SUBCOURSE MM0486

EDITION 8

MECHANICAL AND ELECTRO-MECHANICAL MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLES

U.S.ARMYSIGNALCENTERANDFORTGORDON FortGordon,GA ERRATASHEET SIGNALSUBCOURSESM0486 EDITION8 MECHANICALANDELECTROMECHANICALPRINCIPLES Effective:6Jun86 IMPORTANT ADMINISTRATIVEINSTRUCTIONS: Makethefollowingchanges: 1. Examination,page151,question13 Delete"Youapply300psigtoagageanditindicates312psig." Add"Agagehasarangeof0to300psigandactuallyindicates312psigwhen youapplyatruepressureof300psig." READANDPOST

PLEASENOTE Proponency for this subcourse has changed from Signal Center & School (SM) to Ordnance Missile and Munitions Center&School(MM).

IMPORTANT

READANDPOST

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READTHISPAGE GENERALINFORMATION This subcourse consists of one or more lessons and an examination. Each of the lessons is divided into two parts; the text and the lesson exercises. For one lessonsubcoursethelessonexerciseservesastheexamination. Aheadingatthe beginningofeachlessongivesthetitle,thehoursofcredit,andtheobjectives of the lesson. The final examination consists of questions covering the entire subcourse. If a change sheet is included, be sure to post the changes before starting the subcourse. THETEXT Allthetextmaterialrequiredforthissubcourseisprovidedinthepacket. The textistheinformationyoumuststudy. Readthisverycarefully. Youmaykeep thetext. THELESSONEXERCISES Followingthetextofeachlessonarethelessonexercises.Afteryouhovestudied thetextofeachlesson,answerthelessonexercises.Afteryouhaveansweredall thequestions,gobacktothetextandcheckyouranswers. Rememberyouranswers shouldbebasedonwhatisinthetextandnotonyourownexperienceoropinions. Ifthereisaconflict,usethetextinansweringthequestion. Whenyouaresatisfiedwithyouranswers,checkthemagainsttheapprovedsolution in back of this text. Restudy those areas where you have given an incorrect answerbycheckingthereferencegivenaftereachanswer. THEEXAMINATION Afteryouhavecompletedallthelessonsandexercises,selectthecorrectanswer toalltheexaminationquestions. Carefullymarkthecorrectanswerontheexam responsesheet.Besuretoincludeyoursocialsecuritynumber,subcoursenumber, and edition number are correct. Final exams should be mailed in the envelope provided. Theexamwillbegradedandyouwillbenotifiedoftheresults. Your finalgradeforthesubcoursewillbethesameasyourexaminationgrade.

*** IMPORTANT NOTICE *** THE PASSING SCORE FOR ALL ACCP MATERIAL IS NOW 70%. PLEASE DISREGARD ALL REFERENCES TO THE 75% REQUIREMENT.

SM0486 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ThissubcoursehasbeenadaptedfromAirForceCareerDevelopmentCourseCDC 32470forArmyuse. Information andillustrations used to supportthe materialin this subcourse were adopted from manufacturer's instruction manuals published by the companies listedbelow: M.B.Electronics Wm.AinsworthandSons,Inc. SOLDIER'STASK ThissubcoursesupportsthefollowingMOS35HTasks: 0934351270 0934351271 0934351283 0934351290 0934353261 0934353300 CalibrateTorqueTester CalibrateTorqueWrench CalibrateCompoundGauge CalibrateThermometer CalibrateGramWeightSet CalibrateThermometerSet

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SM0486 CORRESPONDENCECOURSE OFTHE U.S.ARMYSIGNALCENTER&SCHOOL AIPDSubcourseNumberSM0486 MechanicalandElectroMechanical MeasurementPrinciples (8credithours) INTRODUCTION Mechanical and electromechanical devices play an important role in our everydaylife. Lessononeofthissubcourseincludesinformationwhichwillhelp youunderstandmolecularactivitychangesandtherelationshipofthesechangesto heat. It also explains the operating principles for related heat sensing and measuring instruments. The second lesson explains the physical principles of pressuremeasurementsandalsoincludesinformationonpressuredeviceswhichyou must use and calibrate. Lesson three contains information on rotary and torque measurements. It also includes information which will help you understand the operatingprincipleoftheprovingrug.Lessonfourdiscussestheprinciplewhich you must apply to perform vibration measurements and tells you when you must calibrate vibration equipment. Lesson five teaches operation of the analytical balanceandprinciplesofmassmeasurement.Thissubcourseisorganizedasfollows: Lesson1TemperatureandHumidityMeasurements..............2Hours Lesson2PressureMeasurementsandDevices..................2Hours Lesson3RotaryTorqueMeasurementsandEquipment...........1Hour Lesson4VibrationMeasurementsandEquipment...............1Hour Lesson5WeightsandBalance................................1Hour Examination.................................................1Hour

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SM0486 LESSON1:TEMPERATUREANDHUMIDITYMEASUREMENT AIPDSubcourseNumberSM0486...........MECHANICAL AND MEASUREMENTPRINCIPLES ELECTROMECHANICAL

LessonObjective.......................Given learning objectives and text, you should be able to answer all exercise questions pertaining to the nature of heat and temperature, temperature scales and thermometers, heat sensing and measuring instruments,andhumiditywithnoerrors. CreditHours...........................Two TEXT 1. INTRODUCTION

Your next assignment may be the calibration of a temperature measuring instrument or the use of a temperature measuring instrument for calibration purposes.Yourjobwillbemucheasierifyouhaveacompleteunderstandingofthe terms and principles associated with temperature measurements. The information containedinthischapterconcernsthenatureofheatandtemperature,themethods by which heat is generated and transferred, the units used in temperature measurements,andtheprinciplesappliedintemperaturemeasurements. 2. THENATUREOFHEATANDTEMPERATURE

a. Heat is considered to be a form of energy. The terms "thermal" and "kinetic"areusuallyaddedasconfusionfactors.Tomakeyourdaycomplete,some authorsusetheterms"heat"and"temperature"asiftheyarethesame.Let'ssee if we can identify some of the terms associated with heat and temperature measurementsandestablishpracticaldefinitionsfortheseterms. b. Heat. Most of us use the word "heat" without bothering to consider or determineitstruemeaning.Weusuallyhaveageneralideaofwhatwemeanwhenwe usetheword,butformeasurementsinalaboratory,youmustknowpreciselywhat thewordmeansandtheconditionsandlimitationsunderwhichthemeaningistrue. What answer would you give if a photographer, or an artist, or a common laborer askedthequestion,"Whatisheat?" Inyoursearchforananswer,wouldyousay thatheat: Causesmetalstoexpand? Canbegeneratedbyrubbingtwoormorebodiestogether? Isgeneratedbycompression? Isaninvisibleweightlessfluidcalledcaloric? Iselectricity?

SM0486 Isaformofenergy? Is the total kinetic energy of moving molecules (a name applied to the kinetic energy possessed by the moving molecules of a body)? Let's examine the list of possibleanswersinsequencetoseeifanyofthemoracombinationofthemagrees withyourconceptsofthenatureofheatandwhatheatconsistsof. (1) Heatandexpansion. Whiletheword"expansion"identifiesoneofthe effectsheatproducesinmetals,itisnotasatisfactoryanswerfortheoriginal question of "What is heat?" We hope that you chose one or more of the other answers.Ifyoudidn't,chooseonebeforeweproceed. (2) Heat and friction. You know that the moving parts of the engine of yourcargenerateheatbecauseoffriction. Insomeinstances,theintensityof heatissuchthattheresultingexpansionofmetalspreventsthemovementofsome parts. Althoughtheprecedingstatementsaretrue,theoriginalquestionhasnot beenanswered;youhaveonlychosenonemethodwherebyheatisgenerated. (3) Heat and compression. When a gas is compressed, the space between individualmoleculesisdecreased.Thedecreaseinspacebetweenmoleculesresults inanincreaseintheactivitiesofthemoleculesinvolved. Theincreaseinthe activitiesofthemoleculesresultsinanincreaseinthekineticenergyofthegas compressed.Allofthestatementsconcerninganincreaseinheat(kineticenergy) bymeansofcompressionaretrue;buthaveweansweredtheoriginalquestiononthe nature of heat? Partially, yes. We say partially because the use of the expression "kinetic energy" in parentheses following heat indicates that heat is kineticenergy. (4) Heatisaninvisibleweightlessfluidcalledcaloric.Atonetimeheat wasconsideredtobethecaloricjustdescribed.Withthedevelopmentofthelaws oftheconservationofenergy,theideathatcaloric(heat)couldbeincreasedor decreased as a separate entity (a quantity existing independent of other quantities) was disproved. The increase or decrease in the quantity of heat is alwaysaccompaniedbythetransformationofoneformofenergytoanother.Another failure; we still haven't given a satisfactory answer to the original question. Thisoneisn'tevenpartlytrue. (5) Heatiselectricity.Ifheatiselectricity,thenelectricityisheat. Well,technicallyno.Youalreadyknowthatelectronswhichconstituteelectrical currents are forced through resistances by an EMF (electromotive force). The movementoftheseelectricalparticlescreatesanincreaseintheactivity(kinetic energy) of the particles concerned and a subsequent increase in the quantity of heat on the electrical conductor. This means that electricity can be used to produceheat,butwecan'tsaythattheyarethesame. (6) Heatasaformofenergy. Thisstatementisacceptableasageneral definitionforheat,butitshouldbecombinedwiththelaststate

SM0486 ment in the list to give a better explanation of what heat is. Heat is a name given to that form of energy which represents the total kinetic energy (force createdbymolecularmotion)possessedbythemovingmoleculesofabody. There areotherdefinitionsforheat,butthisonecontainstheconceptyouneedtofully understandthenatureofheat. (7) HeatandEnergy.Youhavealreadylearnedsomethingofthestatuesof matter and energy, the basic relationship of energy to heat, and how energy is transformed fromonetypetoanother(suchaselectricalenergytoheatenergy). Ourprimaryconcerninthissectionofthelessonistoincreasethisknowledgeto theextentthatyoucan: (a) Visualize,understand,anddescribethemoleculartheoryofmatter. (b) Understand the relationship between the molecular structure of matterandkineticenergy. (c) Understandtherelationshipbetweenkineticenergyandheat. (d) Associatetheformsofenergyandthetransformationofenergywith heat. (e) Apply your knowledge of the molecular structure of matter, the relationship of molecular activity to kinetic energy, and the relationship of kineticenergyandheattotheheatmeasurementsyoumake. c. Themoleculartheoryofmatter.Let'sassumethatallmatteriscomposed of tiny particles called molecules and the molecules are arranged in a lattice structure,asshowninfigure1. Theindividualmoleculesattractorrepeltheir neighborsinaccordancewiththeseparationbetweenmolecules.Generallyspeaking, whentheseparationislarge,theforcebetweenmoleculesissmallandisoneof attraction. Themoleculesofthematerialrepresentedinfigure1arelocatedat separationssuchthattheforcesofattractionandrepulsionareequaltosupport ourdiscussion.

Figure1.Molecularlatticestructure. 3

SM0486 (1) ThelettersRandAshowninfigure1representtheforcesofrepulsion (R)andattraction(A)betweenthemolecules.Thelinedrawnthroughthemiddleof the lines between molecules is used to show that the forces of repulsion and attractionareequaltothatdistance. Whenafixedlatticeasshown(figure1), theforcesbetweenmoleculesnearlycanceleachothersothatthereisverylittle vibratorymotion. (2) Thelatticestructureshowninfigure1issimilartothesymmetryof structureincrystals.Ifthemoleculesarepressedclosertogether,theforceof repulsion increases. If the molecules are forced farther apart, the force of attractionincreases.Externalforcesexertedonthemoleculesofthelatticeina solidcausethemoleculestovibrateabouttheircenterpositions.Thisvibration motionisrelativelyweak,andthecentersofthemoleculesremainfixed. (3) Inliquidsthemoleculesarefreetomovegreaterdistances.Sincethe vibratorymotioninliquidsisgreaterthaninsolids,theenergywhichthemoving molecules can transfer to other molecules (kinetic energy) is greater. The relationships between molecular separation forces, molecular kinetic energy, and resultingtemperatureconditionsareshowninTable1. TABLE1 THERMALPROPERTIESOFSOLIDS,LIQUIDS,ANDGASES

d. FromtheprecedingparagraphsandTable1,youshouldconcludethat: (1) Heatisthekineticenergywhichabodypossesses. (2) Heatcanbegeneratedbymeansofelectricity,compression,orfriction. (3) Kineticenergyistheworkpotentialwhichabodypossessesbecauseof itsmotion. (4) Normally, the forces of attraction between molecules in a solid are strong,themolecularenergyissmall,andthetemperaturevaluesarelow. e. Molecular kineticenergy level changes. Let us restate our conclusions from the preceding paragraphs in a simple statement. When we think of heat, we shouldthinkofkineticenergy.Becausemolecularkinetic

SM0486 energyistheenergyofmoleculesinmotion,heatconsiderationsmustalsoinclude the vibratory motion of molecules. Our primary point of concern is that heat measurements are affected by the vibratory motion of molecules and the relative changesintheirmotion. Anincreaseintheheatthatabodypossessesisdueto an increase in its kinetic energy. In order to increase the molecular kinetic energyinabody,youmustincreasetheenergywhichproducesthevibratorymotion. (1) The circuitinFigure2isanexampleofchangingthekineticenergy (molecular vibratory motion) level of components (resistors) in an electrical circuit. (2) From the circuit in Figure 2, you can see that the only factor, affecting the power (kinetic energy) dissipated by the resistors are the voltage (E)andthecurrent(I).Itisasimpleseriescircuitinwhichthetotalcurrent flows througheachresistor. Sincetheresistancesareequal,thevoltagedrops across the resistors are equal, and each resistor dissipates the same amount of power. Thismeansthatthepowervalueslistedinfigure2applytoR1andR2. Thedifferencesinpowervalueslistedinfigure2representthechangesinapplied power(voltageandcurrent)causedbychangesinthepowerswitchposition. The resulting changes in power values (kinetic energy) also represent changes in the energylossesintheformofheat.Table2isincludedtohelpyouunderstandhow changesinthevaluesofpowerappliedtoacircuit(orbody)producechangesin thekineticenergyofthatbody.

Figure2.Energy,heat,andpowerinanelectricalcircuit.

SM0486 TABLE2 AppliedEnergyKineticEnergyHeat

(3) Figure 2 and table 2 summarize the information which supports the followingconclusions:

SM0486 (a) Whenyouincreasethelevelofenergyappliedtothemoleculesofa material(inthiscaseR1andR2),thereisaproportionalincreaseinthekinetic energyinthematerial. (b) The increase in the kinetic energy in a material represents an increaseintheheatgeneratedinthebody. (4) ThewattagevaluesforR1andR2infigure2werechosenarbitrarily. FromtheenergydevelopedinR1andR2astheappliedvoltageisincreased,youcan imaginehowtheheatgeneratedineachoftheseincreases.Fromyouexperiencein testing electronicequipment,youknowhowhotsomeresistorsgetwhentheydraw too much current. If you compare the wattage values of R1 with the wattage developedwhentheswitchisinthe5position,youcanseethatR1willprobably "burnout"andcauseanopencircuit. (5) Electricalenergyisjustoneofthebasicformsofenergywhichcanbe transformed into heat. We used electrical energy as an example because we know thatyouarefamiliarwithmanytransformationsofelectricalenergytoheatenergy whichoccurinelectronicstoves,blankets,irons,andmanyotherheatingdevices. f. Temperature. (1) The word "temperature" becomes important when you need to know the intensityofheatinabody. Youhavewatchedwaterboilwhenfirefromastove heats the water, or you have felt heat if you touched an object which has been exposedtothesun.Youhaveprobablybeeninaroomwheretheheatwassointense thatyoucouldfeelitonpartsofyourbody.Ourpointisthis:Regardlessofhow heatisgenerated(sun,fire,friction,orothermeans),itsgenerationcausesan increase in the motion of molecules in the material to which the heat is transferred. What you feel as "heat", however, depends on the intensity of the heatataparticularspot,notonthetotalamountofheat. Anallmetalpoker, forinstance,maybetoohottotouchatthetip,butperfectlycomfortabletohold bythehandle. (2) When you measure the temperature of a body, you are measuring the intensityofheatratherthantheamountofheat.Theamountofheatpossessedby a bodyatagiventemperaturedependsonitsweightanditsspecificheat. The specific heat of a given material is the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperatureofaspecificnumberofgramsofthatmaterial1.Specificheatcanbe expressedincaloriesperpoundperdegreeCelsiusorinBTU'sperpoundperdegree Fahrenheit.Therelationshipbetweenthequantityofheat(inBTU's)andspecific heat is involved in the problem which follows: PROBLEM: How many BTU's are necessarytoheat5poundsofironfrom80to100F.?Solution:Thespecificheat ofironis0.11BTU/1F.Therefore, 5x0.11x(10080) =0.55x20 =11.00BTU's

SM0486 3. TEMPERATURESCALESANDTHERMOMETERS

a. Temperatureisameasureoftheintensityofheat.Temperatureindicates the thermalstateofabodyanditsabilitytotransferheattootherbodiesor objects.Weknowthatheatispresent,ortransferred,ifwecanmeasureit.The measurementofheatrequirestheuseofscalesandmeasurementdevices. b. TemperatureScales.Temperaturemeasurementshavebeenmadepossiblewith theuseofscalessuchasthoseinfigure3. Figure3showstherelationshipsof some of the temperature scales used in heat intensity measurements. Note the differenceinvalueforthefreezingandboilingpointsofwateronthedifferent scales.

Figure3.Commonthermometerscales. (1) Temperatures for the most common of the scales shown in figure 3 (centigradeandFahrenheit)canbeconvertedfromonescaletoanotherbymeansof asimpleproportion:

SM0486 (2) You can make conversions to the Kelvin and Rankin scales using the relations: K=273.16+C. R=459.69+F. (3) Table 3 shows the differences in steam point, freezing point, and absolutezeroforthefourscalesshowninfigure3. TABLE3 CommonThermometerScales

MercuryinGlassThermometer (4) You havebeentoldthattemperatureisameasureoftheintensityof heat and that one of several scales used to indicate the intensity of heat is usually a part of a temperature measuring instrument. Some of the more common practicalmeasuringinstrumentsarelistedintable4,withtheirusableranges. c. MercuryinGlassThermometer. (1) Table4includesthemercuryinglassthermometerinthelistofcommon temperature measuring instruments. In its simplest form, the mercuryinglass thermometerisahollowglasstube,hermeticallyscaledatbothends,andexpanded intoabulbatitslowerend.Thebulbisfilledwithmercury,andmostoftheair isevacuatedfromthetubebeforeitissealed. Thispartialvacuumpermitsthe freeexpansionofthemercurytothetopofthetube.Whenthemercuryisheated, itexpandsandrisesinthetube.Whenthemercuryiscooled,itcontractsandits levelinthetubeislowered. Atypicalmercuryinglassthermometerisshownin figure4.

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Figure4.MercuryinGlassThermometer (2) Youcanseethatthetemperaturehascausedanexpansionofthemercury in the tube. The temperature indicated by the scales is about 33C. Using the conversion formula previously stated, we can convert the reading taken from the CelsiusscaletoavalueontheFahrenheitscale.

Ourprimaryconcerninthediscussionofthemercuryinglassthermometeristhat youunderstandtheprincipleinvolvedinitsoperation.Thisprincipleisbasedon theexpansionofmercurywhenheated.

