosque Winchester Association Women's Relief World Assembly of Muslim Youth (WAMY) World Islamic Association of Mental Health World Islamic Forum World Islamic Foundation World Islamic Mission World Islamic Mission (Midlands) World Islamic Propagation Centre Worthing Islamic Society York Mosque & Islamic Centre (U.K.I.M.) Young Muslim Organisation
Young Muslim Organisation UK
Muslim
Cultural Winchester London
London
www.wamy.co.uk
Wolverhampton London London Glasgow Birmingham Middx Worthing
www.geocities.com
www.wimuk.com www.wimuk.com
York Manchester Sunderland Oldham Manchester Glasgow London Luton
www.ukim.org www.ymouk.com www.ymouk.com www.ymouk.com
Young Muslim OrganisationYoung Muslim Sisters Young Muslims (Glasgow) Young Muslims (London) Young Muslims Luton
www.ymuk.net www.ymuk.net www.ymuk.net
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Young Muslims Manchester Young Muslims UK - London Sisters' Branch Young Muslims UK (Birmingham) Innovaid
Stockport
www.ymuk.net
Middx Birmingham Manchester www.ymuk.net www.innovaid.org.uk
British Muslims and multiculturalism

British Muslim identity politics was, inspired by the deep argument over Selman Rushdies book The Satanic Verses in 1989. This was a big crisis that led many in Britain to think of themselves for the first time as Muslims in a public way. With any identity, for some it will be a background, while others will often forefront it, although much will depend on context. So it is with Muslims. Even with those for whom a Muslim identity is in many circumstances more than a background, it does not follow that the religious aspect will be most important; rather, this could be a sense of family and community, or a commitment to collective political advancement, or righting the wrongs done to Muslims. Indeed, it cannot even be assumed that being Muslim means the same thing to all. Among other things, it can be understood in terms of community membership and heritage; a few simple guidelines about self, kindness, justice and the afterlife; membership of a worldwide movement armed with a counter-ideology to modernity. Some Muslims are spiritual but apolitical; some are political but do not see their politics as being Islamic (indeed, may even be anti-Islamic). In light of the previous, it is striking that Muslims in Britain today are experiencing stresses to be British Muslims in the same context where members of other minorities might be coming to feel an easing of identity pressures and greater freedom as individuals to mix and match identities. It is interesting here to note the appearance of organizations seeking to belong to the family of public Muslims yet thoroughly critical of a religious politics; what is mainly characteristic about them is the relative narrowness
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of their request to Islam to validate a basically social-democratic politics. In principle they could just as easily seek to privatize their Islam - but they feel a socio-political responsibility to do the opposite, to join the public gathering of Muslim identities rather than walk away from it. Some current Muslim identity politics, then, responds to -external or internal, or bothpressure in practical way, by seeing British Muslim as a hyphenated identity in which each part is to be valued as important in terms of ones principles and beliefs. It follows that to bring together two (or by extension several) identity-shaping, even identitydefining, commitments will have an effect on each of the commitments. These will begin to interrelate, leading to some re-interpretation of the different parts, a process that often guides to an academic engagement with the Islamic intellectual heritage. Two such areas of engagement are worth highlighting. The first area of restoration and re-interpretation is equality and connected notions. In the discussions about gender equality, for example, Muslim cultural practices and theories have been subjected to severe analysis throughout fresh readings of the Quran, the sayings and practice of the Prophet Mohammed, and Muslim history; these readings sketch the emergence of traditional and limited interpretations at moments when other interpretations could and should have been favored like, Fatima Mernissi,
47
Another area is plurality, which is emerging as a main idea in Muslim dialogue. Nearly everyone Muslims have no theological or careful problems with multi-faith citizenship after all the Prophet Mohammed founded just such a policy. The first organized, settled Muslim community was in the city of Medina which was shared with Jews and others and based on an inter-communally agree (Mernissi)d constitution. The late Zaki Badawi, one of the most taught Muslim theologians to have lived in present Britain, once
47
Fatima Mernissi, Women and Islam: An Historical and Theological Enquiry
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described the latter as the first example of a multicultural constitution in history in that it guaranteed sovereignty to the various communities of the city. Islam has a extremely developed intellect of social or ethical citizenship. It has some similar with contemporary western communitarian thinking in that it emphasizes duties as well as rights. This is illustrated in one of the five pillars of Islam, namely zakat (the obligation to give a proportion of ones income or wealth to the poor and needy). This requirement has an inherent civic character, in that it extends beyond family or even neighbors and workmates to strangers, to an imagined community. This extending intelligence of citizenship is mirrored too in a current of thinking about Islamic modernity, mainly from within Europe and north America, which confronts the severe idea that a state is needed to implement social citizenship or, more generally, religious law. The Islamic-modernity argument opposes by placing the sharia not as a body of static law, but as a set of ethical principles with legal conclusions that apply only to specific places and times and thus have to be continually reinterpreted; the effect is to place the ethical over the legal and the political. 48 This is an example of how scholarship can draw on extra-European heritages and reinterpret them in a context of a democratic citizenship. As Muslims discussion of these matters develops, and as their discourse becomes an integral part of British debates, one positive effect could be that a broader range of Muslim voices or civic participants are able to contribute. Such a development would reflect a healthy internal variety among Muslims (as within any group), part of which is that different individuals or members will want to locate themselves variously across the representational landscape (secular, religious, close to government, distant from political
48
Ziauddin Sardar,The Future of Muslim Civilization [Mansell, 1987]
Tariq Ramadan, Western Muslims and the Future of Islam [Oxford University Press, 2005).
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parties). That, after all, is true integration; new groups should have similar opportunities to old groups and do not need to conform, or feel obliged to conform, to a special minority perspective. These discursive and institutional processes have two implications. The first is that an increasing acceptance that Muslims can politically organize as Muslims without any sense of illegitimacy - in raising distinctive concerns or having group representation in public bodies, for example means allowing them to choose the paths they think
appropriate at different times, in different contexts and for different ends. The result will be a democratic constellation of organizations, networks, alliances and discourses in which there will be agreement and disagreement, in which group identity will be manifested more by way of family resemblances than the idea that one group means one voice. The second implication is that where there is difference there must also be commonality. That commonality is citizenship, a citizenship seen in a plural and dispersed way. There is no contradiction here, for emphasizing and cultivating what we have in common is not a denial of difference - it all depends upon what kind of commonality is arrived at, something that cannot be taken for granted. Difference and commonality are not either-or opposites but are complementary and have to be made lived - together, giving to each its due. More than that, commonality must be difference-friendly, and if it is not, it must be remade to be so. This does not mean as corollary weak or indifferent national identities; on the contrary, multiculturalism requires a framework of dynamic national narratives and the ceremonies and rituals which give expression to a national identity. Minority identities are capable of generating a sense of attachment and belonging, even a sense of a cause for many people. If multicultural citizenship is to be equally attractive to those people, it needs a comparable (and counterbalancing) set of emotions; it cannot be merely about a legal status or a passport.
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A sense of belonging to ones country is necessary to make a success of a multicultural society. An inclusive national identity is respectful of and builds upon the identities that people value and does not trample upon them. So integration is not simply or even primarily a minority problem. For central to it are a citizenship and the right to make a claim on the national identity in the direction of positive difference. An intellectual as much as a political vision of social reform and justice in the 21st century must include these aspects of multicultural citizenship. The turning of negative into positive difference should be one of the tests of social justice in this era.49
Radicalization among Muslims in the UK

