1 st year

Biotechnology
Angelika Paluch
Patrycja Macikowska
Date:
21.11.2011
Exercise
No. 51
Resistance measurement with Wheatstone bridge



1. THEORITICAL INTRODUCTION
Current is the amount of charge flowing through a specified area, per unit time. Current is
conventionally described in terms of a flow of positive charge, even when actual carries are negative
or both signs. Unit of current is 1 Ampere.
I =


= [A] =



Voltage is the amount of potential difference of an electric current. We can say that voltage is
difference between two points of electric area. Electric voltage shows the work which can be made
by current. The unit of electrical power is the Walt.
U
AB
=

= [V] =



Kirchoffs voltage law is a result of the electrostatic filed being conservative. It states that the total
voltage around a closed loop must be zero. If this were not the case, when we travel around a closed
loop, the voltages would be indefinite. Another Kirchoffs law is that charge is not destroyed or
created in a junction point. This is based by an electric charge preservation law.

Second Kirchoffs Law: The sum of all voltages around the loop is equal zero:
V
1
+V
2
+V
3
...+V
n
=0

First Kirchoffs Law: The current entering any junction is equal to the current leaving that
junction:
I
1
+I
4
=I
2
+I
3
Electric resistance is represented by using Ohms Law :

Ohms Law: For some materials, especially metals, at a given temperature, J is nearly
directly proportional to E and the ratio of the magnitudes E and J is constant :
=

= [*m]
The resistivity of a material is a ratio of the magnitudes of electric field and current density. It
states that the current flowing through a resistor is directly proportional to the voltage across it.
Conductor is a substance that heat or electricity can pass through (e.i.) metals.
Insulator is a substance that reduces the amount of heat, cold, sound or electricity that can pass
through something (e.i. plastic).
Semiconductor is a material with electrical conductivity due to electron flow intermediate. Its
conductivity is in the range 10
3
10
-8
siemens per centimeter. They are used to make modern
technologies divides (e.i. computers, diodes, telephones).
Relativity of a material is a ratio of the magnitudes of electric field and current density
=

. The reciprocal of resistivity is conductivity. The resistivity of a metallic conductor

nearly always increases with increasing temperature.
Over a small temperature range (i.e. 100
o
C) the resistivity of a metal can be represented
approximately by the equation:
(T)= [1+(T-T
o
)] , where temperature coefficient of resistivity

Serial circuit is a type of connection of electrical components, in which the end of one element
connects to the beginning of the next.

Parallel circuit is a type of connection of electrical components, in which all the ends and beginnings
of all the elements are connected together.


2. SEQUENCE OF THE MEASURING OPERATIONS

Connect the system according to the scheme which was given in material describing exercise
Set the slider to the middle position (L
1
=L
2
) and turn on the decade resistor R
d
to a certain
value.
Turn the main switch and adjust the value of the decade resistor R
d
until the galvanometer
will read zero.
The exact balance of a Wheatstone bridge is achieved by periodic switching on and off the
main power source with symbol W.







3. TABLES OF MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS
Number of resistor Resistance value []
R
1
48
R
3
50
R
4
140
R
5
340
R
6
899














4. MEASUREMENTS:

R
1
+ R
6
= 48 + 899=947 []
R
1
+ R
3
= 48+50=98 []
R
3
+ R
4
+ R
5
= 140+340+50=530 []
R
1
+ R
3
+ R
4
= 48+50+140=238 []
R
1
+ R
3
+ R
6
= 899+50+48=997 []


Combinations of resistors
(Serial connection)
Measured resistance
[]
Calculated resistance
[]
R
1
+ R
6
980 947
R
1
+ R
3
101 98
R
3
+ R
4
+ R
5
522 530
R
1
+ R
3
+ R
4
245 238
R
1
+ R
3
+ R
6
1021 997
Combinations of resistors
(Parallel connection)
Measured resistance
[]
Calculated resistance
[]

41,9
45,56

25,2 24,49

34,2 33,24

22,9 20,84

24,4 23,84
[Wp
pod
kwe
um
dok
pl
form
cyta

=0,021946 []

=0,040833 []

= 0,030084[]

= 0,047976 []

= 0,041946 []

ASSESSMENT OF ERRORS:

class iange

Range(0-100 []) = 0.1
Range(100-1000 [])=1
Range(1000-10000 [])=10
R
d
=

R
d
=

R
d
=

For each resistor

0,006083

0,006

0,011143

0,006941

0,005112
Absolute error
0,291984
0,3
1,56002
2,35994
4,595688

Class = 0,1
For each series circuit:

0,00502

0,013901

0,005916

0,008082

0,013794

Absolute Error:
4,9196
1,404001
3,088152
1,98009
14,08367
For each parallel circuit:

0,006387

0,007968

0,006924

0,008367

0,008098
Absolute Error:
0,267615
0,200794
0,236801
0,191604
0,197591
5. CONCLUSION
Series circuit Parallel circuit
R
16
= 9804,92 R
16
=41,9 0,27
R
13
=1011,404 R
13
=25,20,2
R
345
=5223,088 R
345
=34,20,24
R
134
=2451,98 R
134
=22,90,19
R
136
=102114,08 R
136
=24,4 0,198

The measured value does not agree with the calculated value. The sources of errors in this
experiment could be: students inability, imperfect measurements instruments, position of the slider
(L 1 could be not exactly the same as L2), time of human reaction, errors in measure of each resistor
are increasing the errors in calculation of resistance combinations.