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SM0486 d. ResistanceThermometer. (1) Youcalibrateliquidinglassthermometerssuchasthemercuryinglass thermometer and thermometer calibrators with a resistance thermometer. The resistancethermometerispreferredoverliquidinglassthermometersasastandard forseveralreasons.Amongthesereasonsare: Mercuryfreezesat40C. Thepressureofmercuryvaporbecomesextremelyhighattemperaturesin excessof360C. The measurementaccuracyoftheresistancethermometerisfargreater thanthatofaliquidinglassthermometer. (2) The resistance thermometer discussed in this volume consists essentiallyofapairofplatinumhelical(spiral)coils,bifilarwoundonamica form which is sealed in a Pyrex tube containing dry air. The Pyrex tube is approximately0.7cmindiameterand46cmlong,measuredfromthetubeendofthe mountcover.Thismountcoverprovidesthemeansbywhichaclampmaybefastened tothethermometertomountitwhileitisinuse. Afourleadcable8feetin length, containing two potential and two current leads, forms part of the resistancethermometer. (3) When you use the resistance thermometer, immerse it approximately 9 inchesinthemediumhavingitstemperaturemeasure,andallowittoremainthere long enough to reach the temperature of the medium before any readings are attempted(usually5minutesinaflowingliquidor15minutesinslowmovingair). TABLE4 RangesofCommonTemperatureMeasuringMethods

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SM0486 (4) Operating Principle. The operating principle of the resistance thermometer is based on the fact that the resistance of an electrical conductor increases when the conductor is heated. Resistance changes due to changes in temperature can be accurately measured with the resistance bridges you have used forothermeasurements.Tocalibratethethermometercalibrator,youuseabridge similartotheMuellertemperaturebridge.Sincethebridgeisanintegralpartof themeasurementcircuit,wediscusstheMuellertemperaturebridgeasitisusedin aresistancethermometercircuit. 4. MUELLERTEMPERATUREBRIDGE.

AlthoughyouhavehadsometrainingontheconstructionanduseoftheMueller temperaturebridge,wewouldliketoreviewitsconstructionandthebasisonwhich itoperates. a. The Mueller temperature bridge is designed to measure temperatures or temperaturedifferencetoahighdegreeofaccuracywhenusedinconjunctionwith precisionresistancethermometers.Therangeofthebridgeis1to111.111ohms. b. Thebridgeisbalancedbytheuseofaconvenientsetofsixstepbystep dial switches. Certain coils used with these dial switches must be kept at a constant temperature while making temperature measurements. These coils are mountedinaspecialthermallyinsulatedblockwhosetemperatureiskeptconstant byanelectricheatercontrolledbyathermoregulator.Therectifierandrelayfor operating temperature control are mounted in a separate container, thereby preventinggalvanometerdeflectionswhentherelayoperates.Withthisarrangement thereisnoneedfortemperaturecorrections. c. Thesensitivityoftheinstrumentandthedampingofthegalvanometercan beadjustedoverareasonablywiderange. Itisalsopossibletoperformaquick checkofandifnecessary,toadjusttheequalityoftheratioarmsofthebridge toreadthecurrentflowingintheresistancethermometer.Aspecialterminaland anadjustableresistorareusedinthemeasurementsothatthepotentialleadsof thethermometercanbeequalizedasnecessary. d. Amercurycontactcommutatorpermitsreversingtheconnectionstoafour lead potentialterminaltype resistance thermometer so that you can cancel the effect of lead resistance. A plug and block arrangement is used to determine whether zero correction is necessary. Terminals are included for connections to theexternalbattery(forsupplyingthebridge),totheexternalgalvanometer,and toeitherathreeorfourleadresistancethermometer. e. As the Mueller bridge principle is discussed, you should remember the primary purpose for its discussion. The resistance thermometer is based on the fact that for every degree the temperature increases or decreases a proportional amount.Theseresistancechangescanbedetected

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SM0486 and accurately converted from resistance to temperature values by the Mueller bridges. You use the resistance thermometer to calibrate thermometers, thermocouples,andthermometercalibrators. f. Anexaminationofthebridgecircuit(figure5)shouldhelpyouunderstand its operating principle and the operation of the controls you use to null the bridgeandobtainthetemperaturevalues. Wecansimplifytheexplanationofthe bridgecircuitinfigure5byusingsimplifiedcircuitsofitsprimarycomponents. Forinstancelookatfigure6. g. Thediagraminfigure6isasimplifiedversionoftheupperportionof theMuellerbridgeinfigure5. Theresistanceslabeled"A"and"B"infigure6 represent the ratio arms of the Mueller bridge in figure 5. The slidewire in figure6isaresistancebalancingdevicewiththesamefunctionastheslidewire whereanullisobtainedinthegalvanometer(G).Thenullindicatestheequality existingbetweenratioarmsAandB. Youchecktheequalityoftheratioarmsby interchangingarmsAandB. h. The bridge rheostat arm shown at A in figure 7 is the same R shown in figure5.TheshunttypedecadeshownatBinfigure7isthetypeofdecadeshown inAoffigure7andaspartofRinfigure5.Theinclusionoftherheostatarm showninfigure7(anditsshuntdecades)permitsmeasurementsassmallas0.001 ohm. Specialshunttypedecadesareusedsothatsmallresistancechangeswhich occur in devices such as the resistance thermometer are not masked (hidden) by contactresistance. i. The lastdivisionoftheMuellerbridgediscussedisshowninfigure8. TheresistorRrepresentstheadjustablerheostatarmlabeled"F"infigure5.The letter Xrepresentsafourterminalresistancesuchastheoneintheresistance thermometer. L1, L2, L3, and L4 are the leads which connect the resistor (resistancethermometer)tothebridgeforameasurement. j. Ifthegalvanometerisconnectedtobindingpost2,asshowninfigure9, the resistance X and the lead L4 (with its resistance) is connected in the adjustablearmR. k. IftheratioarmsAandBareequalresistancesandtheresistanceofL1 isequaltothatofL4,thebridgeisbalancedbyadjustingtherheostatarmuntil itsresistanceequalstheresistanceofthearminwhichXislocated. Usually, leadsL1andL4areinterchangedandthesuccessivereadingsaveragedsothatyou canrecordthereadingpresentedwhenL1isequaltoL4withthegalvanometerat itsNULLposition.

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Figure5.Muellertemperaturebridge. 14

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Figure6.Muellerbridgeratioarms.

Figure7.Muellerbridgerheostatarmandshuntdecades.

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Figure8.Muellerbridgefourterminalconnections. i. The lastdivisionoftheMuellerbridgediscussedisshowninfigure8. TheresistorRrepresentstheadjustablerheostatarmlabeled"R"infigure5.The letter Xrepresentsafourterminalresistancesuchastheoneintheresistance thermometer. L1, L2, L3 and L4 are the leads which connect the resistor (resistancethermometer)tothebridgeforameasurement. j. Ifthegalvanometerisconnectedtobindingpost2,asshowninfigure9, the resistance X and the lead L4 (with its resistance) are connected into the rightarm of the bridge. The lead L1 (with its resistance) is connected in the adjustablearmR. k. IftheratioarmsAandBareequalresistancesandtheresistanceofL1 isequaltothatofL4,thebridgeisbalancedbyadjustingtherheostatarmuntil itsresistanceequalstheresistanceofthearminwhichXislocated. Usually, leadsL1andL4areinterchangedandthesuccessivereadingsaveragedsothatyou canrecordthereadingpresentedwhenL1isequaltoL4withthegalvanometerat itsNULLposition.

Figure8.Muellerbridgefourterminalconnections. 1. Measurement principle. Our primary purpose in discussing the Mueller bridge is to complete the concept of the resistance thermometer measurement principle.

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SM0486 (1) In figure 9 the resistance thermometer is a fourterminal type. Its valueisequatedtoaresistancewhichisdeterminedbytheswitchpositionofthe Mueller bridge variable arm (R) shown in figure 9. When the switches are positioned so that the resistance X (resistance thermometer) is equal to the resistance in the variable arm of the bridge, you determine the resistance and temperaturevaluesbyreadingthedialsonthebridge. Table5isachartwhich representsapartiallistofresistancetemperatureconversionvaluesforatypical basestandardthermometer.

Figure9.FourterminalconnectionstoanequivalentMuellerbridge. (2) Whenyouexaminethevalueslistedintable5,youfindthatthevalues listed are products of the reference temperature resistance value (0 = 25.54900 ohm)andtheratioindicatedbythedialsonthemeasuringdevice.Asanexample, examinevaluesofthetwocolumnsintable5,A,andvaluesofthetwocolumnsof table5,B.

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SM0486 TABLE5 ResistanceTemperatureConversionValuesforPlatinumResistanceThermometer

(3) At 0C. the resistance ratio indicated is 1.000000. Since the resistanceofthethermometerat0 measures25.54900,thecalibrationaccuracyof the thermometer is correct. At 1C. the resistance ratio indicated is 1.003982. When you multiply the ratio indicated by 25.54900, the product is very near the value25.65075.Ifyoudidn'tknowthetemperaturevalue(1C.),youcouldfindit by using the product of the ratio and resistance (ohm) columns. If the ratio indicatedonyourmeasuringdeviceis1.1977710for50C.(valueshownintable5, A,for50C),you 18

SM0486 determine the resistance of the thermometer by multiplying the ratio by 25.54900 (thermometerresistanceat0).Thisproductisnearly30.60030. Whenyoulocate the resistance value 30.60030 on the section of the resistancetemperature conversionchartshownintable5,A,youseethatthetemperaturemeasuredbythe resistancethermometeris50C. 5. THERMOMETERCALIBRATION

a. One oftherequirementsisthatyoulearnmoreaboutthecalibrationof thermometers. You must increase your ability to apply thermal measurement principles in the calibration of thermometers. When we use the term "thermal measurementprinciples,"wearethinkingofthephysicallawsandconceptsofheat and temperature which we have discussed. These theories and concepts form the basis for the thermal principles applied when you calibrate thermometers. The physicallawswehaveinmindareasfollows: Heatisthetotalkineticenergyofmovingmolecules. Heat is transferred from one body to another by means of conduction, convection,radiationabsorption,orsomecombinationoftheseprocesses. Theintensityofheatinabodyiscalleditstemperature. Theintensityofheatinabodyisindicatedonscaleswhichrelatethe intensity of the heat in that body to the intensity of heat necessary to raise watertoitsboilingpointorlowerwatertoitsfreezingpoint. Electricalenergycanbetransformedintoheat(kinetic)energy. Theabsenceofheatiscold. b. Thethermometerscalesinfigure3showthatthefreezingpointsandthe boiling points of water are reference points for thermometers regardless of the scale used. From table 4 it should be obvious that you may be required to calibrate thermometers other than the mercuryinglass type. Regardless of the type, the measurement principle and the laws of physics which support this principle remain the same. For example, when you calibrate a thermometer, what does the measurement process include? Regardless of the type of thermometer calibrated,youmerelyinsertthethermometerbeingcalibratedintoameasurement chamber and compare the thermometer reading with the reading indicated on the measurementchamberreadoutdevice.Theanswertothequestionyouarethinkingis yes; the measurement chamber readout device has to be calibrated with the resistancethermometerbeforeitisused. c. Your laboratory uses a temperature calibrator to check the accuracy of other temperature devices. The rough sketch in figure 10 represents one of the calibratorswhichyoumayuse.

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SM0486

Figure10.Thermometercalibrator. d. Noattemptismadeinfigure10toduplicateanyofthecalibratorsyou may have seen. We want you to become familiar with the basic components of a typical thermometer calibrator and the purpose of these components. The scale shown in figure 10 illustrates some limitations of the typical calibrator. Calibrationcheckpointsonthescaleofthethermometercalibratedmustbewithin thelimitsofthecalibratorscale. e. Comparingthelimitsofthecalibratorscaleoffigure10withtheranges of the mercuryinglass and alcoholinglass thermometers listed in table 4, you seethatallpointsonthescaleofthemercuryinglassthermometerarewithinthe range of the calibrator. Even though the lower limit of alcoholinglass thermometer scale is lower than that of the calibrator, the alcoholinglass thermometer canbecalibratedattheminimumlimitofitscalibratorandmaximum pointofthethermometer. NOTE: When the boiling point of alcohol is attained, the thermometer may explode.

f. The calibrator'soperatingprincipleissimple. Theinstrumentcontains thecomponentsnecessaryforarefrigerationunit. Sincecoldistheabsenceof heat,arefrigerantisusedintherefrigerationunittoremoveheatasnecessary. Theamountofheatremovedandthedegreeofcoldreacheddependsontheposition ofthecalibratorindicator. Thepositionoftheindicatordeterminestheamount of refrigeration just as the thermostat in your home refrigerator determines the amountofrefrigerationandthedegreeofcoldness. g. To calibrate thermometers at or near the boiling point of water, you adjustthenecessarycontrolsonthecalibratorsothattherefrigerationunitis replacedbyheatingunits. Justasyouselectedthedegreeofcoldnesswiththe calibratorindicator,youselectthetemperature(intensityofheat) 20

SM0486 atwhichyouwishthethermometerscalibrated. h. Althoughthe"wells"(openingsintowhichthethermometersareplacedfor calibration)arenotshowninfigure10,theyarelocatedinsuchapositioninthe calibrator that they can be completely enclosed by a synthetic nonflammable oil which is used in the heat transfer process. It doesn't matter whether you are calibratingthermometerscalesatthefreezingpointofwater;thecalibratorscale must first be calibrated with the standard thermometer which is your reference. Youshouldrealizethatyourgreatestconcernoveryourthermometercalibratoris withitsstabilityandrepeatability,notitsaccuracy. i. Let us check to see if any of the laws of physics listed or principles based on those laws are involved in the use of the thermometer calibrator. The first law concerns heat and kinetic energy. Heat is generated by electrical currents.Thesecurrentsconsistofelectronswhichdomoveanddopossesskinetic energy.Therefore,youcanseethatthefirstlawlistedhasanapplication.The secondlawlistedconcernsthetransferofheat. Whenthecalibratorisusedfor thermometercalibration,asyntheticnonflammableoilwasmentioned. Oneofthe purposesforusingthisoilisitsheatconductingcapabilities. Soyoucansee thatthesecondlawhasanapplicationintheuseofthethermometercalibrator. 6. RELATEDHEATSENSINGANDMEASURINGINSTRUMENTS

Youshouldknowthethermalmeasurementprinciplesandmethodsappliedinthe operation and calibration of heat measuring devices such as thermocouples and pyrometers. a. Thermocouples. Rememberthatwhentwounlikemetals,suchascopperand iron,areconnectedasshowninfigure11,thejunctionofthemetalscanbeused asapartofatemperaturemeasuringdevice. Ifheatisappliedtothelefthand joint (A) shown in figure 11 while the righthand joint (B) remains at room temperature (cold), a voltage is generated which causes the galvanometer to deflect. The amount of deflection is proportional to the difference in the temperaturesatAandB.Thisdeviceisknownasathermocouple.

Figure11.Asimplethermocouple.

21

SM0486 (1) One typical thermocouple application is the cylinder temperature measurementofanaircooledengine.Theconnectionsfortheindicatinginstrument areshowninfigure12.

Figure12.Thermocoupleapplication (2) The thermocouple unit represented in figure 12 is made of iron and constantan, which is an alloy of copper and nickel. The leads to the engine cylinder are insulated with asbestos and covered with a cotton braid, which is impregnatedwithafireandmoistureresistantlacquer. Oneofthetwojunctions oftheunlikemetalleadsisformedintoacopperringwhichservesasasparkplug gasket. Theother,whichisthecoldjunction,isinsidethegalvanometer. The instrument is calibrated to read temperature in degrees Celsius. Commonly used thermocouples are made of iron vs constantan, chromel vs alumel (chromel is an alloyofnickelandchromiumwhilealumelisanalloyofnickelandaluminum),and coppervsconstantan. (3) Some thermocouples (figure 13) are constructed by connecting a wire made of platinum alloy to a wire made of pure platinum. Such a device may be calledanoblemetalthermocouple. Averysatisfactorythermocoupleofthistype consistsofonewiremadeof90percentplatinumand10percentrhodiumandanother wiremadeofpureplatinum. Thermocouplesoftenhaverangesextendingto3000F. These thermocouples are often used as a standard for calibrating less expensive thermocouples,orforspecialinstallations. (4) The platinumplatinum rhodium thermocouple, shown in figure 13, is typical ofthethermocouplesusedforcalibrationpurposes. Figure13,A,shows theouterconfigurationoftheinstrument,whereasfigure13,B,isacutawayused to show the internal composition and construction of the thermocouple. The principle parts of the thermocouple shown in figure 13, B, are the head (5), a primaryprotectingtube(11),andthethermocoupleelement(7). Thethermocouple wiresare251/2incheslongandextendupthroughaninsulator(9),lavainsulator spacer(8),andfishspine

22

SM0486

Figure13.Platinumplatinumrhodiumthermocouple. 23

SM0486 insulator (6) and are clamped under the screws of the two terminals (3) in the head.Theseterminalsconnecttheleadwirestothethermocouple.Thethermometer (2)isalsomountedonthehead.Thethermometer,coveredbyaprotectingsheath, extendsintotheheadtomeasurethetemperatureatthispoint(referencejunction). (5) Weareinterestedintheprincipleusedasabasisfortheconstruction ofthethermocouple. Fromourdiscussionofthesimplethermocoupleoffigure11 you can reason that there is a similarity on principle and construction of the thermocouples shown in figures 11 and 13. Let's examine the corresponding measurementcircuitsofthetwothermocouplesandseeifwecanestablishauseful comparisonbetweenthetwo. (6) WhenyouexaminethemeasurementcircuitsAandBinfigure14,yousee thatbothcircuitshavehotjunctionswhichareheatedbyanovenorotherdevice whosetemperatureistobemeasured.Bothmeasurementcircuitsuseagalvanometer as a readout device. However, in the measurement circuit B, a precision potentiometer and a galvanometer are used to measure and indicate the voltage developedacrossthethermojunction. Thevoltagedevelopedisproportionaltothe difference in temperatures between points a and b in both measurement circuits. The relationshipsofjunctionvoltagesdevelopedbyvariousjunctiontemperatures areshowngraphicallyinfigure15.

Figure14.Thermocouplemeasurementcircuits. (7) Although the temperature scale indicated on the graph extends to 2000C.,theplatinumthermocoupleisusedforprecisemeasurementsbetween0 and 1500. ThetemperaturevaluesandcorrespondingvoltagevaluesincludedinFigure 15supporttheoperatingprinciplesofthemeasurementcircuitsinFigure14. We are referring specifically to the B measurement circuit. In this circuit the reference junction is maintained at 0 by means of an ice bath (two ice bottles couldbeused).Any

24

SM0486

Figure15.Junctiontemperaturesversusjunctionemf. differenceintemperaturebetweenjunctionsaandbisindicatedatthetemperature ofjunctionawithrespectto0(junctionbreferencetemperature).Figure15isa graphical presentation of how the thermocouple junction voltage increases as junctiontemperatureincreases. ThecompletemeasurementcircuitofFigure14is showninFigure16.

Figure16.Thermocouplemeasurementcircuitusingicebathreferencejunction. 25

SM0486 (8) InadditiontothereadoutdevicerepresentedinFigure14,Figure16 includesconnectionsforthestandardcellandthebattery(BA)whichareapartof themeasurementcircuit.ApotentiometerofthetypeshowninFigure16shouldbe standardized before each measurement. The portion of a millivolttemperature conversiontable(Table6)showshowpotentiometerscalevaluesinmillivoltsare convertedtovaluesinmillivolts. TABLE6 MillivoltTemperatureConversionChart

(9) As an example of how Table 6 is used in a thermocouple temperature measurement, supposethatyouhavefilledtheicebaththermosbottles,shownin Figure16withiceandwater.Alsosupposethatafterzeroingthegalvanometerand standardizingthepotentiometer,youadjustthecontrolsofthepotentiometerfora reading of 4.859. What is the value of the temperature measured? In Table 6, 4.859(millivolts)islocatedopposite560.Thevalue4.859isalsolocatedinthe fourthcolumn. Thismeansthatthetemperaturemeasuredis564. Ifyouexamine thetemperaturevaluesintheleftcolumnofthegraph,youcanseethatthereare ten divisions between values. The inbetween temperature values are obtained by taking the lefthand column value (560) and adding the value indicated by the columninwhichthepotentiometervalueislocated(0.004).