Muslim communities in the UK have come under intense scrutiny in recent years, but especially since 7 July 2005 (7/7). The emergence of a home-grown threat raised concerns not just about the threat of future attacks, but it also played on deeper anxieties about Britains growing diversity and apparent loss of a cohesive identity. The current terrorist threat and the UKs responses to it should be viewed against this wider backdrop. Since 7/7, the extent of the problem has become clearer as new plots have been unearthed and a succession of trials has provided rare glimpses into the lives of the radicals. This chapter outlines the details of the main plots. Many theories have been offered about the drivers or causes of radicalization, but they are rarely able to prove more than the exception, never the rule. In fact, it is almost impossible to say with any certainty what the causes are as it is so difficult to know whether a factor is instrumental, or merely present. It is perhaps more helpful to think about radicalizing agents factors that are present (though not necessarily causal) and which appear frequently across different cases. This paper highlights a number: key places, charismatic leaders,
49
Not Easy Being British: Color, Culture and Citizenship published in 1992.by Tariq Modood is professor of sociology, politics and public policy and the founding director of the Centre for the Study of Ethnicity and Citizenship at the University of Bristol
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relationship links, experiences and stated and assumed grievances. One of the most frequent theories about radicalization is that certain organizations or movements play central roles in indoctrinating individuals into a set of fundamental beliefs and an acceptance that violence is a legitimate tool for solving their problems. This collaborative research project divides Muslim organizations into three broad categories for the purposes of this study: non-political religious groups, religious and political groups and non-religious political groups. This chapter provides a brief synopsis of the main organizations and movements under each heading and offers, where it exists, evidence about their links to violence. It should be acknowledged that this is a problematic framework. Few groups fit neatly into one category and often move between them over time or depending on their activities. It is also highly unlikely that they would selfcategorize themselves in these terms. It also assumes that organizations as corporate entities are important players within the radicalization process, rather than the individuals who pass through them. In fact, in many cases individuals go in and out of these organizations, often leaving when they do not find what they are looking for. To conclude that their 4 presence confirms the organizations role would be misleading. Finally, these organizations can find themselves being used as convenient spaces for individuals to convene often in the margins where the culpability of the organization is due more to its poor visibility and governance than a commitment to violence. This paper sets out the position of Muslims in the UK, the threat to the UK from Al-Qaedalinked and -inspired terrorism through an account of the main terror plots outlines the main radical groups and movements under the three-pronged categorization outlined above and close with an explanation of latest UK government policy responses. It concludes with a note of caution about misinterpreting the nature and intention of these groups and notes the role that many with some notable exceptions could play in the effort to tackle radicalization in the UK.
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Chapter 3
Chapter 3
Islam and Media in Modern UK; A Method of Empowerment

Representation of Islam in Media
Representations of Islam and Muslims in the media have been a subject of many debates and discussions, especially in present periods. A considerable panel of literature and research has pointed that on the whole the images and dialogues concerning to Islam/Muslims in mainstream Western media is likely to be negative. This literature consists of studies examining the ideologies of Orientalist discussions such as those by Edward Said (1981 and 1996), Daniel (1960) and Ziyauddin Sardar, (1999); the specific relationship between media and Islam, for example by S.Ahmed (1994), the Runnymede Trust (1997 and 2001) and Bunglawala (2002) and many recent publications including Abbas (2000), Poole (2001) and Allen (2002) which discover the popularity of antiMuslim and anti-Islamic opinions in the media. tt aa cc oo rr Such work is informed by the different hypothesis of representation that seem to recognize representation as more than a romanticized mirror of life, be it by an individual artist or societal project. In such hypothesis, media representation is strongly related to actual reality, structures of power that inform not only cultural deliberations but can and do influence material power structures and power relations between communal actors, particularly, as we are discussing the relationship between majority and minority /ies. Such representation and the irregular effect of power that it creates has on many occasions arisen from misunderstanding and miscommunication .If representation is always conquered by miss-representation resulting in the misrepresentation of reality in the majority of the
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cases, we want to ask why. The easy answer is that we, as interpreters of reality, as both artist and viewer are not able to see reality in its total or as it is planned to be seen either by vast or natural design or indeed that of the artist / talker. Accordingly, one can argue that we see objectivities through our subjectivities .We make reality according to previous insights through the channel of the first effect received from others. This is not a fixed impression about all, it is highly dependent on who is the audience and who is the author. To trying to understand representation, we must look at it as a discursive structure. The discursive approach to representation examines representation in the form of an interrelated circle of meaning. Usually, meaning is attributing to objects out there in the world, and to the inner spirit and feelings of persons. In the opinion of structuralists, meaning is a result of signification, and that signification is a property not of the world out there nor of individual people, but of language, accordingly it is argued that we are what we say, and the world is what we say it is According to Hall the term discourse is usually used as a linguistic concept, which simply means passages of connected writing, picture, speech or even socio-cultural context. By discourse, Foucault meant a group of statements which provide Western refers mainly to the UK, USA and Europe. a language for talking about a way of representing the knowledge about a particular topic at a particular historical moment Discourse is about the production of knowledge through language. But since all social practices entail meaning and meanings shape and influence what we do, our conduct, all practices have a discursive aspect. There is three different approaches to representation. The first theory is the reflective approach which can be considered as a reductionist understanding of representation. According to
reflective representation, meaning is thought to lie in the object, person, idea or event in the real world, and language functions like a mirror, to reflect the true meaning as it already exists in the world. As the poet Gertrude Stein once said, A rose is a rose is a rose. According to Hall (1997, p. 24): visual signs do bear some relationship to the shape and texture of the objects which they represent. But, a two-dimensional visual image of a rose is a sign; it should not be confused with the real plant with thorns and
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blooms growing in the garden. Remember also that there are many words, sounds and images which we fully well understand but which are entirely fictional or fantasy and refer to worlds which are wholly imaginary, including many people now think, most of the Iliad. The second approach is opposite to the first, which emphasizes the ordinary aspect of representation. Its focus is on an intentional approach to representation. Intentional theory gives agency to the speaker, the author, who imposes his or her unique meaning on the world through language. Words mean what the author intends they should mean (ibid, p. 25). Stuart Hall opposed intentional theory, by arguing that we cannot be the sole or unique source of meanings in language, since that would mean that we could express ourselves in entirely private languages. But the essence of languages is communication and that, in turn, depends on shared linguistic conventions and shared codes. Language can never be wholly a private game (ibid). The third approach is dominant discourse in representation theory called the constructionist approach. According to the constructionist approach, neither things in themselves nor the individual users of language can fix meaning in language; however this does not mean that we produce meaning. According to this approach, it is not the material world which conveys meaning; it is the language system or whatever system we are using to represent our concepts. It is social actors who use the conceptual systems of their culture and the linguist and other representational systems to construct meaning, to make the world meaningful and to communicate about that world meaningfully to others (ibid). So to understand representation constructively, one needs to find dominant discourses. It is arguable that representation cannot be precisely understood, unless it examines reality and representation in a discursive structure. It seems all three theories can be workable and inadaptable at the same time. It depends on the power and powerlessness of the reader and audience of the text. This, it seems, is the shared weakness of all three theories - the lack of attention to the power or powerlessness of the reader. If the reader is powerful in terms of removing the veil of
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representation i.e. informed interpretation, then the reality itself becomes more representative than the representation of reality produced by means of representation. Understanding the core meaning of representation, discursive interpretation is inevitable, in that we can unlock the location of power within discourses that affect Muslims and the way they are represented. Here we need to characterize the dominant discourses of British Media to understand British Muslim Representation in the media. Ideological representation is one of the most common discourses, particularly when it is related to religion, ethnicity and power. Ideological representation in essence is about domination discourse a way of making a privileged position for a particular idea, value, culture and even civilization, to marginalize and mutate the rest, even to the extent of legitimizing violence against them. Ideological representation though not always a project or effect of social engineering nevertheless has the power to change reality according to what political system or ideological politics it wants to represent. It is arguable that ideological representation can take place in three interrelated structural discourses: (1). Ethnocentric discourse: ethnocentric discourse is about centrality of self, group or a nation reflected in e.g. the construction of, We are European and a sense of being periphery for the rest. Centrism looks for segregation between We and You which can end in either you are with us or you should die in the 18th century and either you are with us or against us in the 21st century. (2). Domination discourse: The discourse of domination is about power and influence. According to this discourse, representation of We and Others is about superiority of We and weakness and disadvantage of others. (3). Deionization discourse: Deionization discourse is based on malicious dishonesty, hypocrisy and fantasy. Here a camera could, by reproducing some elements of reality reproduce an (un)reality according to a film script or the agenda of a screenwriter and or a director. Deionization discourse of representation explains a process of destroying a
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reality. Religiophobia and ethno phobia in general and Islamophobia in particular are obvious results of deionization discourse in representing other religions and ethnic groups as a phobic enemy. The mode of media which gets to most people in Britain on their daily life is television. Then it has the power to converse with and influence people at all aspects of society. Television presents a source of information which viewers often recognize as being factual, and thus use as a basis to form their own thoughts. Thus it should provide an accurate image of what it searches for to show. With regards to Islam this is rarely the case, in its place only two stereotypical images of Muslims are offered. On the one hand we have characters from films and dramas, such as BBC 1's 'Eastenders' and BBC 2's 'This Life', who are Muslim, though only by name. These characters are Western followers, completely accepting Western values and culture. There remains no symbol of their religious or cultural identity, and should the issue of their cultural background be mentioned it is treated as a cause for shame. The other and more general stereotype is that of the aggressive religious militant. In current affairs programmes we are constantly offered the image of Muslims as savage terrorists, killing innocent people with no sorrow. No insight is given as to why some Muslim organizations carry out works of violence. What results from this is that the common people, the viewers of these programmes, know and accept only the labels - and therefore with 'Islam' they immediately associate negative images. As can be seen, two extremes emerge, and with this the question arises of whether these are the only types of Muslims that are acceptable to the Western media. One supports the status quo while the other provides sensationalism, neither being a true expression of the majority of Muslims.
Islamic Media Unit

The Islamic Media Unit (IMU) was set up within the Foreign & Commonwealth Office (FCO) in October 2001 in the after effects of the attacks of 11 September 2001 to ease any future comparable disaster and to speak to Islamic opinion throughout the world. It has a extraordinary importance on the Arab media and to make sure that Arabic-speaking
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UK civil servants were available to clarify UK policies. It appears that the unit was set up as part of a wider project of the Public Diplomacy Strategy Board to co-ordinate the BBC World Service, the British Council and the FCO. The board suggested that 'the organizations concerned should be adopting a more joined-up way of working', to facilitate them to be more successful in 'reinforcing the public diplomacy message about the UK'. The over-arching Board would provide 'guidance on the core messages' that the Government wishes to put across to its 'target audiences'. The IMU is generally divided into two departments; one pacts with the Indian subcontinent and the another with the Arab world. The both departments focus on considering the views and knowing the points of interest for the press in its respective region. The unit also intends to explain and clarify the British government's policies and stands. It then evaluates the news reports and reactions to measure the effectiveness of its actions. Randa William - Head of Unit and UK Government Spokesman for Arab Affairs - stated that one of the unit's tasks is to follow closely the 'Arab and Islamic press and assess it and deal with it'. The Islamic Media Unit was set-up in conjunction with the Coalition Information Center (CIC) which coordinated the Coalitions public communications about the military, diplomatic and humanitarian aspects of the campaign against terrorism. The CIC - to which the FCO claims to have made major contributions and has offices in London, Washington and Islamabad - is otherwise known as the 'propaganda wing of the military's Operation Enduring Freedom', and was 'known among journalists who tried to cover the war in Afghanistan as a veritable disinformation center'. The London CIC was housed within and partially staffed by the Foreign Office.
The British Media and Muslim Representation: Expectations of Muslims; a survey Report50
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The Report is in the basis of the sixth report of Islamic Human Rights Commission in the British Muslims Expectations of Government series, The British Media and Muslim Representation: The Ideology of Demonization
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The sixth report of Islamic Human Rights Commission in the British Muslims Expectations of Government series explores that the relationship between awareness of Muslims and the position of authority and demonisation in the cultural language of the media. The remarkable questions which asked in this study were: How has the Western media covered Islam and Muslims in general? What are the alarms about media reporting and why becomes the representation as a problem? What remedy do Muslims expect from the government to wipe out injustice? By examining answers from a nationwide survey of 1125 Muslims, and response from eminent opinion polls and analyses of television news, films and English literature this report looks for to answer some of these questions and to understand how media can influence public understanding and perspectives. An evaluation of existing theories of analysis was undertaken along with basic theories and notions of representation; (i) Reflective approach, (ii) Intentional approach, (iii) Constructionist approach. According o these media representation is strongly related to actual reality, structures of power that inform not only cultural considerations but can and do affect concrete power structures and power relations between communal actors with regards to power relations between majorities and minorities. More detailed attention was given to the idea of ideological representation as the basis through which those represented are rendered powerless and through which control of the majority is imposed not only in the media but
2007 Islamic Human Rights Commission Printed in England by Islamic Human Rights Commission First published in Great Britain in 2007 by Islamic Human Rights Commission PO Box 598, Wembley, ISBN 1-903718-31-7C.
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across society also.
Such representation includes discourses of: ethnocentrism;
domination and; demonization.

Muslim Sensitivity of the media
Confirmed by a number of studies, there is a leading opinion amongst Muslims that the media certainly describe them and their religion in a mistaken and critical approach. Then successfully, what the public understand about Muslims in common and British Muslims in particular is understood to deeply relate to British Muslim representation not only in the media but also in the whole social systems of the West. Representation is not only about awareness, the mentality of the reader and audience is very critical. That is why non-British Muslims and British Muslims do not have a similar understanding of Muslim representation in the media
Research results
Part One: TV News, Film and Literature; these analyses from the beginning required to know the many examples of good practice in the media, in particular TV and print media try to educate audiences about Islam and Muslims. However the general analysis
highlighted prejudice that was so fixed that anti-Muslim prejudice did not need to be cruelly motivated or intentional as it was structural.
TV News Analysis
A two-week content analysis of four mainstream news programmes of BBC News, News night, ITV News and Channel 4 News were taken on past and following to the events of 7 July 2005. The language of news media was mainly paying attention on throughout the analyses. The rate of selected words was charted and presented evaluation between the different news programmes. As an example, Asylum and Immigration As one of the dominant themes during the 7/7 and post 7/7 coverage, debates around asylum and immigration were continually discussed, yet most suspected bombers were of British Origin leading to the strengthening of the view of others and Muslims as one. The
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findings proved that in spite of good intentions in addressing anti-Muslim issues, the TV News analyzes showed a limited framework within which Muslims and Islam were discussed.
Muslim Representation in Cinema
In this analysis, a series of film types were observed, including action thrillers like The Siege 51 1998; Director: Edward Zwick, Executive Decision 52 (1996) Director: Stuart Baird, Raiders of the Lost Ark53 (1981) Director Steven Spielberg, and dramas like House of Sand and Fog:54 (2003) directed by Vadim Perelman, Damien ODonnell directed East
51
Brief Summary: As a response to an Islamic religiousleaders abduction by the US military, New
York City experiences an increase in terrorist attacks. Anthony Hubbard, the head of the FBIs Counter-Intelligence Task Force teams up with CIA operative Elise Kraft to hunt for those responsible for the attacks, only to find that Elises partner, the last terrorist cell, is planning to suicide bomb a protest demanding equality for Arabs. Meanwhile, when the President declares martial law, General William Devereaux arrests ArabAmerican males, imprisons them in an open air stadium and makes plans to torture and kill them.
52
Summary:
When a Boeing 747 is hijacked by terrorists, an American intelligence expert
believes that their plan is to launch a nerve gas attack on Washington DC rather than air piracy. The US government, ignoring the agent's nerve gas theory is left with two choices; to shoot down the plane killing all 400 passengers or to let it land. However Colonel Travis and his counter terrorism team decide to board the plane using a special aircraft to save the day.
53
Summary: Indiana Jones, an archaeologist, is employed by the US government to find the
powerful Ark of the Covenant before the Nazis lay their hands on it.
54
Summary: Kathy, an abandoned wife, finds herself wrongly evicted from her home and
embroiled in a battle with the new Iranian owners of her home.
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is East: 55 (1999) and childrens cartoons Aladdin: 56 Directed by: Ron Clements, John Masker (1992), for their representation of Islam, Muslims and Arabs. It was an undeniable evident from all types that they contained negative concepts about Islam and Muslims/ Arabs. The power of these differed as did the real expression, however, they all showed examples of Islamophobic dialogues, including dual discussion of racism and Islamophobia, where the civilization of the character was understood to be irreducibly Muslim . The Kingdom(2007)directed by Peter Berg and produced by Michael Mann, Scots tuber, American documentary film, Delta Force(1986)directed by Manahan Golan, jihad in America(1994) an investigative reporting film by Steven Emerson and the American spy thriller film Traitor (2008) of Jeffrey Nachmanoph, are one of it samples who are approaching Islam with an eye of criticism
Representation in English Literature
Both fiction and non-fiction biography were looked at in this section with titles including Jane Eyre, Bridget Jones Diary, Princess and Reading Lolita in Tehran examined. Returning stereotypes, as well as the reduction of Muslim experiences of shock to comic asides were examined within an Orientalist tradition in English literature. Such discursive strategies are not simply independent acts of cultural production. They happen within particular political and social backgrounds and, in turn, they support and sometimes help
55
The film focuses on a family living in Greater Manchester in the 1970s. As the father is
Pakistani and the mother English, it examines issues such as mixed marriage, children of mixed parentage, cultural adjustment, racism and inter-family conflict.
56
Brief Summary: Aladdin, a streetwise young thief of Agrabah, falls in love with Princess Jasmine,
the Sultans daughter. The Sultans Vizier, Jafar, deceives Aladdin into helping him acquire a magical lamp from the Cave of Wonders, which ends up in the hands of Aladdin. Genie, the lamps occupant, grants Aladdin his wishes to become a prince and win the affections of Princess Jasmine. When Jafar finally steals the lamp back and gets three wishes of his own, Aladdin is left to use his own intelligence to topple Jafar and save Agrabah.
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to shape those contexts. The material examined fits in well with patterns existing within the more global and openly political Orientalist dialogue.
British Muslims understanding of Muslim Representation in the Media