26

SM0486 (10) A pyrometer is usually associated with the measurement of extremely hightemperatures.Whenproperlydesigned,apyrometercanbeusedforrelatively lowtemperaturemeasurements.Someoftheprincipletypesofpyrometersinuseare asfollows: Opticalpyrometers. Segerconepyrometers. Thermoelectricpyrometers. Directradiationpyrometers. Resistancepyrometers. Our discussion is limited to the principles involved in the operation of the thermoelectricandopticalpyrometers. (a) Thermoelectric pyrometers. You should remember how a thermocouple isdesignedtomeasurethedifferenceintemperaturebetweenacoldandaheated junction. A millivoltmeter equipped with a scale which is graduated to read in degrees of temperature is often used with the thermocouple. This thermocouple millivoltmetercombinationissometimescalledamillivoltmeterpyrometerandisa typicalthermoelectricpyrometer. (b) Optical pyrometers. Temperature measurement with an optical pyrometer consists of comparing the monochromatic illumination from the source beingmeasuredwiththeilluminationfromthefilamentofastandardlamp. When theintensityofilluminationfromthestandardsourceisequaltotheintensityof illuminationfromthehotbody(sourcemeasured),youcanassumethatbothbodies areatproportionatetemperatures. Theproportionatetemperatureofthehotbody isdeterminedbythegraduationsonthepyrometerscale. (2) The type of pyrometer you use will vary with the need. Optical pyrometers may have serial numbers such as 8621, 8622, 8623, and 8626. These pyrometers may have a suffix C, indicating that the instrument is designed for centigradetemperaturemeasurements.Inallotherrespectsthecapabilitiesofthe instrument arethesameasthoseusingtheFahrenheitscale. Temperatureranges forthreeoftheseinstrumentsareasshowninTable7. (3) Thetwomajorpartsofthisinstrumentarethetelescopeandacontrol box. Thetelescopeisdesignedtofitthehand. Thetelescopehasaneyeshield whichisusedwhensightingabody. Aflexiblecableconnectsthecontrolboxto the telescope. The control box contains a galvanometer, a standard cell, and a breather.Thetelescopeconsistsofalamp,aswitch,andameansoffocusingthe lampfilamentandtheimageofthehotbody. Thepyrometermeasurementprinciple isincludedinthestepsofthemeasurementprocedurewhichfollow. Examinethe stepstoseeifyoucanidentifythemeasurementprinciple.

27

SM0486 TABLE7 LeadsNorthupOpticalPyrometers

(a) Sightontheobjectwhosetemperatureistobemeasuredandadjust thefocusknobforthesharpestimage. (b) Closethecontactsbypressingtheswitch,whichislocatedonthe lowerrightsideofthetelescopesightpiece. (c) Rotatetheknurledknobuntilthefilamentofthelampblendswith (hasthesamebrillianceas)theimageofthehotobject(untilanopticalbalance isobtained). (d) Inmakingtheopticalbalance,usethesectionofthelampfilament whichisoppositetheindexofthelamp. (e) Move the telescope from the line of sight, keeping the switch closed,andpressinontheknobwhichislocatedonthelowerlefthandcornerof the front panel. While holding the knob in, rotate it until the galvanometer pointerbalancesatzeroonitsscale. (f) Readthevalueoftemperature(ontheproperscale). (4) Wehopethatyouincludedtheprocessesofreachinganopticalbalance andadjustingthegalvanometerpointerforazerobalanceinyourdeterminationof the measurement principle. When the processes mentioned are performed, the intensityoflightfromthesourcewhosetemperatureistobemeasuredequalsthe intensityoflightfromthestandardsource;the

28

SM0486 temperatures of the two sources are proportionate. Because of the proportionate relationships,thepyrometerisadirectreadinginstrument. (c) Now that you have completed the material on the effects and measurementofheatandtemperature,let'sproceedtothestudyofhumiditytosee howitisrelatedtotemperatureandheatandhowitismeasured. 7. HUMIDITY

a. Humidityisnothingmorethanwatervapor,andthereisalwayssomewater vaporintheair. Theterm"humidity"isusedtodescribetheamountofwaterin theair. However,theamountofwatervapormaydifferfromplacetoplace. It will vary in a given location depending on the temperature, wind, rainfall, and other weather factors. Before we discuss the instruments used in measuring humidity,let'slookalittlecloseratthenatureofhumidity. b. The Nature of Humidity. There are two types of humidity measurements usuallyassociatedwiththemeasurementsofthemoisturecontentintheair.They arerelativehumidityandabsolutehumidity. Bothexpresstheamountofmoisture contentintheair,butindifferentforms. Let'sdefinetheseandothercommon termsthatareassociatedwithhumidity. (1) CapacityofAir Capacityofairistheamountofmoisturewhichthe air can hold when it is saturated. Capacity usually is measured in grains per cubicfoot(gr/ft3).Thecapacityincreaseswithanincreaseintemperature. (2) AbsoluteHumidityAbsolutehumidityistheamountofwatervaporina cubicfootofairatanygiventime. (3) Relative Humidity Relative humidity of the air is defined as the ratiooftheamountofmoisturewhichtheairactuallycontainstoitscapacity.

EXAMPLE:Whenaquartbottlecontainsonepintofaliquid,itis50percentfull. Ifacubicfootofairthatcouldholdfourgrainsofwatervaporholdsonlytwo grainsofwatervapor,itis50percentfullorhalfsaturated. Suchairhasa relativehumidityof50percent. (a) Another termcommonlyusedinrelativehumidityisvaporpressure, orpartialvaporpressure.Vapororpartialvaporpressureisthenumberofpounds persquareinchoftheatmosphericpressurewhichconsistsofwatervapor.Partial vaporpressurecannotbegreaterthanthesaturationvalueoftheairatanygiven temperature. For all practical purposes, it is the percentage of water vapor relativetothesaturationvalueofagivenvolumeofairatagiventemperature. inotherwords,

29

SM0486 the term "partial pressure" can be interchanged with relative humidity. The meaningsarethesame. (5) Now that we have defined the common terms associated with humidity, let'sseehowtemperatureaffectshumidity. Acoldroominahouseusuallyfeels damp.However,ifthesameroomisheatedthedampnessseemstodisappearandthe room becomes dry. The amount of moisture in the room has not been reduced by heating the room. However, the capacity of the air in the room for moisture increaseswhenthetemperatureisraised. EXAMPLE:Supposetheairinaroomat32F.contains2grainsofwatervaporper cubicfoot.AsshowninTable8,thecapacityofairat32F.is2.118gr/ft3or94 percent. Suchairwillfeeldamp. Whenthetemperatureisraisedto68F.,the amount of moisture is unchanged, but the capacity of the air is now 7.56 gr/ft3 dividedby7.56gr/ft3,or26percent.Thisairfeelsdry.Weseethatincreasing the temperature decreases the relative humidity. On the other hand, if the temperatureislowered,therelativehumiditywillincrease. TABLE8 Watervaporcapacityofair

(c) Humidity Measurement Instruments. Instruments that are used to determine relative humidity are called either psychrometers or hygrometers. Generally, the act and dry bulb instrument is called a psychrometer and direct indicatorsofrelativehumidityarecalledhygrometers. Hygrographsdetermineand recordrelativehumidity. 30

SM0486 (1) Thepsychrometer. (a) Thepsychrometricmethodofdetermininghumidityisofimportancein the field of meteorology, air conditioning, laboratories, etc. Basically, the psychrometerconsistsoftwothermometers,onehavingadrybulb,theotherawet bulb. Thedrybulbthermometerindicatestheactualtemperatureoftheair. The wetbulbthermometerhasaclothwicksurroundingitsbulb.Thiswickismoistened withwater.Whentheairisdry,therapidevaporationofthewaterfromthewick cools the bulb and lowers the temperature indicated by the wetbulb thermometer. Thelowertherelativehumidity,themorerapidlythewaterevaporatestoproducea greaterdifferencebetweenthewetandthedrybulbthermometerreadings. (b) Figure17illustratesatypicalwetanddrybulbpsychrometer.The functionofthesaturatedwickistoretainathinfilmofwateronthewetbulbso that evaporation may continue until the wetbulb temperature reaches a minimum. Cotton or soft mesh linen is normally used because of excellent water absorbing properties.Sizingthewick,encrustationsduetomineralcontentofthewaterand thethermometerwillinterferewithacontinuousfilmofwateronthethermometer bulb. Foreignsubstancesinthewateroronthewickchangethesaturationvapor pressureofthewaterandaffecttheresults.Therefore,wicksshouldbecleanand should be replaced frequently, and distilled water should be used for moistening the wick. The wick should extend beyond the bulb and on the stem of the thermometerforaninchorsoinordertoreduceheatconductionalongthestemto thebulb.

Figure17.Wetanddrybulbpsychrometer 31

SM0486 (c) Thetemperatureofthewaterusedtomoistenthewickshouldbeat, or slightly higher than, the wetbulb temperature. This is especially important when the ambient temperature is high and the relative humidity is low. If the temperatureofthewaterusedtowetthebulbistoohigh,itmaytakealongtime forthebulbtocooltowetbulbtemperature. Beforethispointisreached,the water may have evaporated sufficiently so that the thermometer never reaches the wetbulb temperature. If the moistening water temperature is appreciable lower than the wetbulb temperature, the thermometer temperature will climb throughout theperiodofventilation,remainingconstantatthewetbulbtemperatureonlyas longasthereissufficientwatertokeepthebulbsurroundedwithafilmofwater. Ifthetemperatureofthewaterusedformoisteningisat,orslightlyabove,the wetbulbtemperature,thewetbulbwillquicklyattainthewetbulbtemperatureand remainatthisvaluelongenoughtobeeasilyandaccuratelyread. (d) Ventilation is obtained by swinging, slinging, or whirling the thermometers at such rates as to produce the minimum velocity of 900 ft/min. Stationary thermometers may be ventilated with a motor driven fan, so long as minimumvelocityisattained. Unventilatedpsychrometersareunreliableandhence rarelyused. (e) Thedryandwetbulbsofthepsychrometermustbeseparated. This is to prevent the air that passes the wetbulb (and is thereby cooled by evaporation) from contacting the drybulb and causing an erroneous drybulb reading. Inthecaseofasling,orwhirled,psychrometerthismaybeavoidedby placing the thermometers so that the air will flow across the dry bulb before reachingthewetbulb.Therefore,aslingpsychrometershouldbeswunginonlyone direction,dependinguponitsconstructionandtheplacementofthethermometers. (f) Theheatabsorbedbythewetbulb,duetoradiation,tendstoraise thewetbulbtemperaturesothatatruedepressionisnotattained. Thiscanbe minimized by radiation shielding. One method, as shown in Figure 18, is to surroundthewetbulbwithanexternalprimarymetalshieldandinsertanauxiliary shieldwithamoistwick.Whenthethermometerisventilated,theauxiliaryshield attainsatemperatureclosetothatofthewetbulb. Thispracticallyeliminates thesourceofradiationandconductionduetothedifferenceindryandwetbulb temperatures. (g) Afterthepsychrometerisventilatedandthedifferencebetweenthe drybulb and wetbulb thermometers is determined, a chart similar to Table 9 is used to compute relative humidity. Notice that with a given temperature difference,thepercentageofrelativehumiditydependsupon

32

SM0486

Figure18.Crosssectionofashieldedpsychrometer. thetemperatureofthedrybulbthermometer. Keepinmindthatrelativehumidity varieswiththeairtemperature. TABLE9 RelativeHumidity

33

SM0486 (2) Mechanical Hygrometer. A mechanical hygrometer indicates relative humiditydirectly;itisabout3percentaccurateifbothtemperatureandhumidity areheldconstantatroomtemperature.Thesensingelementisusuallyabundleof humanhairthathasbeenputthroughsomeprocesstoremovetheoilfromthehair. Themidpointofseveralstrandsofhairisconnected,throughaleverarrangement, to a pointer. As the humidity increases, the length of the hairs increases and causes the pointer to move across the dial. Figure 19 shows this type of hygrometer.

Figure19.Hairtypehygrometer (a) Thehairhygrometerindicatesrelativehumidityoverawiderangeof temperature, but its reliability decreases rapidly as the ambient temperature decreases below freezing. Under changing humidity conditions there is a considerable lag between the dial reading and the actual humidity. With temperatureandhumiditystableat77F.,achangeinrelativehumiditywillrequire approximately 5 minutes for the hair hygrometer to indicate 90 percent of the change.Thistimelaggreatlyaffectsaccuratemeasurementunderchanginghumidity conditions. (b) Many organic materials are hygroscopic. Such materials as wood fibersandcottonstringhavebeenused.Noneoftheseseemstobeanybetterthan humanhair.

34

SM0486 (c) Hygrographsarerecordersofrelativehumidity.Apenarm,whichis substitutedforthepointer,tracesaninkrecordonaclockdrivendrumandgraph papermechanism. (3) Dewpointhygrometer. Thedewpointisthatpointwherethehumidity in the air just starts to condense and form water droplets on exposed surfaces. Thisconditionexistswhentherelativehumidityreaches100percent. Basically, theprocedurefordetectingdewpointistocoolamirroruntildeworfrostjust condensesroomsurroundingair. Thetemperatureatthesurfaceofthemirrorat theinstantdeworfrostappearsisdefinedasdewpoint.Byusingtablessuchas tables8and9,relativeandabsolutehumiditymaybecalculatedwhenthedewpoint isknown.Onedifficultywiththismethodisinmeasuringtheexacttemperatureof the mirror when dew or frost first occurs. Another difficulty is that any two observers would probably not detect dew or frost at the same instant. It is therefore,commonpracticeforthedewpointtobetakenastheaveragetemperature at which dew or frost is first detected, on cooling of the mirror, and the temperature at which the dew or frost vanishes when the mirror is warmed. This proceduredoesnotassureacorrectanswer,butitisclose. TABLE8 WaterVaporCapacityofAir

35

SM0486 TABLE9 RelativeHumidity

(a) Photoelectricdetectionofthedewpointhasbeenusedandisbased upon achieving an equilibrium condition of the mirror surface during which the amountofdeworfrostremainsconstant. Thismethodagreeswithvisualmethods, within.1C.,downto35C. (b) Whenthedewpointisatorbelowthefreezingpoint,theformation offrostisnotalwayspositiveduetothelackofacrystalnucleusforthefrost crystalstoformon.Inthiscase,supersaturationofthe

36

SM0486 airmayoccur. (c) AverysimpledewpointindicatorisillustratedinFigure20.Air fromthesqueezebulbisforcedintothetank. Thiscausesrapidevaporationof theethercontainedinthetank,whichinturncoolstheetherandtheglasstube. Whentheairinthetankiscooledtothedewpoint,dewformsontheglasstube. When dew formation starts, the temperature of the ether may be read on the thermometer.Thisisthedewpointtemperature. Figure20.DewPointHygrometer

(4) Other types of hygrometers. The gravimetric method of determining humidityisemployedonlywhencalibratinginstrumentsorindeterminingtheexact watervaporcontentofair.Inthegravimetricmethod,ameasuredvolumeofairat aknownpressureandtemperatureispassedoveramoistureabsorbingchemical,such asphosphoruspentoxide,anditsincreaseinweightismeasured. (a) Othermethodsinvolvingacolorchangeofcobaltoussaltshavebeen used.Averysimpleindicatormaybemadebasedonthechangeincolor,fromblue topink,ofaclothofpaperimpregnatedwithcobaltous

37

SM0486 chloride,asthehumidityincreases.Acolorcomparisonscale,whenemployedwith this indicator, gives a rough estimate of the relative humidity. Various other similarchemicalshavebeenused,moreorlesssuccessfully. (b) Agreatmanyexperimentshavebeenperformedwithvarioustypesof materialsforuseinelectricalhygrometers.Electricalhygrometryisbasedupona changeinelectricresistanceofahygroscopicmaterialwithchangesinhumidity. Thematerialmaybemetalwireswithvariouschemicalcompoundsplacedbetweenthe wires, such as polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl alcohol and lithium chloride, phosphoric and sulfuric acid, and others. Plastics, underfired clays, cotton impregnated with various solutions, and cotton wool and human hair have been investigated.Insomeofthesematerials,theresistanceappearstovarydirectly with changes in humidity. In others, resistance appears to vary logarithmically withchangesinhumidity. (c) For specialized purposes, electrical hygrometers have proven to be superior to other measuring devices, but for weather forecasting and general humidity control the other types of hygrometers are better suited. However, it wouldseemthat,eventually,electricalhygrometerswillreplacemostoftheother typesofhumiditymeasuringdevices. (5) Thiscompletesourdiscussionofhumiditymeasuringinstruments.

38

SM0486 ACCPSUBCOURSENUMBERSM0486 MECHANICALANDELECTROMECHANICALMEASUREMENTPRINCIPLES EXERCISESFORLESSON1 1. Whichstatementconcerningheatisnottrue? a. b. c. d. 2. Heatcausesmetaltoexpand Heatisgeneratedbycompression Heatisaformofenergy Heatisthepartialkineticenergyofmovingmolecules

Excessivefrictioninacarengine a. b. c. d. maypreventmovementofsomeparts. increasesoilviscosity. decreaseswear. improvegasmileage.

3.

Asagasiscompressed a. b. c. d. spacebetweenthemoleculesdecrease. temperaturedecreases. partialkineticenergyisexpended. condensationisremovedfromthecompressedgastoreducecorrosion

4.

Electricity a. b. c. d. isheat. isobtainedfromkineticenergy. whenappliedtoaresistancereducesheatbyelectromotiveforce. canbeusedtoproduceheat.

5.

Asmoleculesarepressedclosertogether a. theforcesofrepulsionandattractionequalize.

39

SM0486 b. c. d. 6. repulsionforceincreases. attractionforceincreases. repulsionforcedecreases.

RefertoFigure2andTable2. Whentheviperismovedfromposition1to position2,kineticenergyisincreases a. b. 2times. 4times. c. d. .05watts. .2watts.

Figure2.Energy,heat,andpowerinanelectricalcircuit.

40

SM0486 TABLE2 AppliedenergyKineticenergyHeat

7.

Withanincreaseintemperaturemolecularmotioninmaterial a. b. decreases. increases. c. d. remainsconstant. is transferred to the tip of an allmetalpoker.

8.

Most of the air is evacuated from the column of a mercuryinglass thermometerto a. b. c. preventcontaminationofthemercury. permituseofanonlinearscale. permitfreeexpansionofthemercurytothetopofthetube. 41

SM0486 d. 9. maintainthemercuryataconstantviscosity.

YouobtainaresistancereadingfromtheMuellerbridgeof26.111ohms,the temperatureisapproximately a. b. 5.5F. .5C. c. d. 5.5C. 55C.

10.

Whatstatementistruewhencalibratinganalcoholinglassthermometer? a. b. c. d. Reducethetemperatureofthecalibratorsothealcoholfreezesbefore takingthefirstreading. Insurethatthethermometeriswithintherangeofthecalibrator. Alcoholinglass thermometers are not as accurate as mercuryinglass thermometers. Exercisecautionwhenapproachingtheboilingpointofalcohol.

11.

Asyntheticnonflammableoilisusedwiththethermometercalibratorto a. b. c. d. preventcorrosionofthemercurycontacts. actasamediaforheattransfer. lubricatethethermometercalibrator. protecttheheatingunit.