Geographical location and observation of media
Considerably high percentage of respondents felt media to be Islamophobic in city areas: Manchester (73.0%), Peterborough (70.4%) London (65.5%) and Bradford (62.1%)
Age groups and perception of media
The 25-29 (71.6%) and 35-39 (71.1%) age groups almost returned the same figures in terms of perceiving the media as being Islamophobic and held the highest negative views respectively. In contrast, the 15-19 age group stands out for finding the media the least Islamophobic (42.7%) among all age groups. However, their response concentrated on racism, with respondents in this age group having the highest figure (25.9%) for considering the media racist.
Gender and perception of media
Female respondents (63.3%) slightly surpassed the male respondents (61.9%) in their concern of the media as Islamophobic and secretly critical (female 11.7% and male 8.7%). It should be pointed out here that the practicing Muslim women have seriously suffered from media imagination as optional in volume four in this series.
Birthplace and opinion of media
63.4% of British Muslim citizens felt the media representation to be Islamophobic. A further 15.5% felt media to be racist and 9.4% thought it as secretly critical. 9.9% of
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non-British Muslim citizens felt media representation to be Islamophobic. A further 15.5% felt media to be racist and 13.2% thought it as silently disparaging.
Level of Religiosity and sensitivity of Media
70.1% of practicing Muslims found that the media to be Islamophobic. 61.1% of highly practicing Muslims found the media to be Islamophobic. 40% of those who did not care for Islamic values found the media to be fair yet a further 40% of them found the media to be Islamophobic.
Education and the perception of media
In terms of education and perception of media, the research illustrated that the highest levels of displeasure with the Islamophobic attitude of the media happened in people with postgraduate level education (68.4%). Undergraduate (66.1%) and PhD (65.5%) level education levels, followed closely behind.
Representation of Muslims in the British media
Some respondents feel that British media to has an Orientalist attitude by producing negative images about Muslims today.
Representation of British Muslims and non-British Muslims
According to the respondents accounts the media employ the same shameful views in reporting issues that explain Muslims in Britain and Muslim in other countries. on the other hand, a few of the respondents believe that media is more callous in representing the Muslims who live in Muslim countries since they are not able to raise their voice.
Islamophobia in Hollywood and British movies
The accounts of the respondents show that the negative interpretation of Muslims is profoundly presented in the films that are created in both the UK and US. Films depict
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Muslims mostly as terrorists who erratically kill common innocents people or blow things up (including themselves), hijackers or stupid Some respondents believe that the film industry is used as a tool in the foreign policy by the Western countries in terms of demonizing and gaining public support against a fashioned enemy. An illustration of this: USSR was at the brunt of demonisation during the Cold War era. .
Different Representations in the Different Forms of Media
In opinion of some respondent, audio media is seen as less dangerous than visual media, since using images in the immoral perspectives could be far more controlling. Some have even suggested television is better since the audience is able to examine the given evidence with its own eyes. Others felt that the Internet is the most dependable source of information because of its wider range of options. Yet, by some, it is blamed as being the major performer of Islamophobia in the media. Despite of the varying modes of media, a general agreement amongst the respondents is that the media present the same negative image of Muslims. The irregularity of mainstream media has led to some respondents using substitute media sources, both Muslim and non-Muslim media alike.
Ideological Representation: Encoded messages about Muslims
According to respondents, Islam is the fastest growing religion in the world and this fact is worrying the capitalist West since this would reduce Western supremacy. Yet, some held the idea that the reason was fear fuelled by unawareness. Since the Western public is unaware of Islam, it is afraid of it.
What can media towards Islamophobia?
All respondents commonly pointed that the media is the chief instrument of Islamophobia and expressed their dissatisfaction regarding the role of the media in inter-faith and intercommunity relations. They firstly acknowledged the leading role of the media in interfaith and intercommunity relations; however, they came to the conclusion that media somehow abuses this role and widens already existing divisions. In coverage of issues
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concerning Muslims some words i.e. terrorism, bombing, hijacking, extremism, are deliberately inserted which influence the public to believe that all Muslims are related to or are supporters of such activities
Do media give an enough opportunity to Muslims?
Many of respondents believe that the media did not give enough opportunity to Muslims to represent themselves and also felt that the Muslim figures that appear in the media are the ones who held extremist views or are marginalized Muslims who do not represent the Muslim community at all.
Muslim expectations from the media
The report concludes with proposals for the government, policy makers and media alike to consider as a direct result of demonisation of Islam and Muslims in the media. Just and dependable representation of Muslims and Islam - the media must be fair and objective towards Muslims. There is a need for trustworthy reporters who are well versed with the Islamic belief system and cultures or Muslim reporters who can recognize their subjects, the media should be balanced in its approach and try to understand what is going on in the minds of the Muslim population and express it as it is. Giving coverage for other aspects of Islam (instead of bringing up political issues), like, art, culture, science and civilization Giving more opportunities to Muslims in the media Muslim Expectations of the Government
Legal Protection The government must take steps to protect Muslims from prejudiced coverage and indicting that provocative hatred against Islam by the form of legislation. undertaking Institutional Islamophobia Monitoring representation of Muslims Both government and media institutions need to make studies and review how Muslims and minorities are separated through media representation Tackling obvious criticism and demonisation of Muslims ensure more effective forms of recourse. Cultural Change in the thoughts of British Politicians Due to inequality of contacts to the media political
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comments cannot be countered and debated in a way that includes minority groups. As such the media becomes a critical force and a blunt instrument to force minorities into certain positions. This requires government to pass applicable legislation to create
watchdogs with teeth. Creating Structures of Accountability for the Political Use of Media, Including provisions for responsibility in the ministerial and parliamentary codes of conduct could be an efficient way of dealing with the acts of politicians who misrepresent minorities in the media. needing balance Creating a rigid system that
understands and requires balance reporting, taking action against most horrible criminals The significance of non-discriminatory anti-discrimination as used by media producers in reviewing the effect on some cultural and religious communities is one that needs to be expanded to cover other ethnic and religious minorities.
Muslim Youth and Muslim Media in Britain

Many young Muslims in Britain are becoming more positive about declaring a particularly religious identity. This aspiration to be Muslim is replicated in the social, cultural and educational actions they take part in and other aspects of their manners are really influenced by the growing magnitude of Islam in their daily lives, including their use of media. The responsibility of the media, especially Muslim media, in the upbringing of Muslim identities and communities is ever more obvious. As this media form developments it presents a large resources for the re-construction of British Muslim identities and presents for Muslim communities a platform from which to converse between themselves and change as a minority population inside Europe. For youthful, second and third generation Muslims, these media modes can recommend innovative behaviors of thinking about uplifting the community, from the parental traditions to the norms of the host society. Muslim media also offers large occasions for dialogue with whole society, thus being one of the most potentially valuable ways of structuring relations with other groups in society. The processes of globalization have reflected on the expansion of media and the information available to young Muslims has become
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more varied in at ease, which influences how they see themselves not only as British Muslims but as part of a wider European and global ummah. In order to inspect the relationship between media culture, the social landscapes and varying concepts of community in which Muslims find themselves and articulations of their identity, we can examine the lives of young Muslims in relation to their utilization of Muslim media, equally traditional and those using new information technologies. To remark their media using and present real examples of Muslim media, an overview of Muslim publications (press and internet) will be given, offering a political economy of Muslim media in Britain. The aims and objectives of media editors are also presented giving an insight into how they see themselves as contributing to a knowledgeable society. The function of media in present-day society is gradually more marked. With improvements and developments in information and communication technologies, traditional segments of media are being increased with innovative ways of information production and broadcasting. One of the most noticeable developments in latest times has been the greater availability of different, community media sources. In addition, the development of media in a globalizing world is offering us with novel ideas about community and identity, facilitating various and isolated people to build new contacts and redefine what it means to belong. These processes are certainly affecting all populations around the world; however, understanding their meticulous impact on Muslim communities is important in the present geopolitical climate. By examining how the young Muslims in Britain are using and thinking about media, regarding the role of community media, as a medium for change and development among a religious and cultural minority in European society, It will be suggested that expanding the definition of media to include more than just print press and electronic communication allowing us to gain a improved understanding of how young Muslims are communicating themselves, making new cultural spaces and improving communal identities.
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Considering the contributions of British Muslim Media, we can divided as three sections; the first presents a brief history and current outline of Muslim publications in Britain (selected newspapers and magazines); the second concentrate on the contributions of Muslims in cyberspace and the third section explores how various forms of expression are manipulating what it means to be a young Muslim in Britain through social, ethnical and educational practices.
Muslim Publications in Britain A summary

The survival of Muslim press in Britain is a comparatively new fact. However a little number of publications has been in distribution for many years, the many of publications have a little history. The events of late 1989 onwards with respect to the Muslim community, specially the response to Salman Rushdies book, The Satanic Verses, and the opening military action in the Gulf, were the background events in which the first phase of many of the Muslim press can be framed. The requirement for media in English grew as this became the favorite language for a majority of Muslims. Newspapers had often previously been in the mother tongue (e.g. The Jang and Awaz), efficiently cutting out many second generation Muslims who although had a basic command of spoken Urdu, Punjabi or Bengali, for example, they were not fluent in reading or writing it. As the Muslim communities developed a more definitely religious individuality, choices to mainstream media were sought through which to express this identity and Muslim media become a vital means by which information was attained and ideas developed. Those with an aspiration to preserve and strengthen the cultural and religious identities saw a muscular and energetic media as was one way helped to achieve this. There was enough encouragement from the community in the uplifting of Muslim media at this early stage. In expressing their aspiration and objectives for setting up publications, editors noted that the intention was to produce a publication - title, content, and outlook - that reflected well a Muslim or Islamic identity of both its producers and its readers. This took place in an environment that was also eager to support a Muslim identity and editors were aware about individual themselves from the British Asian media. The nature of the British
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Muslim population meant that a huge percentage of Muslims were South Asian but despite this reality the publications required a severely Muslim identity. This was encouraged both from the readers and writers themselves. Positive aims and objectives for setting up their own publications were shared by all editors, for example, the gap seen in mainstream media in reporting on Muslim matters and the need for a viewpoint more aware and concerned to Muslims. A combination of both the demand from within the Muslim community as well as editors own confidence brought about the realization of Muslim media. Obviously the contents and attitudes of each publication are determined by the background of the publications itself, the ideological or political attitude it takes, its editor/writers and its probable readership. It is also determined by whether the producers aim is to provide a present affairs (political) source of information is more concerned with addressing social and cultural issues. All publications advertise religious events taking place around the country aimed at young Muslims have book reviews and also publicize charity appeals (mainly Muslim charity/relief organizations). As certain publications have arisen out of already established groups or movements, for example, Crescent International strongly supports the trends inspired by the Iranian revolution; the philosophy of the publication reflects this. Whereas The Invitation (The Family Magazine), as its subtitle indicates, is aimed at young families and following the simpler writing style to reflect in them. For Q-News their place market emerges to be young, professional Muslims for whom they are releasing a publication concerning significant social and cultural issues. The modern expansion of Q-News into the North American market also shows they are aiming young Muslims in the West, probably having identified the harmony between the European and North American markets. The numbers of issues reported by the publications differs and like mainstream media they have standard features. Editorials, news, book and conference reviews, profiles, regular contributors, spiritual sections, question and answer, matrimonial, jobs and other advertising are amongst these. At this fairly early stage of improvement of Muslim media
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- not even 15 years for some publications - much of the focus is solely on Muslim issues. The editors themselves need to develop the topics which they cover and almost be an Islamic version of a newspaper so that they are not always tackling negative issues concerning Muslim communities alone; to this point the editors are aware of their role within the media environment. They are providing news from various sources and also topics which mainstream media would not cover or would do so in ways professed to be incorrect. The multiplicity of Muslim media is drawn by the different kinds of publications is available. Most publications tend to have a combination of present affairs, social and religious issues. The latter category comprised of faith or belief issues, explanations on the Quran and hadith, how to guides on certain practices in Islam and reminders of special dates in the Islamic calendar. Social and cultural matters relating to Muslims in Britain and dealing with problems in the community were also a focus. The target audience of many of the publications is young Muslims, therefore it is common to find the types of issues affecting this age group in the pages of magazines. Frequency of publication (weekly, monthly, bi-monthly etc) automatically influenced the currency of topics. Muslim media is certainly playing a vital role in improving and broadcasting Islamic knowledge to Muslims, mostly in diaspora communities. Not only have young Muslims utilized Muslim media as an alternative to mainstream media but they are actively seeking out Muslim media (used in the broadest sense to include audio-visual, electronic, print and social and cultural activities) to fulfill the obligation of getting religious knowledge. Disappointment with reporting on Islam and Muslims in British mainstream media (and Western media in general) has been a exact reason for selecting the Muslim media. For those mainly aware of their religious obligation to seek practical Islamic knowledge, mainstream media has been of less significance, in fact to be avoided wherever possible. This focus on Islamic learning is also visible in academia, with
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organizations emerging to contract with the roles and responsibilities of Muslim academics, researchers and students. In a way the multiplicity within Muslim media represents the variety of opinions, organizations and viewpoints within the British Muslim population. Identifications with various ways of thinking and approaches to Islam such as dissimilar political leaning, dawah oriented outlooks, academic or spiritual Islam, are made easy, and strengthened by different publications. positive fundamental aspects of identifying oneself with Islam are shared by approximately all groups of Muslims, but there is also diversity amongst them like in any other community.
Presence of Muslims in Cyber world