12.

Youaremakingathermocoupletemperaturemeasurementandobtainareadingof 5.790millivoltsfromthepotentiometer.Whatisthevalueoftemperature? a. b. 655K. 654C. c. d. 654K. 655C.

13.

Measurementwithanopticalpyrometerconsistsof a. b. c. d. comparing the illumination of the standard source to that of the hot body. determiningthedifferencebetweenthehotandcoldjunctions. readingthemillivoltoutputofthecoldjunction. thermoelectricandopticalcomputations.

42

SM0486 l4. Theamountofmoisturethataircanholdwhenitissaturated a. b. c. d. 15. remainsconstant. decreaseswithtemperature. isinverselyproportionaltoairpressure. increaseswithtemperature.

Whentherelativehumidityreaches100% a. b. c. d. increasingthetemperaturewillformwaterdropletsonexposedsurfaces. waterdropletswillformonexposedsurfaces. frostformsonexposedsurfaces. decreasingthetemperaturewillincreasethecapacityofair.

43

SM0486 LESSON2.PRESSUREMEASUREMENTANDDEVICES AIPDSubcourseNumberSM0486...........MECHANICAL AND MEASUREMENTPRINCIPLES ELECTROMECHANICAL

LessonObjectives......................Givenlessonobjectivesandsupportivetext, you should be able to answer all exercise questionspertainingtopressureprinciples, pressure gages, barometers, and manometers withnoerrors. CreditHours...........................Two TEXT 1. INTRODUCTION

Your job assignment is the mechanicalelectromechanical section includes the calibration ofalltypesofpressuremeasuringandindicatingdevices. Youmust know the principles related to the operation and calibration of the pressure measuringequipmentsenttoyoursection.Theinformationinthislessonexplains the pressure principles associated with pressure measurements and the operating principlesofsomepressuremeasuringdevices. 2. PRESSUREPRINCIPLES

a. When the term "pressure principles" is used in this section, we are referringtothetheoriesandlawsofphysicswhichareappliedtothefollowing: Definitionsandterminologyassociatedwiththephysicalforceswhichaffect andareaffectedbypressure. Thenatureoffluidpressureanditstransmissioninandthroughfluids. Atmosphericpressureandvacuum. b. DefinitionsandAssociatedTerminology.Mostofthedefinitionsforterms used in this chapter are identified as they are needed. One of the paragraphs whichfollowsextendsthedefinitionsformassandweightastheyapplytopressure measurements. The remaining paragraphs explain additional terms associated with pressuremeasurements. c. Mass and weight are two of the fundamental quantities which must be clearly defined when used with pressure measurements. The mass of a body is a measure ofthematterwhichthebodypossesses. Althoughthemassofabodyis expressedinthesameunitsasweight(grams,pounds,etc.),theyarenotthesame. Theweightofabodyisthepullorforce

44

SM0486 ofgravityactingonthatbody.Thedifferencebetweenmassandweightcanbeseen when we compare a 5pound weight with a 10pound weight. If both weights are dropped from heights in the same locality, their accelerations are the same (32 ft/sec/sec).However,theinertia(forceresistinganychangeinthevelocityofa body) of the 10pound weight is twice that of the 5pound weight because of the inertiaofabodyisdirectlyproportionaltoitsweight.Sincethegravitational pullonabodyvariesinverselywiththesquareofthedistancefromtheearth,the weightofabodyisnotconstant. d. The force which tends to pull a body toward the center of the earth is known as gravity. The intensity of force varies inversely as the square of the distancethatabodyismovedawayfromthecenteroftheearth. Thismeansthat the"pull"ofgravityonabodywhichissituatedatsealevelisgreaterthanit wouldbeonthesamebodyatapoint5000feetabovesealevel. e. There are several terms which are more directly related to the pressure measuringinstrumentsusedinyourlaboratory. Thesetermsandthecorresponding definitionsareincludedinthelistwhichfollows: BuoyancyThe "upward" force that pushes against a body which is submerged whollyorpartiallyinaliquid. Theforcewithwhichthebodyisbuoyedupis equaltotheweighttotheliquiddisplacedbythebody. ResolutionThesensitivityofaninstrument. Thesmallestalterationinthe quantity to be measured which produces any change whatever (response) in the indicationoftheinstrument. SensitivityThe degree of responsiveness. The rate of displacement of the indicatingelementwithrespecttochangesinthemeasuredquantity. RepeatabilityPerformancerelativetotheinstrumentitself.Ameasureofthe consistencyofperformance. Thequalityofrepeatabilityisusuallyexpressedin termsofpercentagevariationofreading. HydrostaticHeadSometimesreferredtoashydraulichead,oilhead,orhead. Theheightofacolumnofbodyoffluidaboveagivenpointconsideredascausing, counteracting, or measuring pressure. In determining the quality of pressure causedbyacertainhead,multiplytheheightofthecolumnoffluidbythefluid density. ToleranceAspecifiedallowanceforerrororvariationfromstandardoperation ormeasurement. f. Thetermsincludedintheprecedinglistareusedintechnicaldocuments whichprovideinformationconcerningequipmentchangesandcalibrationprocedures. Whenyouaresurethatyouunderstandallofthetermslisted,youshouldhavevery littletroubleunderstandingthematerialwhichfollowsinthischapter.Let'ssee howtheseterms(someofwhichrepresenttheoriesandlawsofphysics)arerelated tootherphysi

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SM0486 cal conditions and laws which you must know and consider when you make pressure measurements. 3. TheNatureofFluidPressureandItsTransmission.Inordertounderstandthe nature of pressure in a fluid, you must recall and understand Pascal's law (principle) which concerns fluid pressure. We are referring to the law which states: "Pressure applied to an inclosed fluid is transmitted equally in all directionswithoutlossandactswithequalforceonequalsurfaces." Fromthis law we can reason that the pressure existing in the fluid in an inclosed system exertsaforceatrightanglesagainstthewallssurroundingthefluid,isshownin Figure1. Figure1.Fluidpressurewithinasystem

a. Theshapeofafirehosebeforetheapplicationofpressurefromthefire hydrant isillustratedinFigure1,A. Figure1,B,showshowequalforcesare applied in all directions on equal surfaces of the walls surrounding the water. Figure 2 supports that portion of Pascal's law (principle) which concerns the abilityofafluidtotransmitpressurewithoutaloss. The5lbs/in2 outputof thegreaseguninFigure2dependsonthesealmadebetweenthemovinggasketand theinnerwallsofthegun. Itisobviousthattheareaofthepistonsurfaceis fourorfivetimesthatofthepimpopening. However,sincethepressureexerted bythepistonis5poundsforeachin2 ofsurface,thepressureexertedatthe1 in2pumpopeningis5pounds. Figure2.Afluidtransmitspressurewithoutaloss

b. Hydraulic(Hydrostatic)PressOperatingPrinciple.Let'sexaminePascal's principleasitisappliedtothehydraulic(hydrostatic)pressinFigure3.

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SM0486 Figure3.Hydraulic(hydrostatic)pressprinciple

c. The pressure transmitted to the bottom of the movable piston and the distancethetopofthepistonmovesisdeterminedasfollows.Sincepressureina fluidistransmittedequallyinalldirectionsandactswithequalforceonequal surfaces,the3poundpressureappliedbythehosepistonwhoseinsidedimensionis 1in2 istransmittedtoeachsquareinchofsurfaceonthebottomofthemovable piston. Since there are 9 square inches of surface, the total upward force (pressure)is3X9,or27pounds.(SeeexampleAbelow.) d. Inoursecondexample(exampleB)baseduponFigure3,iftheareaofthe largepistonis50timestheareaofthesmallpiston,thenaforceof5pounds appliedtothesmallpistonappliesatotalforceof250pounds/in2upwardagainst thelargepiston. Insimpleterms,thetotalupwardforceistheproductofthe appliedforceandtheratiooftheoutput(upward)pistonareatotheinputpiston area. Simpleratioscanbeusedtoobtainthesameanswer. Referringagainto Figure3,lettheforceappliedtothepistonwhosecrosssectionalareais1in2 be represented by F1 and let F2 represent the total force on the bottom of the piston. LetthecrosssectionalareaofthehosepistonberepresentedbyA1and theareaofthelargemovablepistonberepresentedbyA2.Thetotalforceisthe proportion:

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SM0486

e. ThetotalforceappliedtothebottomofthemovablepistoninFigure3is manytimestheforceappliedtotheinput,butthepistonmovementisverysmall. This is true because the distances moved by the two pistons are inversely proportionaltothepistonareas. 4. AtmosphericPressureandVacuum. Youdependonbothofthesewhenapressure devicesuchastheA1barometerisusedtocalibratealtimeters.Asyoustudythe materialonatmosphericpressureandvacuumandtheireffectsondifferentdevices, youshouldattempttoestablishrelationshipsbetweenthefollowing: Forceandatmosphericpressure. Fluidpressureandatmosphericpressure. a. Whenwespeakofair(atmosphere)pressure,werefertotheintensityof the force,perunitarea,whichairexertsonanobject. Inmostinstancesyou expresspressurevaluesasagivennumberifinches,centimeters,ormillimetersof mercury. Theseunitswerederivedbypouringaquantityofmercuryintoaglass tube.Theopenendofthetubewastiltedsothatthemercurycouldbepouredinto an open dish or pan as the closed end of the tube was turned to an upright position. Themercuryfromthetubewasemptiedintothedishuntilitslevelin thetubedroppedto30inches(76cmor760mm),asshowninFigure4.

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SM0486 Figure4.Oneatmospherestandardpressure

6. ThearrowsinFigureLindicatethatatmosphericpressureexertedonabodyat sealevelisinadownwarddirection(towardthecenterofgravityoftheearth). Thisdownwardforce(atmosphericpressure)isameasureoftheweightoftheairat a given point (relative to sea level) at a given temperature. The average atmosphericpressureexertedonabodyatsealevelisapproximately14.7lbs/in2 andiscalledoneatmosphere.Thisprinciple,illustratedinFigure4,isbasedon thefactthat,influids,pressureisexertedinalldirectionsbyequalamounts. Atmospheric pressure also exerts force in all directions. The air over a horizontal surface exerts a force equal to the weight of all the air over the surface. Ifthesurfaceisnothorizontal,theairstillpressesperpendicularly againstitwithaforceequaltotheweightofalltheairthatwouldpressonit ifitwereinahorizontalposition.

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SM0486 c. Because theatmosphereisheavieratsealevelthatatpointsabovesea level,thestandardpressureofoneatmosphere(l4.7lbs/in2 at0 Celsius)exists for sea level only. As the measuring instrument is moved from sea level to a locationabovesealevel,thelevelofmercuryinatubedropsfrom30inches(76 cm or 760 mm) because the weight of the air above the tube becomes less as the heightincreases.Thedecreaseintheweightofairisindicatedbyadecreasein atmosphericpressure. d. Thechangeinatmosphericpressurecanbecalculatedifthetotalchange inheightandthedensityoftheairatthenewlocationareknown. Youusethe followingequation:

e. If the density of air is not known, divide the increase in height (convertedtofeet)by90andmultiplythequotientby0.1.Theanswerrepresents thenumberofinchesofdropinthecolumnofmercury.Thismeansthatthemercury intheinvertedglasstubeofFigure4drops0.1inchforevery90footincreasein altitude,asshowninFigure5.

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SM0486 Figure5.Atmosphericpressurechanges

f. ThevaluesinFigure5showthattheincreaseinaltitudeisgreaterthan 90 feet. Therefore, the mercury level decrease in the tube is greater than 0.1 inch. Todeterminethedrop(ininches),thetotalincreaseinaltitude(500)is dividedby90andtheresultismultipliedby0.1todeterminethedecreaseinthe mercurylevel.Nowthatyouknowthebasicprinciplesassociatedwithforce,fluid pressure,andatmosphericpressure,wecontinueyourstudyofpressureprinciples byteachingtheprinciplesassociatedwithpressuregages. 5. PressureGages

a. Normally when we think of measuring pressure, the gage is the first instrumentthatcrossesourmind.Let'sbeginourdiscussionofpressuremeasuring instrumentswiththegage.Pressuregages,inspiteoftheirintendeduse,havea numberofcommoncharacteristics.Almostallpagesindicatethepressurebymeans ofapointeronagraduateddial.AsshowninFigure6,A,thepointerturnsabout apointlocatedinthecenteroftheindicatingdialinaconcentrictypegage,or thepointermaybelocatedoffcenterasintheeccentrictypegageofFigure6,B. Anothercommoncharacteristicofgagesisthatthepressuretobemeasuredisthe sole source of power required to provide an indication. This is accomplished throughtheuseofsomesortofelasticchamberinsidethegage

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SM0486 casewhichconvertsthepressuretoamotionwhichistranslatedthroughsuitable linksandleversintopropermotionofthepointeracrosstheindicatingscale. Figure6.Gageswithconcentricandeccentricscales

b. ClassificationofGages.Therearefivebasicwaysbywhichgagescanbe broadlyclassified.Theseareby: A.S.A.standards. Casetype. Generalfieldofuse. Specificenduse. Typeofmeasuringelement. Of these five classifications we will discuss the classifications only by A.S.A. standards,specificenduse,andtypeofmeasuringelement. (1) ClassificationbyA.S.A.standards.TheAmericanSocietyofMechanical Engineers sponsored and accepted standards for pressure and vacuum gages. These standardswerepreparedbytheAmericanStandardsAssociationandarereferredto as the "A.S.A. Standards." The standards classify gages into three grades of accuraciestowhichtheyaretobe

52

SM0486 manufactured. It also establishes a series of standard case sizes, mounting dimensions,ranges,dialappearance,etc. (2) Theterms"accuracy"and"errorinindication"arefrequentlyusedin thedefinitionsofthethreegradeclassifications.Atthispoint,therefore,let usdefinetheseterms. (3) "Accuracy"isthequalityofexactnessorcorrectnessinthepressure indication.Itismeasuredandgradedbytheamountofdegreeoferrorbetweenthe indicatedpressureandthetruepressureactingonthegage.Forexample,suppose agagehasarangeof0to500psigandactuallyindicated260psigwhenyouapply atruepressureof250psig. (4) The"error"inpressureindicationisplus10psig,andtheaccuracy, expressedinpercentoffullscale(rangeofthegage),iscalculatedasfollows:

(5) Iftheindicationofthegageis240psigwhenatruepressureof250 psigisapplied,theerrorinpressureindicationisminus10psigandtheaccuracy is2percent. c. Nowletsturnourattentiontotheclassificationofgages. Duringthis discussion refer often to Figure 7, which graphically illustrates the A.S.A. accuracies.

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SM0486 Figure7.A.S.A.accuracies

(1) AgradeAAtestgageisdefinedasthattypegagewhereintheerrorin pressure indication at any point of scale is not to exceed 1/2 percent of the maximumpressureforwhichthescaleisgraduated(thatis,1/2percentof500psig intheexamplegivenabove,or 2.5psig). GradeAAgagesareoftensaidtobe "guaranteed accurate within 1/2 percent of scale range." Grade AA gages are normallyusedforthefollowingpurposes: Researchlaboratorieswhereaccuratemeasurementsarerequired. Productiontesting. Standards to check less accurate gages in the field or in a maintenance shop. Teststands. (2) Even though this classification by A.S.A. is called a "test gage," gages with this accuracy are often used for other than strictly "test" applications. Also, deal indicating gages can be obtained with accuracies even betterthen1/2percent(suchas1/4percent)formoreexactingmeasurements. (3) Classification of a gage by the A.S.A. standard accuracy may affect othergagespecifications. Forexample,GradeAAgagesarenotgenerallyoffered in dial sizes below 4 1/2 inch diameter, because it is difficult to read this degree of accuracy on a deal any smaller than 4 1/2 inches. In addition, manufactureofgagestothishighdegreeofaccuracyismuchmoredifficultasthe gagesizedecreases. (4) In a grade A high grade commercial gage, as shown in Figure 7b, the errorinpressureindicationisnottoexceed11/2percentofthescalerangeat anypointwithinthemiddleofthescale(above25percent

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SM0486 ofscaleupto75percentofscale)and11/2percentofthescalerangeoverthe remainder of the range. In a grade A high grade commercial gage, the middle portionofthescaleisoftenreferredtoasthe"working"portionbecauseitisin thisportionthatpressureindicationsaremostfrequentlymade.GradeAgagesare commonly used in power plants, refrigeration systems, hydraulic presses, and a numberofotherapplicationswheresteam,water,oils,andgasesaretheprincipal measuredmedia. Theyoftenrepresentagoodcompromisebetweenhighaccuracyand initialcost. (5) WithagradeBcommercialgage,theerrorinpressureindicationisnot toexceed 2percentofscalerangeatanypointwithinthemiddlehalfofscale and, fortheremainder, 3 percentofscalerange(seeFigure7c). Mostofthe gages that are installed on air compressors, fire extinguishers, and similar equipmentfallintotheGradeBclassification.Theaccuracyisgenerallyadequate forsuchapplication,andthegagecanbemadesuitablyrugged,aswellascompact andeconomical. (6) Classificationbyspecificenduse. Anumberofgagenameshavecome intobeingbecausetheyweredesignedforaspecificenduse. Theyusedictates certaindesignfeatureswhichmaymakethegagequitesuitableforotheruses,but oftentheoriginalnamesticks. a. Oneexampleistheammoniagage,whichhasstainlesssteelinternal parts to withstand ammonia and its fumes. It also has two sets of scale graduations: one for the pressure, and the other for the ammonia temperature equivalent.TheA.S.A.standardsrecognizethisspecifictype,specifyingthatthe gageshallhave"plainlyinscribed"onitsdialtheword"Ammonia." Othergages designedforspecificserviceinrefrigerationorairconditioningequipmenthave similardesignfeatures.Thedualscaleusuallyhaspressuregraduationsinblack numbers,andtherefrigerant'stemperatureequivalentinrednumbers.Arisingfrom the service needs, such gages usually have a convenient zero adjustment and celluloseacetatecrystals. b. Oxygen gages are another type gage specifically designed for measurementofoxygenpressure.A.S.A.standardsspecifythatsuchagageshall: Be equipped with a reliable and efficient safety device to minimize dangerintheeventofarupturedelement. When delivered, be free of grease, oil, or any other substance which reactsexplosivelywithoxygen. Bearthefollowinginscriptiononthefaceofthedial:"OXYGENUSENO OIL." c. The hydraulicgageisspecificallyconstructedforserviceathigh pressures,wherewaterornoncorrosiveliquidisthepressuremedium,suchasgages forhydraulicpresses.