When the older, more traditional sectors of the media such as the press are emerging, Muslims are also familiarizing themselves with latest technologies and ways of broadcasting information. One of the most important of these is the Internet. The number and variety of internet pages linking to issues about Islam and Muslims is large. It would be difficult to talk about all of these in any total way, but the following can be noted from even a short search of internet websites on Islam and Muslims: Due to the structure and distribution of the internet and its users, many websites are based in Western countries and are in English; there is multiplicity in the ideological or sectarian viewpoint of websites; different categories of website exist, for example, organizations homepages, individual homepages, academic and research forums; the contents range from dawah material, informative/educational, political, current affairs, inter-faith dialogue and indices of articles, as well as discussion lists. In 2000 there explored that, the internet presence of Islam and Muslims using specific categories, and in a survey the diversity of available material, for example, Quran and hadith literature (including various translations of the Quran available to search, download and listen to using audio technology), jurisprudence according to the four schools of thought (Madhab), ideas of Muslim philosophers, Shia literature and
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converts related literature. The diversity he finds is also along ideological lines with Sunni, Shia, Sufi and unorthodox groups, all expressing themselves on-line. In a study of Cyber Muslim and the Internet listing various websites relating to Islam and/or Muslims, the net have three consequences for Muslims; reducing geographical boundaries, challenging usual methods of learning and hurrying pluralism in Islamic political activity. Websites have also been positive channels for conversion to Islam, where ironically people who have been curious about negative media representation of Islam or have tried to convert Muslims, have themselves become Muslims. The internet is certainly a medium of great significance to young Muslims in Britain. at the same time as there have been positive features of coming on-line, there have also been conflicts between different Muslim website regulators, a propagation of unexpected section, unashamedly giving false information about Islam, free chat rooms enabling unIslamic behavior and a very limited (if any) presence of scholars and sheikhs to act as proper authorities. So although these are problems which Muslims have to regard, the comparatively simple and easy access to the internet and the wide range of information is available on millions of WebPages, means that the Muslim presence in cyberspace is of increasing significance.
Quilliam Press; a Title of Successful Mission

The Quilliam Press is seen as the most successful model of a Muslim publishing house which has constantly supported the standpoint of majority Sunni Islam, thus challenging the sectarian and fissiparous proclivity of the young British Muslim scene. It takes its motivation from the fact that over ninety-nine percent of Sunni Muslim scholars down the centuries have remained to a rational body of doctrines (aqida) and practice (fiqh). Quilliam's understanding is that such a affluent experience of unity has to be the foundation of any practical program for Muslim unity here in Britain.
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Orthodox Sunni Islam is best symbolized in the works of classical scholars such as alNawawi, Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, Ibn Daqiq al-Id, and Al-Ghazali. All these men enlightened that the Four Schools of Fiqh, Ash`ari principle and the recognised orthodox tariqas of Sufism, were essential parts of the faith, matching to the degrees of Islam, Iman and Ihsan. In his explanation on Bukhari, Ibn Hajar, for example, recommends the interpretation of the well-known Risala of Imam al-Qushayri, the most fundamental text of Sufism, for the sake of purifying the heart. But for British Muslims, there is a catch here. The classical works are often huge multitome collections written in ancient Arabic. Even if the resources existed to turn them into English, it would be difficult to expect most Muslims today to find the time to read them. The Quilliam solution is to translate works by those ulema who have noticed the weakening intellectual stamina of the Umma. In particular, Quilliam publishes the writings of Imam Abdallah al-Haddad, regarded as the 'renewer' (mujaddid) of the twelfth Islamic century. This great Yemeni scholar and descendent of the Holy Prophet distilled the inherited wisdom of mainstream Islamic scholarship, and produced books which have always been revered by the ulema as models of how to combine brevity with depth. The Arabic originals of the works of Imam al-Haddad are readily available in the Arab world. Most carry introductions by Shaykh Hasanayn Makhluf, the former Grand Mufti of Egypt, who recognised their importance for the current generation. But Imam al-Haddad's books have also been translated into languages as diverse as Swahili, Indonesian, Turkish and French. Imam al-Haddad's recent descendant, Imam Ahmad Mashhur ibn Taha al-Haddad continued this impressive tradition of popular scholarship until his death in 1995. Like his ancestors, Imam Ahmad was tireless in his work for da'wa. A native of the Hadramawt valley in South Yemen, cradle of thousands of scholars and Muslim missionaries, he brought Islam to remote areas of Uganda and Zaire, where thousands converted at his hands in the 1950s and 1960s. More recently he settled in Jeddah, where he revived the
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flagging spiritual life of a region destabilized by the twin dangers of superficial Salafism and crass Americanizing materialism. Imam Ahmad's influence in the United Kingdom was profound, although discreet. He was the spiritual patron of gatherings of remembrance (dhikr) held up and down the country, which, unlike some of the other groups attempting to hold on to a spiritual dimension of Islam, attracted many young people and successfully united Muslims of every ethnic origin. Imam Ahmad's best-known book Key to the Garden is an explanation, in straightforward language, of the pure monotheism (tawhid) of Islam implied in the 'Noble Phrase' La ilaha illa'Llah. He takes the reader through the basic doctrinal understanding of tawhid, and shows how Islam is not a ritualistic faith without intellectual or spiritual depth, but enshrines layer after layer of profound wisdom and illumination. Quilliam's mission is also apparent in its support for the growing convert community. One of its recent publications is Desert Encounter by Knud Holmboe, a Danish journalist who converted to Islam and narrates his extraordinary experiences of life under European rule in North Africa in the early 1930s. Holmboe refuses to idealize the Arab communities he meets, but successfully contrasts their gentleness and natural piety with the arrogance and violence of the Europeans who had taken their lands by force and settled them with Christian colonists. Particularly vivid and harrowing is his account of Mussolini's atrocities in Libya. It is angering to learn that those who gassed and murdered a quarter of the Libyan population in the early 1930s were excused punishment by the same powers that sent Nazi leaders to their deaths at Nuremberg. The narrative of European holocausts against Muslim peoples, as the introduction reminds us, has been suppressed. Hence the importance of Holmboe's account: as a reminder of extreme Muslim suffering under a 'civilized' European order it usefully reverses the stereotypes so dear to many in the Western media. It is significant that Desert Encounter was recently translated into Bosnian by Enes Karic, the Bosnian Minister of Culture. Another book by a convert is Ruqayyah Waris Maqsood's hugely successful Muslim
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Marriage Guide. Maqsood was once called Rosalyn Kendrick, a Protestant who took a degree in theology and wrote on Biblical themes for several mainstream publishers until she became a Muslim in the mid-1980s. For her, Islam has been a liberation, and her enthusiasm overflows onto the pages of her books. This energetic Yorkshire woman has already written over a dozen volumes on Islam, but it is the Marriage Guide, which has assured her celebrity status. In all its publications, Quilliam derives its inspiration from the proud tradition of the Anglo-Muslim heritage. The company itself was founded in 1989 to mark the first centenary of the official creation of Britain's first Muslim community. Abdullah Quilliam, the Manx lawyer who led the Liverpool Muslims through a series of severe challenges from a hostile local population, is remembered among Anglo-Muslims as the creator of a lively mosque, school and orphanage, and also as the editor of Britain's first Muslim magazine, The Flaming Crescent. Quilliam's mission was to bring the teachings of Islamic brotherhood and unity to Victorian Britain, then in the grip of extreme social inequalities which were reinforced rather than challenged by the established church. He also realized how educated people were losing their religious faith because of the paradoxes implicit in Trinitarian doctrine, and strove to show the English that Islam represented a more rational form of religion which was well-suited to an age in which few can happily believe in mysteries.
Islamic Media institutions in United Kingdom