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SM0486 d. The hydrostaticheadgageemploysoneormoreelasticchambersand differs from ordinary types only in the graduation of the scale. The scale is usuallygraduatedtoshowtheheadofwater,orotherliquid,infeet.Itmayalso read in "psi" pressure. The gage finds uses in hot water heating systems, for example,toshowtheheadofliquidinthesystem. e. Othergagenameswhichareselfdescriptiveoftheirserviceinclude "boiler", "welding", and "sprinkler". Generally, the gages have been specially designed, or are modifications of a standard type, to meet specific codes or specifications. (7) Calibration of Gages. In calibrating pressure or vacuum gages, a pressure standard is used to produce a known pressure or vacuum. With a known pressureorvacuumtheerror(ifany)ofthegagebeingcalibratedisdetermined. Inthisdiscussionwewillassumethatwehaveastandardpressureavailableandwe willthereforeconcernourselvesonlywiththemechanicsofgagecalibration. a. One of the first things to remember when preparing to calibrate a pressuregageisthatthegagemustbemountedinexactlythesamepositionasin its normal installation. For example, if the gage is normally installed on the horizontalposition,itshouldbecalibratedinthehorizontalposition. b. Thedeviationinindicationbetweenthecalibrationstandardandthe gageundertestfallintooneormoreofthefollowingclassifications: Friction. Hysteresis. Rangeerror. Scaleshapeerror. Zeroshift. c. Letslookateachofthesetypesoferrorsanddiscusstheirnature aswellastheirremedy. (1) Friction. a. Friction is the difference between the pointer indication before andafterlighttapping. Additionally,thisconditionmaybeobservedby sluggish or erratic pointer movement either up or down scale. Friction may be causedbymanyfactors,themostcommonofwhicharedirtandexcessivewear. b. The correction for friction involves cleaning all bearing surfacesandgearteeth.Thisanusuallybedonebygentleagitationinabathof

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SM0486 suitableindustrialsolvent. Theunitshouldthenbepromptlydriedwithalight blastofclean,dryair. Keepinmindthatwhenyouusevolatilecleaningfluids youshouldtakeproperprecautionsforadequateventilation. c. Shouldthecontaminationanddirtbeverystubborn,itmaybe necessary to completely disassemble the movement parts to gain access to all bearing holes. Great care should be exercised not to damage or distort the hairspring.Ifexcessivelywornpartsareevidenttheyshouldbereplaced. (2) Hysteresis. a. Hysteresisisthevariationinpointerposition,atanygiven point, between upscale and downscale indication after light tapping to minimize frictioninthemechanism.Figure8illustratesanexampleofhysteresis. Figure8.Hysteresisdialexample

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SM0486 b. It is important to understand that hysteresis differs from friction in that when hysteresis is present in a gage it cannot be eliminated. This condition will cause the indication to read high on decreasing pressure. Hysteresisisafunctionofelasticchamberrepeatability. c. Sincethereisnomechanicalcorrectionwhichcanbemade,the onlysolutionistomakeacorrectionchartandattachittothegage.Inthisway theusercanmakementalandvisualcorrectionsasnecessary. (3) Rangeerror. a. As shown in Figure 9, range error is the pointer error of increasing,ordecreasing,magnitudewhichiscompoundedasthepointertraverses the scale from zero to maximum scale indication. At maximum applied scale pressure,thisconditioncausesthepointertoreadshortofmaximumindicationif the spring is strong, or over maximum indication if the spring is weak. Range errorisafunctionofthedistancebetweenthecenterofthearbor(sectorpivot point)andthecenterlineofthelinkage,whichconnectsthespringwiththesector. Figure9.Rangeerrordialexample

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SM0486 b. Figure 10 illustrates the method for correcting range error. Whenthepointertraversesthedialtooslowlyortoorapidly,theleveragerates at thetailofthesectormustbemovedtocompensateoragreewiththeBourdon spring's motion. When the pointer moves too fast, the link screw should be loosenedandmovedalittleatatimeinthedirection"B". Ifthepointermoves tooslowly,thelinkshouldbemovedindirection"A"untiltheindicationagrees withthemaster.Whenproperlyset,thescrewshouldbetightenedsecurely. Figure10.Adjustmenttocorrectforrangeerror

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SM0486 (4) Scaleshapeerror. a. Scaleshapeerrorisadeviationinlinearitywhichmayvary in value and create a plus and/or minus indication at various points over the entire scale range, even though the indication at the beginning and end of the scale is correct. Figure 11 illustrates a gage with scale shape error. Scale shapeerrorisafunctionofthelengthandpositionofthelinkage,whichconnects thespringtothesector. Figure11.Scaleshapeerrordialexample

b. Correction for scale shape error involves rotation of the entiremovement,thelockingscrewsofwhichareusuallylocatedattherearofthe gage. As shown in Figure 12, units that do not provide the movement rotation featuremayprovideforadjustmentinthelengthofthelinkwhichhasessentially thesameeffectasrotationofthemovement.Gageshavinglesseraccuracyusually donotprovideanymeansofscaleshapeadjustment.

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SM0486 Figure12.Adjustmenttocorrectforscaleshapeerror

c. Whentheerrorsareincreasinglyplusforthefirst50percent ofthescale,thecompletemovementshouldberotatedindirection"A"asshownin Figure12,whichhasthesameeffectasshorteningthelink.Shouldthegageread increasingly slow for the first 50 percent of the scale, the movement should be rotatedindirection"B",whichproducestheeffectoflengtheningthelink.When the pointer travel is evenly divided on both sides of center, the proper angle between the link and sector tail has been established to provide the desired linearity. The locking screws should now be properly tightened to secure this position. (5) Zeroshift. a. Zero shift is a linear deviation of constant value over the entirescalerangeandmaycauseeitheraplusorminusindication.Thiscondition isusuallycausedbyashiftofpointerpositiononthepinionorbyashiftofthe dialposition. b. Compensation for zero shift is accomplished very simply by repositioning the pointer; or in gages with adjustable dials, this is done by adjustingthedialtoagreewiththeindicationofthepressurestandard.Youhave completedyourstudyofpressuregages.Nowyoumustlearnhowpressureprinciples areappliedinmeasurementsperformedwithbarometers. 8. Barometers. Since a barometer is an instrument which measures atmospheric (barometric)pressure,wediscussthebarometercapabilities(suchaspossessedby theA1type)whichpermitthecalibrationofaltimeters 61

SM0486 and other pressure measuring devices. We will also discuss the construction principleappliedinthedesignortheaneroidbarometer. a. Sighting the mercury level. After you have completed the operational adjustments,youshouldgivethetablewhichsupportsthebarometerseveralraps. Rappingthetablebeforeeachreadinghelpsyouadjustthemeniscusshapeinthe tube and cistern. The desired shape is shown in Figure 13. Error incurred by impropermeniscusshapemaybeaslargeas0.15mm. Figure13.Sightingthemercurylevel

b. Barometerapplication. (1) When you use the barometer to calibrate aircraft altimeters, you connecttheequipmentasshowninFigure14.Thealtimeteroperatingprinciplehas alreadybeendiscussed,butnoattemptwasmadetoestablishitsrelationtothe altimeters. Simply, atmospheric pressures change as distances from the earth's centerofgravitychange. Thealtimeterdetectsatmosphericchangesandconverts atmospheric pressure values to altitude values. The A1 barometer performs the samefunction,exceptthatyoucan'tinstallanA1barometerwithitsmercuryin an aircraft as easily as you can install an altimeter. Let us return to our equipment connection in Figure l4. The connections should suggest the following conclusions: a. Becauseavacuumvalveandareliefvalveareused,avacuumpumpis necessary b. Becausethevacuumpumpisconnectedtothetestchamberbywayof thevacuumvalve,apartialvacuumiscreatedinthetestchamberby thepump.

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SM0486 c. Atmospheric pressure values created in the test chamber are convertedtoaltitudereadingsonthealtimeterscales. d. Afterthebarometerisadjustedtoreadthevacuumpressureinthe test chamber,thealtitudereadingsonthealtimetersshouldagree withthebarometerscalereadings. Figure14.Calibrationofaltimeters

Does the list of conclusions agree with yours? Did you draw additional conclusions? There were more, but we hope that the ones listed were obvious to you. Let's examine a typical altimeter calibration procedure to see if the precedinglistissufficient. (2) ConnectthebarometertothesystemasshowninFigure14.Checkyour adjustmentofthetemperatureandgravityindicesforproperpositionsandadjust thevernierslidetothedesiredpressureandaltitude. Usingthevernierclamp locknut (Figure 15) make the final adjustment with the vernier adjusting nut. Alignthealtitudeindexonthevernierslidewiththedesiredaltitudemarkonthe scalewithinoneofthefollowinginternals; 1000to10,000feet,markedeach100feet. 10,000to50,000feet,markedeach500feet.

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SM0486 50,000to100,000feet,markedeach1000feet. 100,000to150,000feet,markedeach10,000feet. 150,000to200,000feet,nointermediatemarking. Figure15.A1barometercomputingcorrectionmechanism

(3) You should realize that you have adjusted the barometer scales for a readingatoneofthealtitudesintheprecedinglist.Forthegreatestaccuracy, correctthevernierslidesettingusingthecalibrationchartonthefrontofthe mounting platform(Figure16). Thecalibrationchartcorrectionssigns(+or) areproperasindicatedandshouldbeusedwhenconvertingtheobservedreadingto truepressurevalues.

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SM0486 Figure16.Barometercalibrationcorrectionchart

(4) In some cases, you must reverse the sign when the reading to be observed for a given true pressure is desired. For example, assume that an altimeter is calibrated at 6000 feet. When the vernier slide altitude index is positioned at 6000 feet, the pressure vernier indicates 609.00 mm. If the calibrationchartcorrectionforareadingof609.00mmis0.04mm,itisaddedto the609.00mmtoobtain609.04mm,whichisthetruesettingofthevernierslide for6000feet. (5) You can see that the preceding example is a direct reverse of the procedure used in the example used for Figure 16. Let's continue with the altimetercalibrationwhichisourexampleofatypicalA1barometerapplication. (6) Open the vacuum valve slightly. The mercury should fall and the altimeters should indicate an increase in altitude. As the pressure nears the desired point,themeniscusinsidethesightingringisvisiblethroughtheopen sideofthering.Continuetodecreasethepressure(withthevacuumvalve)until the highest point of the meniscus appears to barely touch the lower edge of the sightingringasshowninFigure13.Ifthepressurehasbeenreducedtoomuch,as indicatedbylightbeingvisibleabovetheentiremeniscus,closethevacuumvalve completelyandslowlyopenthereliefvalvetoallowthepressuretorisetothe properpoint. (7) Afteryouhaveadjustedthepressuretoalignthemercurymeniscuswith thesightingring,thepressureinthetestchamberisthesameasthealtitudefor whichthevernierslidewasset. Readandrecordthealtimeterreadings. These readings shouldagreewiththealtitudeforwhichthebarometervernierslideis set. 9. TheAneroidBarometer.

a. Altimeters use aneroid barometers for their pressure sensing devices. Therefore, we are primarily concerned with the construction principle of the aneroidbarometeranditspressuresensingcapabilities.Figure17isincludedso that you can see how the aneroid barometer construction principle is applied on pressure measurements. To simplify our analysis of the aneroid construction principle,weestablishasetofconditionsanda

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SM0486 seriesofrelatedmechanicalmovementswhichoccurwhentheaneroidissubjectedto anincreaseordecreaseinatmosphericpressures.Theseconditionsandmechanical movementsareasfollows: (1) The partially evacuated chamber shown in Figure 17 has a thin corrugated metallic cover which retains its shape and volume until subjectedtochangesinatmosphericpressure. (2) ArmAinFigure17isrigidsothatslightchangesinvolumeandshape atPandP'canbetransferredtomultiplyingleversconnectingtoB. (3) TheleverarmCBrotatesaboutthepivotpointtocausemoreorless tensiononthespringwhenarmAismoveddownorup. (4) Asthetensiononthespringisincreasedordecreased,thespindleN turnsinacounterclockwiseorclockwisedirection. Figure17.TheAneroidBarometer

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SM0486 b. From an examination of Figure 17 you can reason that as a plane goes higher, thepressureonthepartialvacuumchamberisless,therebyallowingthe spring tension of the metal to return the chamber to its original shape. The apparentincreaseinvolumecausesaslightupwardmovementofarmA.Thisupward movementofarmAismultipliedbyLeversBandBC,causingleverarmBCtorotate in a counterclockwise rotation about the pivot point. You can see that a counterclockwise rotation of the pointer (lower pressurehigher altitude). The last section of this lesson presents the operating principle for typical manometers.Thebasicpressureprincipleswhichaffecttheoperationofbarometers alsoaffecttheoperationofmanometers. 10. Manometers. a. Information in this section is limited to the well type manometer. We willdiscussthewelltypemanometerwhichisdirectreading(notnecessarytoadd fluid deflections above and below normal zero as is the case with Utype manometers). The useful range is 61 inches for temperatures between 4.44 and 48.89C.(40and120F.).Weareprimarilyconcernedwiththeprincipleonwhich themanometerdesignisbasedandtheoperationoftheinstrumentwhenitisused forpressuremeasurements. b. Since the manometer uses the fundamental principle of the balance of hydrostaticforcestomeasurepressure,wewillincludeanexampleheretoexplain thebalanceofhydrostaticforces. Placeablockofmaterialwiththedimensions showninFigure18onascaleplatform.WhentheblockofmaterialinFigure18is placedontheplatform,thefollowingrelationshipsexist: (1) Theforceexertedbytheblockonthescaleplatformequalstheweight oftheblock(8pounds). (2) Iftheblockrestsonside1,theweightorforceperunitareais, 8 2x1 or 4 pounds per square inch. This is the pressure developed by the block against the scale platform. Similarity, if the block rests on sideII,thepressureis2poundspersquareinch(total8pounds),and for side III, 1 pound per square inch (total 8 pounds). Since the scale platform exerts an equal force in the opposite direction, regardlessoftheblockposition,thereisastaticbalance. Without suchbalance,motionoccursinthedirectionoftheunbalancedforce. (3) Ifthevolumeremainsfixed,thenthepressuresdevelopbymaterialsof differentdensities(weightperunitvolume)varyindirectproportion tothedensity.

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SM0486 Figure18.RelationshipofForceandPressure

The preceding example was included to establish a relationship between density (weightperunitvolume),volume,andthebalance. c. PressuresAssociatedwithManometers. (1) The pressure existing in, or exerted by, a fluid is (among other factors)afunctionoftheamountoffluidpresent. Inthecaseaof gas,itisthetotaleffectproducedbyallthemoleculesofthegas andtheindividualvelocitiesproducingimpactonallsidesofasealed tubecontainingthegas.Asgasisremovedfromthetube,thepressure inthetubedecreasesasthetubevolumeperunitofgasincreases. (2) Inengineeringandscientificwork,twopressuresarecommonlyusedfor reference:absolutezeroandatmospheric.Atmosphericpressureisthat pressure existing at the location on or above the earth and is the totaleffectofallairabovetothelimitoftheatmosphere. Itis subject to change by reason of temperature changes and local weather conditions. It is measured and indicated by a barometer at the location. A graphic relationship between absolute and atmospheric pressuresisshowninFigure19.

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SM0486 Figure19.ApproximateRelationshipsofReferencePressures

(3) In addition to establishing a relationship between absolute and atmosphericpressures,Figure19alsoestablishesthefactthatvacuum isbasedonatmosphericpressure;highvacuumapproachesabsolutezero, lowvacuumapproachesatmosphericpressure.Theconventionalmanometer charts list pressures referenced to atmosphere. Such readings are knownasgagepressures. AsmaybeseenfromaninspectionofFigure 19, absolute pressures may be obtained from gage pressures by determiningthebarometricoratmosphericpressureexistingatagiven time and place and adding the gage pressure to the atmospheric pressure. Forexample,lookatthechartinFigure19andlocatethe absolute pressure of 18 psia. This value represents the sum of the gagepressure(3psi)andtheapproximateatmosphericpressureatsea level(15psia). (4) We havestudiedthepreliminarytheories,conditions,andconceptsof manometer pressure measurement; now let's examine the principle on whichtheoperationofthewelltypemanometerisbased.

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SM0486 d. WellTypeManometerPrinciple. (1) The well type manometer used the principle of balancing an unknown pressure with pressure exerted by an unknown pressure with pressure withpressureexertedbyaquantityofliquidwhosedensityisknown. WhenamanometerwellandtubeA(AinFigure20)areexposedtoequal pressures,P1,thebalancecreatedcausesthesurfaceoftheliquidsin thetubeandwelltorisetoequallevels. Figure20.WelltypeManometerSchematic

(2) WhenapressuresuchasP2inFigure20B,isappliedtothemanometer well, thecombinedpressuresP1 andP2 causetheliquidlevelinthe welltodropfromlevelAtolevelC.Thecombinedpressurescausethe liquidlevelinthetubetorisefromtheoriginallevelAtolevelB. Inthetube,thepressureatlevelCisequaltoP1plustheweightof thecolumnofliquidaboveCdividedbythecrosssectionalareaofthe tube. InthewellatlevelC,thepressureequalsP1 plusP2. Since these pressures are at the same level (c), they are equal, and the basicequationforthemanometeris:

Because h = h1 + h2 is the level change in the well and therefore difficulttodeterminedirectly,hiscalculated. Propercompensation ismadeinthegraduationofthescalewhichmeasuresthelevelchange inthetube(h1). (3) IfP2islessthanP1,thelevelchangesareintheoppositedirection sothatCisaboveB.Inpracticaloperation,whenP2islessthanP1, thelowerpressureisappliedtothetube.Theheightisreadfromthe scaleintheusualmanner. WhenusingtheequationP2 =hd,handd must be in consistent units. If h is measured in inches, d is in poundspercubicinchandP2isin

70

SM0486 poundspersquareinch.Veryfrequentlymanometerscalesaregraduated toreaddirectlythedesiredunitsofpressure. (4) The importance of the effect of the density of liquid used in the manometerisapparentfromthebasicequation.Forthesamepressure, alargerdeflection(h)isobtainedwithalowdensityliquidcompared with that from a highdensity liquid. For low pressures, greater precision in the determination of the pressure results when substantially alloftheusefulrangeisused. Forinstance,ifthe pressure is approximately 2 pounds per square inch, the deflection using water is 55.4 inches, whereas using mercury, it would be 4.1 inches.Specificgravityistheratioofdensityofasubstancetothe densityofwaterat4 C.(39.2 F.). Therefore,thedensityofwater isusedasareferencewhendeterminingthespecificgravityofliquids used in a manometer. Now that you know the principle on which the manometer operates, let's discuss the manometer pressure measurement processandsomerelatedconsiderations. e. Manometer Pressure Measurements. A simplified system of basic test connectionsisshowninFigure21.YoushouldrealizethatthesysteminFigure21 shouldbeimprovedbytheadditionofshutoffandventvalves. Somepreliminary checks,adjustments,andconsiderationswhichyoushouldmakeareasfollows: (1) Beforetakingreadings,checkthemanometerliquidlevel. (2) Ventboththehighandlowpressureconnectionsandchecktheliquid againstthecorrespondingfillmark. (3) Turn the scale indicator knob (the larger of the two knurled knobs underthemanometerchannel)untiltheproperscale(gagepressureor vacuumabsolute pressure) is in position, visible through the glass cover. (4) Ifgagepressureorvacuumistobedetermined,turnthezerosetknob (the smaller knurled knob just below the scale indicator knob) in either directionasrequiredtobringthezeromarkinlinewiththe liquidmeniscusinthetube. (5) Ifabsolutepressurereadingsaremade,positionthescaletoindicate thecurrentbarometricpressureinlinewiththeliquidmeniscusinthe tube, making certain that the manometer is vented at the time of setting.

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SM0486 Figure21.Manometerbasictestconnections

(6) Itisnotnecessarytomakeadjustmentspriortoeachreading,butthey shouldbemadebeforeeachsetofreadingsusingthesamescale. If absolutepressurereadingsarebeingmade,thescansettingshouldbe checked against the actual barometric pressure hourly, or more often during periodsofrapidlychangingweatherconditions. Whenchecking or calibrating altimeters, use the scale marked "Using Mercury, Read Altitude in Thousands of Feet." Position the scale so that the millimeter graduation (on edge of scale) equal to the barometric pressure at the test location is aligned with the fill mark on the mercuryfillplateadjacenttothescale. Altitudemustberelatedto absolute pressure rather than gage pressure. For the standard atmosphere,thestandardpressureatsealevel(zeroaltitude)is760 millimetersofmercury. Positioningthescaleatthelocalbarometric pressure (in millimeters of mercury) automatically sets the altitude scale atthecorrectpressurealtitudeforthetestlocation. Itis not necessarily the absolute altitude because the barometric pressure at sea level, at the time of test, may not be 760 millimeters of mercury. Whenthealtimeter(aninstrumentconnectedforatest)and manometer are properly connected for a test, as shown in Figure 21, application of vacuum (or pressure) simulates pressure altitude from thetestlocation.