Tele Vision Channels
Ahmadiyya TV
Arabic/English/Bengali/French/Russian/Turkish and Urdu/UK Ahmadiyya TV was begun in 1994 by Hadhrath Mirza Tahir Ahmed and KhalifatulMasih fourth. It broadcasts 24 hours a day, and targets a multicultural audience through
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the use of various languages and local studios in several countries. The station features programmes focusing on the different cultures of the world and the environments in which they exist. It also broadcasts more traditional programmes like Friday Sermon (Urdu) and Question and Answer Session (English). Ahmadiyya TV aims to provide a positive alternative in the broadcasting world. It is not dependent upon commercial sponsorship or license fees, and thus considers itself to be maintaining its freedom of expression. The channel seeks innovative approaches to broadcasting, using digital technology and state of the art equipment. With an eye toward educating its global audience, the station offers programming on health, science and technology.
Al Mustakillah TV
Arabic/UK Al Mustakillah TV is a television channel created in 1998. The 24/7 channel is mainly focusing on news and current affairs. And its most programmes are broadcasted as live, as the commercial status channel have a countrywide audience throughout UK. Wafa- Elzahar is the present chairman of the channel.
Al-Balagh
Television/Arabic/UK Al-Balagh is a television channel that first aired on September 1 st 2002. Based in London, it targets a Muslim British audience, and broadcasts in Arabic throughout the day. The station aims to portray what Arab immigrants have gained in cultural knowledge and transmit it to the Arab world. It broadcasts analytical programs, seminars, translation, literature, Arabic music, statistical studies and news. The channel is leading by Dr Bashir Zainul Abidin, Mr Ali Mansoori and Dr Mahmood Al Husari.
Islam Channel
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Islam Channel is one of the initial Muslim media institutions of UK. It is following English as medium language, and was established inDecember 2004. It is the official channel of Wahabi Islam in UK. The channel is counted as the third Islamic television channel in the UK. And it is available throughout UK and Western Europe via Eurobird satellite. And it is available in Europe and Middle East via Hotbird 6 satellite and in Africa via Eutelsat Sesat and Eutelsat W4.
Noor TV
The channel is broadcasted through English and Urdu medium. It was launched in October 2006. Noor TV is controlled by Sunni Islam followers, as the Programmes are around 70% Urdu, 20% English and 10% other. But, all of the programs are Based on Sufi principles of Sunni Islam.
Peace TV
Peace TV is a Wahabi Islamic channel Owned by Zakir Naik. It was begun in September 2007. Firstly it was launched as English and Urdu language channel; but, in 2009, a separate Urdu language channel was launched.
Iqra TV
Iqra TV was started in April 2009, promoting religious programs in English and Urdu. Supporting Sunni Islam ideologies, Iqra TV is owned and run by Al Khair foundation under the supervision of Imam Qasim. The programs are mostly in English, but also run some Bangali and Urdu programming. It has a strong link with Pease TV and recently hosted the Al-Khair Peace convention jointly in UK. On Sky in the UK and can be received in Europe via Eurobird 1 satellite.
Hidayat TV
It is the First Shia Islamic channel in UK. It is broadcasted through Urdu and English languages. The channel was firstly broadcasted in February 2009.
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Ahlebait TV
It is another Shia Islamic channel broadcasted throughout the United States. Its programs are mainly in Urdu and Farsi, its initial broadcasting was in September 2009.
Ummah Channel
Ummah Channel is an Islamic entertainment channel, covering all types of Sunni Islamic teachings. It was started in November 2009, based in English language.
Al Takbeer TV
Al Takbeer TV is an Urdu channel, which was established in February 2010. Supporting Sufi and Sunni Islam, channel is Owned and run by the Sultan Bahu Trust. And its
programs are based on Sufi principles of Sunni Islam. There are some another channels like Muhammadiya TV, Napoleon TV, Al Hira TV, and Nasheed TV broadcasting in English/Urdu.
Periodicals
New Civilization
Magazine/English/UK New Civilization is a magazine started by Editor Sajjad Khan.its publisher and owner is the New Civilization Foundation, which is, according to its members, a non-profit enterprise committed to fostering the debate on Islamic political thinking. Its goal is to bring about coherent and objective discussions on issues which now more than ever dominate the international political spectrum. According to its editorial team, New Civilization is a form, offering to bring together divergent views and serving as a crucible for all shades of political thought. Its sections cover a wide range of topics: battles of ideas, caliphate, economics and oil, globalization, identity and minorities, international
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affairs (India and China/Asia, Middle East and Iran), science and technology, the war on terror, and women.
Nimrooz
News paper/Farsi/UK Nimrooz is an Iranian independent weekly news paper. It is based in London but its content is written in Farsi. Nimrooz provides up to date stories on current events in Iran on bussiness, entertainment, environment, sport, health. This publication is opposed to the Islamic Republic of Iran. Nimrooz was linked with the television channel Nimrooz TV until it disappeared in 2001.
The Islamic Quarterly
The Islamic Quarterly is published by the London based Islamic Cultural Centre since 1954. Numbers of leading Muslim and non-Muslim Scholars from universities and institutions across the world contribute regularly on matters relating to Islamic Law, Culture and Arts. At the same time the journal focuses on the educational and intellectual studies in the field of Islamic history and all other characteristics of Islamic thought & civilization. The Islamic Quarterly has a world-wide distribution mostly to universities, libraries and academic institutions. Individual subscribers are also welcomed. Over the years the IQ journal has proved invaluable towards the understanding of Islam and Muslim culture.
Q-News
Magazine/English/UK Q-News was a colour magazine which began in 1991 as Muslim Wise, but was renamed Q-News in March 1992. Fuad Nahdi was the editor, and it was published by Q-News Media Limited. The magazine was originally published in tabloid format before moving to a monthly magazine format. Its last publication was september/october 2006. At
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present, they are seeking funding to resume publication. Q-News aimed to provide independent analyses, critiques and reviews of politics, culture and ideas. It targeted younger Muslims in Britain and was read by second and third generation British Muslims, parliamentarians, policy makers and educators. According to its editorial team, a third of its readership was not Muslim. It had a print run of 45,000. Q-News was one of the organizers of the road show of Muslim scholars who, backed by the government, traveled the United Kingdom giving lectures to audiences of younger Muslims about the basics of Islam.
Al-Jumuah Magazine
Magazine/ English /UK Al-Jumuah Magazine was started in2006 with the ambition of being a guide to an Islamic life. The magazine targets Muslim in the West, and seeks to impart Islamic knowledge, linking Islamic practices to genuine scholarship in a way that is relevant and compatible with contemporary living. It informs English-speaking Muslims about moral upbringing (tarbiyyah), creed (aqeedah) and jurisprudence (fiqh), along with a host of articles dedicated to the daily issues every Muslim encounters during his or her life in the West. The magazine is the largest reading Muslim publication in the western world and it brags a global readership of 100,000 copies.
Qalam International
Newspaper/English/UK Qalam International is a multi colored newspaper, based United in Kingdom, and it was established in1998.the newspaper is targeting Muslim- British readers.
Radio
Al-Asr Radio
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Al-Asr Radio was created in 2007 with the goal of introducing a program with ideas and content that would suit an Arabic perspective. The programming specializes in cultural and historical topics, presented in comprehensive style. It is a non-stop radio station which targets Muslim-British audiences, by broadcasting both in Arabic and English. According to its editorial desk, Al Asr Radio is an independent news ans cultural source. It broadcasts political and economical news, commentaries, talk shows, political analysis, and more. It also offers a recitation of Al Asr Sura and debates between scientists. The radio station particularly aims to promote culture in Arabic and Muslim communities, engage different points of view, and ana (Ahmed Musthaphea, 2011)lyse current issues and obstacles of relevance in Muslim communities.
Radio Dawn
Online & Radio/Arabic, English, Bengali, Pushtu, Somali & Urdu/ UK Radio Dawn is a Sunni community radio station and non-profit, community based and volunteer run radio station for the Nottingham area which first broadcast on 28 March 2006, named as Radio Dawn107.6 FM. It was created by the Karimia Institute in Nottingham. According to Karimia Institute, Radio Dawn aims to promote moral, social, spritual and inter-faith development through a variety of radio programmes, by educating, inviting, and enlighting all communities to the true and peaceful message of Islam through radio. This radio station airs live interviews, lectures by renowned scholars, public service announcements, a calendar of events, call-ins, Quran recitation, current affairs, live adhan, nasheeds etc. Music styles featured include Qawalis, Naaths, and ghazals. Its guidelines are a combination of shariah law and ofcom guidelines. Radio Dawn essentially draws its resources from the community of Nottingham. A team of dedicated volunteers run Radio Dawn. The radio has a listener-ship of 18,000 people locally throughout Nottingham and surroundings areas, and can be listened to internationally over the internet via live streaming from the website www.karimia.com.
Radio Ikhlas
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Online & Radio / English /UK Radio Ikhlas was set up by the Ikhlas Foundation in 2001 as a local community radio station. It originally broadcast only in the month of Ramadan. Since 2005 it has become a full-time radio station, broadcasting 24/7 on 107.8 MHz Radio Ikhlas aims to serve the Asian (primarily Pakistani) community in the Norman ton area of Derby, and to bring the Muslim community together by representing its diversity and perspective languages. According to its editorial board, the station has programmes for listeners of all ages, cultures and backgrounds dealing with community issues, womens issues, and the importance of addressing religious affairs. Many different styles of Islamic audio tracks are played on the radio station such as Naaths, Hamds, Nasheeds, Qawwalis and Shers. Thanvir Akram is charging as station manager.