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SM0486 (7) With suitable connections made and the manometer adjusted, apply pressure(orvacuum)tothemanometerandtheinstrumentbeingtested. Gradually apply pressure, covering the entire instrument range, and record comparative readings. Should varying manometer readings be obtainedasyouincreaseordecreasepressure,itmayindicateasoiled glasstube.CAUTION:Therangeoftheinstrumentbeingtestednotthe manometerdetermines the maximum pressure or vacuum that should be applied. (8) Depending on the liquid used, the meniscus may be concave or convex. Always read the liquid level in the center of the tube (tangent to meniscus surface) regardless of the form the liquid takes. The manometerscalesaregraduatedforobservedreadingsat20C.(68F.) Ifmeasurementsaremadeatatemperatureotherthan20C.(68F),the readingsmustbemultipliedbyatemperaturecorrectionfactor.

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SM0486 AIPDSUBCOURSENUMBERSM0486 MECHANICALANDELECTORMECHANICALMEASUREMENTPRINCIPLES EXERCISESFORLESSON2 1. Themajordifferencebetweenmassandweightisthat a. b. c. d. 2. theweightofabodyisnotconstant. massismeasuredindynesandweightingramsorpounds. gravityaffectsmassinverselywiththesquareofthedistance. atanaccelerationof32ft./sec/sectheenertiaofa5lbs.weightis twicethatofa10lbs.weight.

Pressureappliedtoanenclosedfluidis a. b. c. d. exertedinthedirectionofpistontravel. exertedequallyinalldirectionswithaloss. atrightanglestotheappliedforce. equalinalldirectionswithoutloss.

3.

You have a hydraulic press which has a hose piston area of 3 in2 and a movable piston area of 24 in2. What is the total upward force (pressure) generatedbythemovablepistonwith20poundsapplied? a. b. 120pounds 1440pounds c. d. 160pounds 20pounds

4.

Atmosphericpressureatsealevelisapproximately a. b. 760cmofmercury. 76cmofmercury. c. d. 76inofwater. 30cmofwater.

5.

The barometeratyourstationindicates29.3inches. Thealtitudeatthis localisapproximately a. b. 90feet. 630feet. c. d. 500feet. 5000feet.

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SM0486 6. Oxygengagesmust a. b. c. d. 7. beoiledpriortouse. notbeusedwithnitrogen. neverbeusedwithoil. becalibratedfrequentlytominimizedangerfromarupturedelement.

Apressuregageshouldbecalibrated a. b. c. d. usingsecondaryreferencestandards. usingsecondarytransferstandards. inthesamepositionasitisnormallyused. withcompressednitrogentopreventcontamination.

8.

Rangeerror a. b. c. d. increasesathigherscaleindications. isthesamethroughouttherangeofthedial. isnotarepeatableerror. cannotbecorrectedbyamechanicaladjustmentandacorrectionchart mustbeprepared.

9.

Zeroshiftiscompensatedforby a. b. c. d. rotatingthemovementindirectionAorB. lengtheningthelink. shorteningthelink. repositioningthepointer.

10.

Rappingthetablebeforeeachreading a. b. c. d. levelsthemeniscusinthetube. helpsadjustthemeniscusshape. increasestheerrorbyasmuchas15mm. knocksloosecontaminatingdepositsfromthetube.

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SM0486 11. ThepartiallyevacuatedchambershowninFigure17 a. b. c. d. 12. isrigid. changesshapewithchangesinatmosphericpressure. increasesinlengthwhensubjectedtoavacuum. decreasesinlengthwhensubjectedtoavacuum.

Thetworeferencepressurescommonlyusedinscientificandengineeringwork are a. b. c. d. absoluteandatmospheric. absoluteand10psi. barometricandatmospheric. barometricandabsolute.

13.

You are calibrating an absolute pressure gage at 20 psia. Your standard, referencedtoatmosphericpressure,shouldindicateapproximately a. b. 20psi. 20inchesvacuum. c. d. 5psi. 5psia.

14.

Specificgravityistheratioofthedensityof a. b. c. d. thesubstancetothedensityofwater. thesubstancetothedensityofalcohol. watertothedensityofthesubstance. thesubstancetothedensityofmercury.

15.

Whencalibratinganaltimeter,altitudeissimulatedby a. b. c. d. vacuumandpressure. vacuum. thespecificgravityofmercury. 760millimetersofmercury.

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SM0486 LESSON3.ROTARYANDTORQUEMEASUREMENTS AIPDSubcourseNumberSM0486...........Mechanical and MeasurementPrinciples Electromechanical

LessonObjectives......................Given learning objectives and supportive text, you should be able to answer all exercise questions pertaining to rotary and torquemeasurementswithnoerrors. CreditHours...........................One TEXT 1. INTRODUCTION

Sometimeinyourassignmentasacalibrationspecialistyouwillberequiredto calibraterotaryandmeasuringdevices.Yourjobwillbemucheasierifyouhavea complete understanding of the terms and principles associated with rotary and torque measurements. You should apply what you have learned to the jobs you perform. Keep in mind that our goal is to help you prepare yourself for performancewhenyouareassignedtojobsinvolvingrotaryortorqueequipmentin your laboratory. We will begin this lesson with a discussion of rotary measurements.Afterthatwewilltakeuptorquemeasurements. 2. Rotary Measurements. Rotary measurements are made with several types of instruments. In this section we will discuss three types of rotary measurement devices: the mechanical tachometer, the optical tachometer, and the stroboscope. Before we begin our discussion of these instruments, look at some of the basic principlesofrotationandrotarymeasurement. a. Rotation.Wheneverypartofabody,exceptthecenter,movesinacircle and all the circles have the same center, the body is said to be in a rotary motion. Asabodyrotates,itturnsthroughanangle.Thereareseveralwaysto measureangularrotation:Amongthesearedegrees,revolutions,orradians. b. Angularmeasurement. (1) When a radius vector rotates about a fixed point, it generates a circle,asshowninFigure1. Thecircularlineformedbytheheadofthevector iscalledthecircumferenceofthecircle.Theangulardisplacementforacomplete revolutionoftherotatingradiusvectoris360.Measurementofananglewhichis less than a complete revolution is frequently made in degrees. We say a right anglehas90andlesseranglesmayhave45,30,orsomeothervalue.Thisisthe degreemethodofindicatingangularrotation.

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SM0486 Figure1.Generatingacirclebyarotatingvector

(2) Whenitisnecessarytodeterminethenumberofcompleterotationsthat shaftorwheelmakes,itiscustomarytosay300revolutions,60revolutions,etc. Thisistherevolutionmethodofdescribingrotarymotion. Stillanotherwayof describing angular displacement is by radian measure. When the length of the radiusofthecircleislaidoffonthecircumference,ananglecalledaradianis determined.Figure2showstheradiandesignatedby.

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SM0486 Figure2.Aradianangle,whenSisequaltor.

(3) If youdesignateCthecircumferenceofacircleanddthediameter, youhave C=d Butthediameteristwicetheradius,so C=2r or C=2r Youknowthecircumferenceofacirclerepresents360ofrotation,so 360=2r then

Dividing r=57.3(approximate) Hence,youseethataradianisnumericallyverynear57.3.

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SM0486 c. Angularvelocity.FromFigure2,youcanseethatifsweretwiceaslong as shown, the angle would be 2 radians, and if s were three times as long, the anglewouldbeeradians.Thus,thenumberofradiansisequaltothedistance,s, onthecircumferencedividedbytheradius.Expressingthismathematically

(1) Theangularvelocityofrotationmayalsobeexpressedasthenumberof radians per period of time; for example, the number of radians per second. Restatingtheexpression(1)above,whichis

and applying it to a rotating vector, you have s equal to the space on the circumferencecoveredbytherotatingvector,requaltothelengthoftheradius, andequaltothenumberofradians.Dividingbothsidesbytime,t,youget

(2) If t equals seconds, the left member of the equation above can be statedasradianspersecondandtherightmemberasspacepersecond,dividedby radius. It is common practice to let the Greek letter stand for radians per second.Hence,

(3) Also, space or distance covered per second is velocity, which can be representedbytheletterv

(4) Solvingforsinequation(4)gives S=vt (5) Restating(2)youhave

Substitutingthevalueofsfrom(5)intherightnumeratorgives (6) Cancelingt'sgives (7) 80

SM0486 (8) Substituting

Thisformulagivesthefollowingstatement:Radianspersecondequalthevelocity ofapointonthecircumferencedividedbytheradiuswherethevelocityisinthe sameunits(persecond)astheradius.Theformula(3)canbesolvedforv,giving v=r Thisisaconvenientexpressionforarrivingatthespeedofapointonarotating body,suchasthetipofanairplanepropeller. Torelatetorpm,thefollowing expressionmaybeused:

whereisradianspersecond.Nowthatyouhavelookedatthebasicprinciplesof rotation, look at the most simple of rotary measuring devices, the mechanical tachometer. (3) TheMechanicalTachometer. Amechanicaltachometerisadevicewhich normallyconsistsofashaftwhichisphysicallypressedagainstthecenterofa rotating shaft. By means of gearing or a pendulum arrangement, information is translatedtoanRPMindicator. a. Thependulumtypeofmechanicaltachometeroperatesontheprinciple showninFigure3.Youmayrecognizeitastheoldgovernorprinciple. Figure3.Thebasicprinciplesofapendulumtypemechanicaltachometer

81

SM0486 b. As shaft "A" and the contactor are pressed against a rotating object,thecollar"B"isforcedupshaft"A"bythecentrifugalforceofweights "W" pulling outward, acting through pivots "C" and "D" and "E". Note that the pointerisattachedtocollar"B".AdjacenttothispointerisanRPMscale.The faster the rotating object turnsthe greater the force of weights "W" pulling outwardthefarthercollar"B"willmovecarryingthepointerupscale. c. The advantages of the mechanical tachometer are that it is economical and simple to operate. The major disadvantage of the mechanical tachometerisitsloadingeffectontherotatingobject.Forexample,supposethe maximumspeedofasmallelectricmotoristobechecked. Becauseoftheloading effect(slowingdown)causedbythepressureofthemechanicaltachometer,atrue maximum speed of rotation will not be indicated. The other rotary measurement dividesinthissectiondonothavealoadingeffectontherotatingobject. d. Mechanical tachometers can be calibrated by means of a tachometer testersuchastheSweeneyModel1000showninFigure4. TheSweeneyModel1000 tachometer testerisasynchronousmotorwithsevengeardrivenoutputshaftsof knownrotationalspeeds.Therotatingspeedofthesynchronousmotorisasstable asthefrequencyofthealternatingvoltageappliedtoit.Sincethefrequencyof thepowersuppliedbymajorpowercompaniesisregulatedtowithin 0.1cps,the rotationalspeedofthemechanicaloutputsoftheModel1000isextremelyaccurate andsuitableasastandardforcalibratingmechanicaltachometers. Figure4.SweeneyModel1000TachometerTester

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SM0486 e. The seven outputs from the Sweeney Model 1000 are: 300, 500, 600, 720,800,1000,and1800rpm. Toextendtheseranges,theunitissuppliedwith speedconvertersforincreasingordecreasingthespeedofanyoutputshaft. The speedconverterssuppliedwiththetachometertestercanincreaseordecreasethe output of any shaft by a factor of 4, 10, or 30. Thus, a tachometer can be calibratedatalmostanyspeedwithinitsrange. (4) TheOpticalTachometer.Theopticaltachometerisaveryexactmethod ofmeasuringrotarymotion.Withtheopticaltachometerthenumberofrevolutions in a given time are literally counted. The optical tachometer has no loading effectupontheshaftbeingmeasured. However,theopticaltachometerisnotas simpletouseasthemechanicaltachometerandrequiredtheuseofanelectronic counterasareadoutdevice. a. TheopticaltachometerisshowninFigure5asitissetupfora rotarymeasurement.Tomakearotarymeasurementofthistype,adiscwithevenly spaced sections of reflective material is attached to the output shaft of the rotatingdevice. Fromtheconstructionofthedisc,youcanseethatthebeamof lightisbrokenperiodically.Theendresultinthedevelopmentofpulsesoflight which contact the photocell and cause pulses of energy to be generated in the photocellcircuit. Figure5.TheOpticalTachometer

83

SM0486 b. The pulses are counted by an electronic counter such as a 524B. With the counter set up to count for a specific period of time, the number of pulsescountedcanbeconvertedtorpm.Let'sconsideranexamplewhere600pulses are counted during a period of exactly 10 seconds, from a disc that has six reflecting segments. If 600 pulses were counted during 10 seconds, 3600 pulses wouldbecountedduring1minute.However,sincetherearesixreflectingsegments onthedisc,wemustdivide3600by6.Thus,theshaftisrotatingat600rpm.As youcanseebythisexample,ifthedischassixreflectingsegmentsandthepulses arecountedfor10seconds,thereadoutisinrpm. c. AschematicdiagramoftheopticaltachometerisshowninFigure6. WhenswitchS1ofthiscircuitisclosed,thel10volt,60cycleACappliedtoJ1 causesvoltagestobedevelopedacrossthesecondariesoftransformerT1. Oneof thesecondariesdevelopsthevoltageforthelightanditsbeamillustratedasDS1 inFigure6. TheDCvoltagedevelopedbytherectifierfiltercircuitprovidesa sortofthresholdvoltageacrossphotocell,electricalimpulsesaredevelopedand passed by way of C2 and J2 to the electronic counter. The amplitude of the electrical pulsevariesfrom3voltsrmsforanobjectrotatingat180rpmto2 voltsrmsforarotationspeedof200,000rpm. Figure6.Opticaltachometerschematicdiagram

d. To calibrate this tachometer, you replace the rotating element, shown in Figure 5, with a rotating device whose rpm is known. You apply the tachometeroutputpulsestoafrequencystandard(counter)whoseinputimpedanceis atleast1megohm.Thehighinputimpedanceminimizestheeffectsofloading.The frequency counter (standard) readings should agree with the rpm settings of the rotatingdevice(standard).

84

SM0486 (5) The Stroboscope. The stroboscope is an electronic tachometer that providesadirectandaccuratemeansofmeasuringrotaryspeedsfrom60to15,000 rpm. Thestroboscopeisespeciallyversatileinapplicationbecauseitdoesnot requiremechanicalconnectiontothedeviceunderobservationandwillnotabsorb power or influence operational speeds. Remote or inaccessible mechanisms may be observed at considerable distance provided a "line of sight" is available and ambientlightlevelsarelowerthanthestroboscope'soutput. a. Stroboscope principles. Stroboscopic effects may be produced when an intense light of short duration, is repeated at precise intervals. If this lightisdirecteduponarotatingorvibratingobject,thestroboscopiceffectwill be observed when the repetition frequency of the light is in proper ratio to movementfrequency.Ifthefrequencyofmovementandlightrepetitionareexactly matched, the moving object will be viewed distinctly only once each cycle. The objectwillappeartobestationary,sinceitwillbeilluminatedbytheflashof light at precisely the same phase of each cycle. This "single image" apparent cessationofmotionwillalsooccurwhenthelightfrequencyissubmultiple(half, third,quarter,etc.)ofmovementfrequency.Multipleimagesoccurwhenthelight frequencyisamultipleofmovementfrequency.Thisphenomenonoccursbecausethe movingobjectisilluminatedmorethanonceeachcycle.Satisfactorystroboscopic effects will occur only when the pulsed light is more intense than the ambient lightandthelightpulsesareshortenoughtopreventsmearofblur. b. Stroboscope operation and use. The stroboscope shown in Figure 7 operatesfroma115volt,60cycleACpowerline. Itconsistsofapowersupply, oscillator,pulseamplifier,andaflashertube. Thecompleteunitismountedin aneasilyportablemetalcase. Theflashingrateisvariedbyturningaknoband readingrpmdirectlyfromthescale.

85

SM0486 Figure7.TheStroboscope

(1) Thestroboscopeissimpletooperate. Thelightfromthestroboscope isdirectedupontheparttobemeasuredandthelargeknobisadjusteduntilthe partappearstostop. Therpmofthepartisthenreaddirectlyfromthescale. Thisactionadjuststhefrequencyoftheinternaloscillatorsothatitisfiring the stroboscopic light once for each rotation of the part. If the internal oscillatorisfiringthelightslightlyfasterthanthepartisrotating,thepart willappeartobeturningslowlyinthereversedirection. (2) If the part is uniform or symmetrical, place an identification mark withchalkorcrayonontheportiontobeviewed. Ifapproximatespeedisknown, turntoappropriateportionofdialscaleandadjustlargeknobuntilpartappears stopped.Thedialscalewillreadinrevolutionsperminute.Ifspeedisunknown, start at the highest end of the dial scale and work downward until a single stationaryimageisobtained. (3) When stroboscope speed exceeds that of the moving object, multiple imageswillbeseen;thefirstsinglestationaryimagewillbeseenatfundamental frequency. If the stroboscope is operated at a speed less than the fundamental frequency,singleimageswillbeseenat1/2,1/3,1/4,.. ofthespeedofthe movingpart.

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SM0486 (4) If thestroboscopeflashesNtimesthespeedofthemovingobject,N imageswillbeseen. (5) The stroboscope has a builtin calibration system using the line frequency as the standard. A vibrating reed, oscillating at twice the line frequency,ismountedneartheflashertubesothatitsendcanbeviewedduring thecalibrationprocedure.Apairofcalibrationpotentiometers(oneforthehigh endandoneforthelowendofthedial)actasoscillatortrimmersandcorrectfor dialerrors.Withthedialsetatapointthatisamultipleorsubmultipleofthe linefrequency,theprescribedpotentiometerisadjusteduntilthereedappearsto stop.Thisadjustmentismadeatpointsnearboththehighandthelowendofthe dial. (6) The stroboscope can also be used for the observation of equipment in motion. Moving equipment can be studied in either the "stopped" state or in apparentmotion. (7) This ends the discussion of tachometers and stroboscopes. Now turn yourattentiontoatypeofrotationalmeasurementinwhichyoumeasurerotational force (torque)insteadofspeedorfrequency. Astudyoftheprovingringasa verticalforce(torque)measurementdeviceisincluded. 6. Torque Measurements. When your laboratory supports missile or special type aircraft installations, you use torque calibrators to calibrate or adjust torque wrenchesandhandles.Yourabilitytocalibratethetorquedevices.Thissection includesabriefdiscussionontorquewrenchesandhandlestoincludetheSweeney and Baldwin type torque wrench calibrators. In addition, this section explains someoftheprinciplesappliedwhenprovingringsareusedfortorquemeasurements. a. Torque Wrenches and Handles. Maintenance and repair shops stock torque wrenches of all sizes. The purpose of these wrenches is expressed in two paragraphstakenfromtwodifferenttorquewrench(handle)publications.Thetitle ofeachparagraphis"Purpose."Theparagraphsareasfollows: The purpose of these wrenches is to apply an adjustable, predetermined, torquelimitingforcetobolts,nuts,andotherthreadedparts. Thetorquehandledescribedinthistechnicalmanualisdesignedtolimit thetorqueappliedtofasteningcomponents(nuts,bolts,screws,etc.),thelimit beingadjustable,ingraduatedincrementsbytheoperator. b. Although the paragraphs in the preceding list were taken from two different publications, you can see that both include the function of limiting torqueappliedtonutsandboltsbyspecificamounts. c. Compare the operating procedures for two typical torque devices to help youunderstandhowthedevicesareoperated.Inthefirstoperatingprocedureyou makethefollowingpreliminaryadjustments.

87

SM0486 SlidebackthelockringtotheUNLOCKposition. Setthedesiredtorquevaluebyrotatingtheindexonthehandletothe valueonthecalibratedbarrel. SlidethelockringuptotheLOCKposition. (Thegrooveorindexonthe handlelinesupwiththegrooveonthebarrel.) d. After the preliminary adjustments are complete, the torque wrench then operateslikeanordinarywrenchuntilthetorquelimitisreached.Abreakthrough occurs which allows the wrench to move freely and sharply before reaching a positivestop.Areleaseofthewrenchingpressureautomaticallyresetsthetorque wrench and it is ready for the next operation. The torquing force should be appliedinasmooth,steadymotion. Thenaturaltendencyisto,overtorque,with resultantdamagetothefastenerorthetorquewrench.Thetorquewrenchoperator shouldproceedcarefullyuntilheisabletoanticipatethebreakthroughaction. e. Afterprolongedstorageorshipment,turnthewrenchthroughafewrelease cycles.Thisactionpermitstheinternalmechanismtoredistributeathinfilmof lubricant throughout the working parts. You may have to perform this operation whenwrenchesarebroughttothelaboratory. Whenchangingthehandlesettingto the lowest reading on the scale, be extremely careful after reaching the lowest increment readingtoavoidshearingthestoppinsinsidethehandholdbyfurther turninginthisdirection. Thepinsaredesignedasaresistantpointtoenable youtodeterminewhenyouhavereachedthelowhandlesetting. Thesepins,when sheared, allow the handle to disengage from the body and give an erratic torque value. f. If the preceding procedure was familiar, you are learning about torque wrenchoperation.Examinethesecondproceduresothatyoucancomparethetwo. g. Whenyouwishtosetthetorquehandletotheselectedvalue,unlockthe grip and adjust the handle to the desired setting on the micrometer type scale; thenrelockthegripandinstallanattachmentonthesquaredriveofthehandle. Applythehandleassemblytothefastenertobetorquedandpullthehandleina clockwise direction with a smooth and steady motion. A fast or jerky motion results in an improperly torqued fastener. When the torque applied reaches the predetermined torque setting of the handle, the handle automatically releases or "breaks,"producingapproximately150to200freetravel.Thereleaseisdistinct, is easily detected by the mechanic, and is an indication of completed torquing actiononthefastener. h. Inmanytorquingapplicationsitisnecessarytousevariousaccessories other than those that operate coaxially with, and are attachable to, the square drive of the torque handle, i.e., common sockets, screwdriver attachments, and internalwrenchingadapters.Anyextensionoradapter

88

SM0486 whichdoesnotoperatecoaxiallywiththesquaredriveofthetorquehandleaffects thepredeterminedtorquevalue. i. When you compare the second procedure with the first (without regard to thetypeofwrenchormanufacturer),thereareatleastfouroperationprinciples whicharecommontobothoftheprocedurespresentedandarecommontomostofthe torquewrencheswhichyoucalibrate.Thesecommonprinciplesareasfollows: Torquewrencheshavetobeunlockedbeforethedesiredtorquevalueisset inontheircalibratedscales. Thetorquewrenchhastobelockedafteritissetforaspecifictorque value. Alwaysapplytorquetoanutorboltwithasmooth,steadymotion.Afast orjerkymotionresultsinanimproperlytorquedfastener. Whenthetorqueyouapplyreachesthepredeterminedvalueindicatedonthe torquewrench(handle)scale,youfeelthehandleautomaticallyreleaseor "break." j. If you have never calibrated a torque wrench, you need to know the symptoms of common malfunctions and the corrections necessary for torque wrench calibratingadjustments. Whenyouwanttoaccuratelytestthetrippingpointsof thetorquewrench,youneedanindicatingtorquemeasuringdeviceoftheBaldwin4 typetoreactagainstthewrenchthroughouttherangeofthewrench. k. Testingdevicesarenormallyoftwobasictypes:aspringloadedtypeand a weight type. Sometimes it is recommended that you use the deadweight type because greater accuracy can thus be obtained. The technical bulletin for the wrench being tested provides specific instructions on calibration requirements. The TB should be checked to see if it contains calibration instructions for the wrenchbeingcalibrated. l. Irregularity in performance of the wrench is classified as consistently outofcalibrationthroughouttherange(consistenterror);inconsistentlyoutof calibrationoneitherthehighorlowsideoftherange(progressivelyhigheror lowerthroughouttherange);orinconsistentlyoutofcalibrationvaryingfromone sideofthecorrectvalueincertainportionsoftherangetotheoppositesideof thecorrectvalueinotherportionsoftherange(variationfromonesideofthe correctsettinginthelowrangetotheoppositesideinthehighrange). m. Sinceyouarenotrequiredtobeanexpertontorquewrenches,youshould not hesitate to use the applicable TB prepared for the torque wrench you must calibrate. Inalltorquerequirements,thedesiredtorquevalueispredetermined andmaybefoundintheapplicableenditeminstructionandoverhaulmanual.

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SM0486 7. SweeneyTypeTorqueWrenchCalibrator.TheSweeneytypetorquewrenchtesters usedinyourlaboratoryprovideasimplepositivemeansoftestingtheaccuracyof torque wrenches or other torquing devices. The Army inventory includes Sweeney typecalibrators(testors).Thesetestersaremodels71,73,and75.Thegeneral constructionofthethreemodelsisthesame. Thedifferenceinthethreemodels are found in the sizes of the instruments, the ranges covered by each, and the scaledivisions.Table1analyzessomeofthesedifferences. TABLE1.Torquewrenchtesterspecifications

a. Torque tester (models 71, 73, and 75) construction principle. Sweeney type torque testers are constructed of heattreated aluminum alloy and alloy steels. Theyareequippedwithmachinedlevelingpadstofacilitateinstallation on walls, beams, or benches. No springs are used in their construction. The primary moving part of each unit is a deadweight pendulum accuated by a gear segmentandpinionmountedinlifesealedrollerbearings. Torqueappliedtothe inputtransmitsmovementtothependulumwhich,inturn,movesastaysetindicator overacombinationscalecalibratedinbothfootpoundsandinchpounds. Maximum dimensionsforthethreemodelslistedareasfollows:

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SM0486 b. Torque tester (models 71, 73, and 75) operating principle. The torque tester's principle of operation is based on a geareddown pendulum rather than springs; it is geared down through a gear segment and a pinion mounted in life sealedrollerbearings.Thetorqueappliedtotheinputsegmenttransmitsmovement to the pendulum which in turn moves a stayset indicator over a scale. The trigonometric scale is calibrated in both inchpounds and footpounds converted fromtheanglethroughwhichthependulumismoved. Thedirectreadingsobtained areaccuratewithin2percent.Thereadingofthestaysetscaleiscomparedwith the torque wrench reading to determine the accuracy of the torque wrench scale reading. c. Torquetesterapplication.Reviewsomeproceduralprinciplesyoumayhave appliedontorquewrenchtestingandaddsuchasarenecessaryforyoutoadvance tothetechnicianlevel. TheprimaryapplicationoftheSweeneytorquetesteris illustratedinFigure8. Thisillustrationshowshowtorquewrenchesarechecked usinganyoneofthethreemodelsoftorquetesters. Figure8.TorqueTesterApplication

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SM0486 (1) When you use the torque tester to check a torque wrench, you should proceedasfollows: Mounttorquewrenchontorquetester. Pulltorquewrenchslowlyandsmoothlytodesiredtorque. Checkreadingoftorquewrenchagainstreadingoftorquetester. Repeatthetwostepsdirectlyprecedingthisoneatleasttwice. (2) An average of three or more readings gives the amount of error introducedbythetorquewrench,andthevariationbetweenreadingsshowswhether ornotyouarepullingthetorquewrenchcorrectly.Thiscompletesourdiscussion of the Sweeney type torque calibrators. Now compare the Sweeney operating principlewiththeconstructionandoperatingprinciplefortheBaldwintypetorque calibrator. 8. BaldwinTypeTorqueCalibrator.Ifyourshopisequippedwithamodel4torque wrench tester, various types of torque wrenches and handles can be calibrated quicklyandaccurately. Thetesterisdesignedforpreset(clickofforbreaking) type wrenches. You can test beam, flexible hose, and other types of torque wrenchesonthisequipmentiftheproperadaptersareavailableandthewrenchis withintheequipmentrange.Thetesteraccommodateswrencheswithsquaredrivesup to1inchinsizewithpressurecapabilitiesupto2000footpounds. Toincrease your ability in the use of the tester, you must learn more of the instrument's torqueapplicationsystemandtheinstrument'storquemeasuringsystem. a. Torqueapplicationsystem.Figure9isincludedsothatyoucanidentify the external controls and components of the Baldwin 4 tester as the torque applicationsystemisdiscussed. TheBaldwin4torquecalibrator,showninFigure 9,isdesignedaroundtheBaldwinLimaHamiltonSR4straingagetransducer. The strain gage transducer is a sensing device which uses the basic strain gage principleforthemeasurementofforces,torques,andpressures. Inthemodelk tester, force is applied to the stationaryheld torque wrench through the SR4 transducer (torque cell). At the same time, the result of the applied force (torque) is continuously indicated on the equipment dial, which is calibrated in inchpounds and footpounds. When you compare the torque indicated on the dial when the wrench slips with the torque wrench settings, you can determine the accuracyofthetorquewrenchscale.

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SM0486 Figure9.Baldwin4OperationControlsandIndicators

b. Figure10showshowandwherevariousforcesareappliedwhenthetorque testerisoperatedandthedirectionwhichtheresultingforcestake. Figure10 also shows how the adjustable stop may be positioned on the slide bar to accommodatetorquewrenchesofdifferentlengths. (1) As isshowninFigure6,thetorqueapplicationsystemconsistsofa pneumaticsectionwhichappliesacontrolledforceandamechanicalsectionwhich convertsthisforcetoameasurabletorque. Thepistonandcylinderassemblyis themaincomponentofthepneumaticsection.Pistonmovementisregulatedbythree control valves seriespositioned in the cylinder air line. These valves are as follows: A rate control valve, which regulates the flow of incoming air and consequentlytherateofpistonshaftmovement. Anactuatorvalve,whichdirectstheregulatedairintothepistoncylinder orventsthepistoncylindertoatmosphere. Aholdingvalve,whichcanstoppistonmovementbysealingoffthecylinder supply.

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SM0486 Figure10.TorqueApplicationSystem

(2) The mechanicalsectionofthetorqueapplicationsystemisidentified inFigure6andiscomposedofthefollowingcomponents: Atorquelever. Atorquecell(SR4straingagetransducer.) Thetorquewrench. Astopandsliderbarassemble(thestopisadjustableoverthecomplete lengthofthebar). (3) Thetorquelever,whichistheconnectinglinkbetweenthepistonrod andthetorquecell,ispinnedtothetorquecellmount(asteelshaftlikepiece supported by a set of flange type ball bearings). The torque cell is assembled directly onto the mount while the square drive of the torque wrench fits into a compatibleopeninginthetopofthetorquecell.Thehandleofthetorquewrench ispositionedhardagainstthesliderbarstop.

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SM0486 (4) When you place the actuator valve lever in the APPLY position, pressurized air is introduced into the piston and cylinder assembly, causing the pistonrodtomoveoutatthedesiredrateofspeed,asindicatedbythearrowin Figure 10. The piston rod movement, in turn, is transmitted to the SR4 torque cell through the connecting torque lever so that the resultant force is as indicatedbythearrow. Theresultisastrainortorquingactionofincreasing magnitudeonboththecellandthetorquewrench.Thetorqueisdevelopedbecause thestationaryheldtorquewrenchismountedonthetorquecell.Thestrainonthe cell and torque wrench continues to increase until you move the actuator valve levertotheRELEASEpositionorclosetheholdingvalve. (5) Whenyoutestpresetwrenches,thereisatemporaryslackinstrainas the torque wrench slips at its preset value, but even in this case, the strain continuestobeexerteduntiloneofthetwopreviouslymentionedvalvepositions ischanged. c. Torquemeasuringsystem.Thetorquemeasuringsystem,asshowninFigure 11, is basically a simple Wheatstone bridge circuit complete with amplifier and power supply. A motor driven dial indicator and slidewire assembly are also includedtoformanullbalancetypeofmeasuringsystem. Figure11.TorqueMeasuringSystemSchematicDiagram

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SM0486 (1) When you study the schematic diagram of Figure 11 and compare this diagramwiththetorqueapplicationsystemofFigure10,youshouldunderstandthe relationships of the bridges illustrated in Figure 11 and the operation of the measuringsystem.Oneofthebridges(external)islocatedintheSR4cell,while the other (internal) is located in the instrument proper. The externalbridge resistorsareactuallyfourSR4straingages,eachconsistingofalengthofvery fine wire arranged in the form of a grid and bonded to a resin carrier. Physically,thefourstraingagesarecementedtothesurfaceoftheSR4cell. (2) When you activate the power switch identified in Figure 9, power (12 voltsDC)isappliedcontinuouslytothetwoseriesopposedbridges.Whenthereis notorqueexertedontheSR4cell,theerrorvoltageiszeroastheoutputsfrom the two opposing bridges balance each other. However, as soon as a force is exertedontheST4cell,anerrorvoltageproportionaltothestrainexertedon thecellisdirectedtotheamplifier,duetoachangeinbridgeresistance. The errorsignalisamplifiedtodrivethemotorwhichisconnectedtotheindicator dialandslidewireassembly.Theslidewireisdriventochangeinstrumentbridge resistance so as to wipe out the error signal and stop motor operation. During this operation, the dial (mechanically connected to the motor) is continuously indicatingthevalueoftheerrorvoltageineitherinchpoundsorfootpounds. d. Torquecalibratorapplicationandoperation. Wefeelthattheknowledge you have already gained can be reinforced if we include a simplified operating procedure for the torque calibrator. You should not attempt to memorize the procedure. On the other hand, you should examine each step to see if you can recognizeaprincipleinthesteporareasonforthestep. Theentireprocedure shouldbeprecededbyachecktoseeifyourairsupplyisdevelopingtherequired 80psig. (1) Table 2 is included so that you can understand the function of each controlmentionedintheoperatingprocedureswhichfollowsthetable.Youshould refertoTable2andFigures9,10,and11asyoustudythestepsintheoperating procedure. Prior to the test of a torque wrench, you should prepare the torque calibratorasindicatedinthestepswhichfollow. a. Place the range switch to the proper range position determined by thesizeoftorquewrenchbeingtested.(Areyousureyouunderstandtheoperation oftherangeswitch?Ifyouarenot,readthefunctioninTable2).

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SM0486 TABLE2.TorqueWrenchTesterControlsandIndicator

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SM0486 b. When the range switch is positioned for a particular wrench test, theindicatorscaletobereadisilluminated. c. Adjustthezeroknowofrangeselectedforazeroindicationonthe dial.(Doyouunderstandwhy?Ifnot,consultthefunctioncolumnofTable2.) d. Place the square drive of the torque wrench to be tested in the squareopeningofthetorquecell.Useanadapterifnecessary. e. Loosen theknurledthumbnutofthestopandslidethestopalong thesliderbaruntilthestopispositionedattheapproximatecenterofthetorque wrenchhandle. (2) Beforeweproceedwiththecalibrationpreparation,letusbesurethat thetwoprecedingstepsareunderstood.ExamineFigure12andTable2asyouread thesestepsagain.Proceedingwithstepsinthecalibratorpreparation: a. Tightenthestopthumbnut(horizontaladjustFigure12). b. Loosen the wingnut and move the adjust block vertically until the torquewrenchisapproximatelylevel.(SeeFigure12.) c. Tightenthewingnut. d. If the torque wrench handle is not positioned against the stop (minimumamountofslack),itwillbenecessarytoremovethewingnutandscrewand reverseadjustmentblock. e. Setthetorquewrenchtotherequiredsettingfortesting. (3) Whenyoucomparethepreparationstepswiththeactualtestprocedure you should realize that the preparation of the calibrator for a test is as importantasthetest. Beforeyoustartthetest,youmustchecktobesurethat the calibration shutoff valve is open (see Figure 9 and Table 2). Follow the calibration procedurecloselysothatyoucanmovethetorqueactuatorswitchto itsRELEASEpositionthemomentclickoffoccurs. Ifyoudontmovetheswitchof theRELEASEatclickoff,thetorquewrenchundertestmaybedamaged.

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SM0486 Figure12.WrenchTestStopAdjustments

(4) After youhavepreparedthecalibratorforatestyoucanproceedas follows: a. Placethetorqueactuatorswitch(seeFigures9,10,andTable2)in theAPPLYpositionwhileobservingdialindicatormovement. b. At this time strain is transmitted through the torque cell to the wrenchundertest.Whenthetorqueappliedtothewrenchreachesthepresetvalue ofthetorquewrench,anaudibleclickshouldbeheard. c. Note the reading of the dial indicator at clickoff and move the torqueactuatorswitchtotheRELEASEPOSITION. d. Compare the dial indicator reading with the scale setting of the torque wrench under test. The readings should be within the tolerances as specifiedinthetechnicalorderpreparedforthewrenchtested. 9. Proving Rings. Proving rings are instruments which utilize the laws of elasticitytomeasureforce. Theycomeinavarietyofrangesandareusedasa transferstandardtocalibratetorquewrenchcalibratorsandotherforcemeasuring devices. Figure 13 illustrates a proving ring in place on the torque wrench calibrator.

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SM0486 Figure13.ProvingRingMounting

a. The proving ring is essentially a precision ring of spring steel that compressesagivendimensionwhenagivenforceisappliedtoit.Theprovingring ifFigure13usedamicrometerandavibratorywandtomeasurethedeformationof the ring. The wand is mounted on the micrometer; and as the micrometer is adjusted, the vibrating wand moves closer or farther away from a metal block (called the anvil) mounted on the opposite side of the proving ring. As the micrometer is adjusted, the vibrating action of the wand senses the exact point where the wand first touches the anvil. Two measurements are made with the micrometer, one before force is applied to the ring and another after force is appliedtothering. Thedifferenceinmicrometerreadingsistheamountofring distortionproducedbytheforce. b. Torelatethedistortionoftheprovingringtotheamountoftorquethat should be sensed by the torque cell, the length of the calibration arm must be considered. Table 3 lists the calibration lengths for different ranges of the rangesofthetorquewrenchtester. AsyoucanseefromTable3,thelongerthe Calibrationarm,thehigherthetorquerangethatcanbecalibrated.

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SM0486 TABLE3.CalibrationArmSize

c. Because no metal is perfectly elastic, calibration charts are made for eachindividualprovingring.Thesechartsindicatetheamountofdeformationfor differentloadsascheckedagainstastandard.Anotherimportantfactorintheuse ofprovingringsistemperature.Sinceprovingringsarecalibratedatastandard temperature,useatothertemperaturesresultsinerrorsthatmustbecompensated for. Therefore, a chart for temperature corrections is also provided for each provingring. d. Accurateuseofprovingringsrequirestheuseofbothtypesofchartsas wellastheuseofthepropercalibrationarm. Calibrationandcertificationof the proving ring is reaccomplished periodically by comparison with a standard of greateraccuracy. Ifnecessary,thecorrectionchartsarereaccomplishedatthis time. e. Inusingtheprovingringtocalibratetorquewrenchcalibrators,youmust beawareofseveralprecautions. Provingringsareverypreciseinstruments,and theycaneasilybedamagedbeyondrepair.Sincelargeforcesareinvolvedinusing theprovingring,improperusecanbeverydangerous. Someofthemoreimportant precautionsarelistedbelow. (1) Be sure that you read and understand all of the instructions before beginningacalibrationprocedure.Followdirectionsexactlyanddoublecheckyour work. Itisrecommendedthattwopeopleperformthecalibrationprocedure. One personcanmanipulateandreadtheprovingringandtheotherpersoncanoperate thetesterandreaditsdialindications. (2) Be sure that the proving ring is positioned properly before force is appliedtoit.Iftheprovingringisnotpositionedproperlywithrespecttothe force applied to it, the ring may snap out of the calibrator and strike you or otherpersonnelinthearea. (3) Use extreme care in handling the proving ring to prevent dropping or striking it. A proving ring that has been dropped or jarred severely must be recalibratedbeforeuse.Donotoverloadtheprovingring.