Radio Ramadan/Unity FM
Radio / Arabic, English & Urdu /UK Radio Ramadan was launched on the September 19th 2006. It was replaced by Unity FM, a non-profit community radio station with a particular focus on the diverse Muslim communities with Birmingham. According to its editorial team, Unity FM is powered by the passion of its volunteers, all of whom want to see their local communities thrive. It aims to increase aspirations for young people and women in the community, provide a forum for open, fair and honest debate, offer training, volunteering and employment opportunities, and finally reduce tensions between ethnic and religious groups within the community. With its blend of mainly speech-based broadcast (in English but with provision for numerous community languages), Unity FM aims to get to grips with the issues that really affect its communities. Its programming focuses on religion, entertainment and community information.
Online TV
Salaam.tv
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Salaam.tv is a Muslim community portal launched in1997, with the mission to serve as the leading source of information of relevance to the British Muslim community. It was created by Nazimuttujar Hajji M. Hashim Isfahani. Much of this site is devoted to links and services for the British Muslim community, including mosque and halal restaurant locators; listing for jobs, events and charities; and an interactive advice section. the rest of the site provides information appropriate to academic and general audiences, including an extensive news section as well as articles on various topics. The knowledge section of the site provides articles on different themes, including hajj; Islamic finance; Islamic art; Muslims in the West; specific Muslim countries; and Islam and science. It also includes a searchable biographical database with over 2300 entries. A section on Muslims in Britain includes articles on the history of Islam in the UK; public recognition of Muslims; defining events; demographics; and politics. It also provides links to a number of books and reports on the topic. Address: http://www.salaam.co.uk
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Conclusion
With this notable topic, we can read the ongoing growth of Islam in UK in different observations; one cause is researched as the migration of non-Britons to the nation and the open policies of British administration and the second is the wide attention of Islam, which was the most discussed subject in the past decade, the third of observation is belongs to the cultural alteration of UK citizens. In this judgment, the last two observations are related to the media, that the media have influenced in the vast attention got to Islam and in the cultural alteration of UK citizens, as a result of this work, I could prove that the total media -without the barrier of any communitys representation- is greatest inspiration and influence, because, within my work, I have understood some realities; that the allegations of reproachful institutions and organizations towards Islam, especially the Orientalist thinkers and Zionist visionaries, have impacted in the common way of thought with a positive result also, that the continuous issues and controversies about Islam and its fundamental principles fetched an attraction within peoples. Those conscious peoples, either common or educated, became the best readers of Islam and Muslim, as there instituted particular departments and chairs in several western universities, researched a number of subjects and presented a lot of papers on the topics of Islam and Muslims. Such these changes were the result of commonization and globalization of knowledge, and it promoted a wide range of non-Muslim scholars specialized in the Islamic subjects like Arnold Joseph Toynbee, Lucky, Philip K. Hitty, Michael Charles, Richard. Writings of these eminent thinkers inspired the readers of west, and provided an idea on Islam and its principles with impartial approach of observation more than the Islamic writers. This tendency was continued to other medias also, the programs of mainstream channels like CNN, BBC and other western corporate channels were impacted in a large scale, the cultural programs from wards the Arab nations and South-Asian countries, focusing the migrant viewers in Britain and other European nations have been caught the attention of both Muslims and non-Muslims and became popular programs.
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In the case of film, there are seen some tendencies of Islamophobia and anti-Islamist thoughts, like The Siege 1998; Director: Edward Zwick, Executive Decision (1996) Director: Stuart Baird, Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981) Director Steven Spielberg, and dramas like House of Sand and Fog: (2003) directed by Vadim Perelman, Damien ODonnell directed East is East: (1999) and childrens cartoons Aladdin: Directed by: Ron Clements, John Masker (1992), there are some films done by the Muslim directors, like Ismail Farouqis Grand Voyage and Mustapha Akkads The Message and Al Risala. But, unfortunately, the mainstream is ignoring these attempts and regarding as a third world cinema, only this discrimination is the defect to be referred. This tendency is continuing only in the cinema industry comparing the other modes of media, but, it is a glad report; that, observing the major film festivals in global level, the films from middleeast nations like, Iran, Egypt, Lebanon, is getting better opinions from the spectators. In the expansion of Islam, the fast developing online media is the most promising factor. The changes in online media, after the past ten years was tremendous, which facilitated for thousands of Islamic websites and online publishers, and personally there were blog pages which expressed by the individuals. Even though, the online media witnessed for the intrusion of some anti-Islamic websites by Orientalists and Zionists to repulsing the Islamic principles like, www.whatyoumeanbyislam.com, but this was guarded by the presence of Islamic web-community, although, they are trying their best; Islam is propagated through the Internet more than other media. The another factor of empowering Islam in Europe is the conversion of people of many different professions (Lords and Barons, statesman, diplomats, scientists, doctors, scholars, writers, social workers, preachers)to Islam from all over the World (England, the USA, Austria, Germany, Hungary, Holland, Australia, Japan, Poland, Canada, Ireland, Sweden). With like these conversation there were many results like the conversion of Malcolm X, Leopard Vies(Muhammad Assad), Cates Steven (Yusuf-ulIslam), Casious Clay (Muhammad Ali Clay),Juan Lapeer(Aisha), Homer Prut (Umer-ulFaruq), Wilfred Hoffman (Murad Hoffman) and Reverent John Mavai Poppa (Al Hajji
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Abubakkar). as a number of their followers, fans, and even their critics came to forward to read and understand about Islam and Muslims. In United Kingdom, Islam is like the other religious groups, in doing their activities, practicing their prayers, celebrating their holydays. And now there is a favorable situation for the cultural, educational and spiritual activities, but, in earlier years, there were some enough blockades in front of Muslims, to preaching its spiritual, cultural ideologies, then the most of organizations and institutions were dispassionate in their activities, and the noisy associations were observed by governmental administrations, as some of them were banned like, Al-Muhajiroun, Al Ghuraba and Hizbu Thahreer, because of their violent policies and being accused as terror group. With these experiences the Islamic organizations in United Kingdom, neither political nor religious, are accepting an impartial-secular policy not to getting good claps of bureaucracy, but to surmount the threats of global powers. It is the reason of utilizing media as their propagation method, which maintain a silent revolution. While concluding this research study, the only realization that the researcher belives that the study covers up some tips only, and there are needed to more exploration in this research area.
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The growing possibilities of media have been utilized by all religions, Christians have a mainstream presence and influence in the media, Jews are the supreme in the every stages of media, and the most of media institutes in the world are controlled by the ChristianJewish partnership, so Islam have to assure its presence in the media, and have a great task to doing something, but the some unexpected events and incidents made this attempts easiest than Muslims guessed, that the allegations and accusations of Zionists and orientalists towards Islam and Muslims, along with the attacks of 9/11, Islam got an ample attentions both positively and negatively

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Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

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Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Abstract: Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

After the collapse of Ottoman Empire;

History of modern Europe and Muslims

Europe after industrial revolution

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Industrial revolution, Britannica encyclopedia

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Impacts of industrial revolution

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

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Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Status of Islam in Europe after 19th century

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Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

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Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Muslims in Europe after modernization

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Source; Europe, Muslims In. Islamic Encyclopedia of Britannica, page:193

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Hopes and challenges of Islam in Europe

Daniel, Norman Islam and the west :the Making of an image,Edinburgh,1960

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Islam in Europe: rate of growth; true or false

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media

The growth of Muslim communities in Europe

Growth of Islam in United Kingdom; Role of Media