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SM0486 (4) Avoidhandlingtheprovingringwithyourbarehands.Fingerprintsmay cause damaging etch spots on the proving ring. Also, the heat from you can increasethetemperatureoftheprovingringandinduceerrors. 10. Youhavecompletedthereadingmaterialforthischapter. Answerthereview exercises for this chapter; they will help you to understand the information presented.

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SM0486 ACCPSUBCOURSENUMBERSM0486 MECHANICALANDELECTROMECHANICALMEASUREMENTPRINCIPLES EXERCISESFORLESSON3 1. Threewaystomeasureangularrotationare a. b. c. d. 2. degrees,revolutions,andradians. RPM,radiansandrevolutions. radians,velocity,andRPM. degrees,revolutions,andvelocity.

Aradianisequaltoapproximately a. b. 360. 90. c. d. 60.3. 57.3.

Theoutputofanyshaftcanbeincreasedordecreasedbymeansof a. b. speedconverters. mechanicalreducers. c. d. transducers. rotaryreducers.

4.

Thepulsesoflightwhichcontactthephotocellaregeneratedby a. b. c. d. amechanicaltachometer. adiscwithevenlyspacedsectionsofreflectivematerial. lightgeneratedbytheunitundertest. asolidwhitedisc.

5.

You are using an optical tachometer with a disc that has 4 reflective segments.400pulsesarecountedeachsecond.Theshaftisrotatingat a. b. 100rpm. 400rpm. c. d. 1600rpm. 6000rpm.

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SM0486 6. Whenusingastroboscope,ambientlightlevelmustbe a. b. c. d. 7. ofsufficientintensitytoviewtherotatingdisc. thesameasthestroboscopeoutput. lowerthanthestroboscopeoutput. higherthanthestroboscopeoutput.

Thebuiltincalibrationstandardofthestroboscopeisa a. b. vibratingreed. shadeddisc. c. d. crystaloscillator linefrequency.

8.

Irregularityinperformanceofatorquewrenchisclassifiedas a. b. highandlowerror. overallaccuracy. c. d. consistenterror. repeatability.

9.

TheSweeneytestersmodel71,73,and75uses a. b. c. d. springsandgears. gearsandapendulum. springsandapendulum. apinionandballbearingassembly.

10.

WhatpressureisrequiredfortheBaldwintypetorquecalibrator? a. b. 4psig 8psig c. d. 12voltsDC 80psig

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SM0486 LESSON4.VIBRATIONMEASUREMENTSANDEQUIPMENT AIPDSubcourseNumberSM0486...........Mechanical and MeasurementPrinciples ElectroMechanical

LessonObjective.......................Given learning objectives and supportive text, you should be able to answer all exercise questions pertaining to vibration theory, Velocity Pickup 4102A, Vibration Meter 1117, and vibration pickup calibratorswithnoerrors. CreditHours...........................One TEXT 1. INTRODUCTION

Unwantedvibrationsexistwhetherwelikethemornot. Manyoftheinflight operating characteristics of jet aircraft, rockets, and missiles are affected by mechanical vibrations can be reduced it their location and magnitude are known. This chapter includes information on pickups, vibration meters, and vibration pickupcalibrators. 2. VIBRATION THEORY. You must increase your understanding of vibration terminologyasyoulearnmoreaboutthenatureofdifferenttypesofvibrationand vibrationmeasurementtechniquesandprinciples. a. Vibration Terminology. You have used many of the terms associated with thevibrationtesting. Itisimportantthatyouunderstandthemeaningsofthese termsandnewtermsastheyrelatetothevibrationmeasurementprocess. Mostof thetermsaredefinedastheyareused. However,therearesometermswhichyou shouldunderstandbeforeyoubeginastudyofvibrationmeasurements.Theseterms areasfollows: FREQUENCYCyclespersecond,eachcyclerepresentingthemotionofadevice ormassfromitsmeanpositiontooneextremeoftravel,totheotherextreme,and itsreturntothemeanposition. DEFLECTIONORAMPLITUDEThedistanceadeviceormasstravelsfromthemean positiontoeitherextreme. DISPLACEMENTRepresentsthetravelfromoneextremetotheother. ACCELERATIONThe maximum rate of change of velocity during a cycle. Accelerationisexpressedtechnicallyincentimetersorfeetpersecond. b. When you examine the first term listed, you may question the definition provided for frequency. Since a vibrating body moves a maximum distance from a referencepointandthenmovesamaximumdistanceinthe

105

SM0486 oppositedirection,itmovesthroughonecompletecycleofmotion. Weadmitthe waveform is not essentially that of a sine wave; nevertheless, its movement is measuredincyclespersecondorvibrationspersecond. c. Theterm"amplitude"hasthesamemeaningforthevibrationwaveformthat peakvaluehasforinACvoltage.Theterm"amplitude"isdirectlyassociatedwith the term "displacement". Displacement values in vibration measurements are comparable to peaktopeak AC voltage values. Since the acceleration associated withvibrationmaybeexpressedinfeetpersecondpersecond(orfeetpersecond squared),youmaysuspectthattheforceofgravityisinvolved. d. Inaircraftwork,gravityisafundamentalquantity,andtheacceleration of gravity is a unit of acceleration. This unit is called a G; one G equals approximately 980centimeterspersecondpersecond,or32.2feetpersecondper second.TheaccelerationsarespecifiedinG's. 3. TYPESOFVIBRATION.Vibrationmeasurementsdealwithatypeofvibrationknown as steadystate vibrations. Steadystate vibrations are not transient in nature andcontinueuntiltheprimarycauseofthevibrationisshutdownoreliminated. a. One of the fundamental causes of vibration in machinery and rotating equipment is imbalance in the rotating components. This imbalance may be consideredasaheavyspot,orweight,forwhichthereisnocompensation. Such imbalance can be reduced by having an equivalent weight located on the opposite sideoftherotatingcomponentdirectlyoppositetheheavyspot.Youhaveprobably experiencedthisimbalanceinthetiresonyourcar.Insuchcasesyoumerelyhave yourwheelsbalancedbytheproperplacementofweights. Ifyouhavewatchedthe deviceusedinwheelbalancing,yousawhowastroboscopicinstrumentwasusedto positiontheweightandremovetheimbalance. b. Imbalancemayalsobethoughofinthesensethateachrotatingcomponent hasamasscenter.Ifthismasscenterisnotphysicallylocatedatthesamepoint astherotatingcenter,thepartisoutofbalancewhenrotating. Thusitmaybe seenthatbalanceisaffectedbyconcentricityasitisaffectedbyheavyspots. c. Imbalanceinvolvesbothaweightandadistancefunction.Standardterms which are most often used when referring to imbalance are "ounce inches", "gram inches","microounceinches",and"poundinches".Ifa2gramweightisaddedto apartwhichhaspreviouslybeenbalancedandtheweightisplaced5inchesfrom thecenterofrotation,animbalanceof10graminchesexistsintherotatingpart. Ifaweightof10gramsisaddedataradiusof1inch,theimbalanceis10gram inches. An imbalance of 10 gram inches manifests itself in the same manner and causesthesameamountofvibrationwithoutregardtowhetheralargeweightwas addedatasmallradiusorasmallweightwasaddedatalargeradius.Thenumber of gram inches determines the severity of the unbalanced condition and the resultingvibration.

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SM0486 d. Ifarotatingpartisnotconcentricwithitsaxisofrotation,imbalance results. The extent of the imbalance depends upon the number of gram inches or ounce inches of imbalance introduced. As an example, if a 20pound (320 ounce) pulleyismountedtwothousandthsinch(.002")offcenter,theimbalanceis320x. 002, or0.64ounceinch. Thenextsectionofthischapterdiscussesoneofthe devicesusedtodetectvibrations. 4. VELOCITY PICKUP 4102A. The velocity pickup translates physical vibrations intomeasurableelectricalsignals. Theassemblyisusedtodetectvibrationsin anysinglelineardirectionregardlessoforientation. Toobtaindirectreadings of amplitude or average velocity, you must connect the velocity pickup to a vibrationmeter. a. PickupConstruction.Figure1showsanexteriorview(A),acutaway(B), and a schematic (C) of the pickup. Examining Figure 1, you see a cylindrical magnet mountedonhelicalsprings. ThemagnetassemblyrespondstoVibrationby movingalongtheaxisofacoilwithoutcomingincontactwiththewinding. The coilwindingissuchthatthedirectionisreversedfromoneendtotheother,thus formingtwoseparatesectionsconnectedelectricallyatthecenterofthecoils. b. PickupOperation.TheschematicdiagramofFigureC,showshowthepickup coil is wound. As the pickup vibrates with the member to which it has been attached, the magnet assembly tends to become stationary in space, though moving with respect to the coil. This motion causes the coil windings to cut magnetic flux and produce a voltage which is directly proportional to the velocity of motion. Sincethetwosectionsofthecoilarewoundinopposingdirections,the voltagesinducedareadditive,thusdoublingthesensitivityofthevelocitypickup assembly.

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SM0486 Figure1.VelocityPickup4102A

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SM0486 c. PickupAttachment.Youattachthepickuptothepartbeingtestedsothat there is no loose motion between the part and the pickup. The point at which vibrationistobemeasuredmustbeconsideredintheinstallationofthepickup assembly.Whendesirable,thepickupmaybesecuredtoarigidprobewhichcanbe heldmanuallyAgainstthepointtobechecked.Theweightofthepickup,orofthe pickup together with the probe, should be less than onetenth the weight of the vibrating member. Weights heavier than onetenth the weight of the vibrating memberwillloadthememberandproducefalsereadings. d. PickupSensitivity. (1) The pickup is designed for sensitivity along the axis of the magnet assemblymotion.Inthisrespect,thepickupissufficientlyinsensitivetomotion across the sensitive axis to be used to establish the angular orientation of a planeofvibration. Whenyouattachapickup,itsinstallationontheVibrating member must be in alignment with the desired direction of measurement. This characteristicisimportantwhenyouareattachingapickuptoavibratingmember orprobe. (2) The output of this velocity pickup is fed to avibration meter which interprets vibration characteristics. Vibration meters require periodic calibration to insure the accuracy of their indicating devices. The pickup sensitivity(correctedsensitivity)mustbeknowninmillivoltsperinchpersecond when working into the 10 kilohm input resistance of a vibration meter. If the correctedsensitivityisnotprovidedinthemanufacturer'sspecifications,itcan be calculated by using the circuit diagram of Figure 2 and the formula which follows:

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SM0486 Figure2.EquivalentCircuitofVibrationMeterInput

(3) ReferringtoFigure2andtheprecedingformula,ifEisknowntobe 9.0 millivolts per degree per second and R1 is known to be 700 ohms, using the equationforcorrectedsensitivity

givesthefollowingsamplecalculation:

(4) When the manufacturer's specifications do not give the open circuit voltagebutstatethevoltageacrosssomeresistiveloadotherthan10kilohms,you cancalculatethecorrectedsensitivityasfollows: DesignateE3asthevoltageknown. DesignateR3astheresistiveloadknown. CalculateE1,thecorrectedsensitivity. With E3 known to be 105 millivolts per inch per second R3 to be 150 kilohms,andE1tobe750ohms,thefollowingsamplecalculationisgiven:

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SM0486 5. VIBRATIONMETER1117

a. This meter is a small, portable precision instrument which, if used in conjunction with selfgenerating or torsional pickups, measures the average velocity and peaktopeak displacement of mechanical vibrations. Vibration frequency can be calculated from the velocity and displacement settings. The instrumenthasfourinputchannels,eachofwhichaccommodatesanyselfgenerating pickup with characteristics compatible with the meter. Sensitivity controls independentlyadjusteachchanneltothetypeofpickupbeingused.Theoutputof theselectedchannelisnormallyreadonthemeterdirectly,eitherasdisplacement (peaktopeak distance in miles) or average velocity (inches per second). Let's examinethemeterpanelcontrolsandtheoperationandcalibrationofthemeter. Figure3.VibrationMeterFrontPanel

b. Panel Controls. All of the operating controls are placed on the front paneloftheinstrument.ThescopejackJ7,indicatingmeter,apilotlight,and thepowerswitchS5arealsolocatedonthispanel.Thesecontrols,switches,and theindicatorcanbeseeninFigure3. (1) Indicating meter M1 reads average vibrating velocity in inches per secondortensofdegreespersecond. Italsoreadspeaktopeakdisplacementof vibratory motion in thousandths of an inch (mils) or hundredths of a degree. Values are read from the upper or lower scale, depending on the range selector setting. Either average velocity or peaktopeak displacement is indicated, dependingontheoperationselector(S4)setting. (2) Achannelselector(S1inFigure3)connectsanyoneoffourvibration pickupchannels(anditssensitivitycontrol)totheamplifier

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SM0486 of the meter. The connection is made through the input network. The four sensitivitycontrolsarelocatedinthelowercenterofthepanel.Theappropriate controlisswitchedintothecircuitbeingoperatedbyuseofthechannelselector. TheinputnetworkselectorS3choosesoneofthreenetworkstobeusedwiththe operatingcircuit. TheOUTpositionofthenetworkselectorisusedtoapplythe unfilteredpickupsignaldirectlytotheattenuatoramplifier. Acalibratesignal switch and potentiometer (s6 and R35) taps a portion of the filament supply voltage to provide the attenuation amplifier with an adjustable calibration voltage.Thevoltageregulatorforthesupplydistortsthesinewave;however,the resultantwaveissuitableforsettingthegainofthefirsthalfoftheamplifier. (3) Operation selector switch S4 is used in selecting the calibration, velocity,ordisplacementfunctionofthemeter.Inaddition,theswitchprovides tworangesofsensitivityforeachmeasurementfunction.RangeswitchS2isa7 position attenuator whose setting indicates the fullscale meter reading. The readingmustbemultipliedbythefactorindicatedontheoperationselector. c. Operation. As a technician you need to know the relationships existing betweenthepanelcontrols,metercircuits,andoperationprocedures.Theprimary circuits of the vibration meter are shown in Figure 4. The signal from the vibration pickup is fed into an attenuation network in such a manner that the pickupineachchannelalwayslooksintoafixedimpedance. Figure4.VibrationMeterBlockDiagram

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SM0486 (1) ThediagraminFigure4indicatesthatthesignalfromthepickupgoes to the amplifier section. This section consists of two parts: the first with adjustable gain;thesecondwithfixedgain. Forvelocitymeasurements,thetwo sectionsareconnectedinseriesbyalinearattenuatornetwork.Fordisplacement measurements, this linear network, is replaced by an integrator. During calibration, the fixedgain amplifier and meter circuitry are used to adjust a "calibratesignal"voltagetothepropervalue. Thisvoltageisthenappliedto theinputoftheinstrument.Whenthisisdone,thegainmaybeadjustedtopermit direct reading of velocity or displacement from the meter. In a practical application,youmustfastenthepickupsecurelytothemachineorstructureunder study.Youmustlocatethepointofvibrationandfastenthepickupatthatpoint. (2) Insomeinstancesthepickupisattachedtoalightweight,rigidprobe and heldmanuallyagainstthevibrationcheckpoint. Theaveragevelocitymaybe readdirectlyfromthemeter. Thefrequencyofvibrationmaybecalculatedfrom the reading of displacement and velocity by the use of the following equation. Withfrepresentingthefrequencyofvibration(cyclespersecond),Vaverageasthe average velocity of vibration (inches per second), and D as the peaktopeak displacementininches,theequationreads: (3) When you operate the equipment to measure vibration, certain preliminarycontrolsettingsaremadeasfollows: Turnthecalibratesignalandsensitivitycontrolstofullcounterclockwise positions. TurntherangecontroltoitsOFFposition. Leavetheinputnetworkandchannelselectorsinanyposition. Connectthemeterpowerlinecordto115voltsAC.Turnthepowerswitchto itsONposition. (4) Afteryoucompletethepreliminarycontrolsettings,youmustcomplete a series of meter circuit checks. You perform the zero test by indexing the operationselectorthroughtheVx1.0,Dx1.0,andDx0.1positions.Areading of not more than 2 percent of full scale should be obtained, indicating a noise level of less than 2 percent. You continue the meter circuit tests with the calibrate signal test. Turn the operation selector to C and then depress the calibratesignalknobforaonethirdtofullscaledeflectionofthepointer.Set themeterindicatorat5onthelowerscaleandreleasethecalibratesignalknob, preparatorytothesensitivitycontroltest. (5) When you perform the sensitivity control test, index the channel selectortoeachofitsfourpositions. Ateachposition,theoutputmeterreads fullscalewhentheapplicablechannelsensitivitycontrolis

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SM0486 turned clockwise, if the circuit is operating properly. After the preliminary circuit checks and control settings have been made, the measurement procedure shouldbeperformedasfollows: (a) Ifpickupsbeingusedarenotconnected,theyshouldbepluggedinto metercircuitsasrequired. (b) Calibrateormatcheachpickupwiththechannelinwhichitisused. (c) Locateormountthepickupfirmlyonthestructuretobemeasured. Forsomestudies,apickupmaybemanuallyattachedtothestructurememberwith screwsandbolts. (d) Setthechannelselectorforconnectionwiththepickupwhoseoutput isbeingmetered. (e) Ifapickupsignalistobemeteredwithouttheuseoffiltersor othermodifyingmethods,turntheinputnetworkcontroltoitsOUTposition. (f) Ifyouusefiltersorsimilardevicesinthemeteringcircuit,turn theinputnetworkcontroltoitspropernumberinordertointroducethedesired conditioning effect on the signal. The filtering unit must be plugged into its properinternalsocket. (g) Tomeasurepeaktopeakdisplacement,turntheoperationselectorto oneoftheDpositions. (h) Foraveragevelocitymeasurement,turntheoperationselectortoone oftheVpositions.Youshouldadjusttherangeswitchsothatmeterreadingswill beabovemidscale. Iftheswitchissettothe5,50,or500position,readthe upperscalefigures. Iftheswitchissettothe15,150,or1500position,read thelowergroupoffigures. (6) You can use any readout device whose characteristics are compatible withthevibrationmeter. d. MeterCalibration. Althoughyouarerequiredtocalibrateallprecision measuring equipment in accordance with the procedures outlined in technical bulletins, the calibration of the meter is important enough that some of the individual steps should be included in this section. We are not interested in teachingaprocedure,butwehopethattheinclusionofthestepsintheprocedure helpsyoutounderstandtheprinciplesappliedwhenthemeteriscalibrated. (1) In order to assure the proper calibration of a vibration meter, the pickupmustbecalibratedaspreviouslydiscussed. Thecorrectedsensitivityfor thepickupmustalsobecalibrated. Afterpreliminarieshavebeencompleted,the internal test voltage can be used in the calibration of the meter. You should proceedasfollows:

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SM0486 (a) calculate the corrected sensitivity of the pickup and divide the correctedsensitivityofpickupby10. (b) Withtheinputnetworkandrangeselectorsinanyposition,setthe channel selector to the channel to be calibrated. (The pickup may be either connectedordisconnected.) (c) Turn the operation selector to C and then depress and turn the calibratesignalcontrol. Turnthecontroluntilthemeterindicationasreadon thelowerscalecorrespondstothecorrectedsensitivityinmillivoltsperinchper seconddividedby10,aspreviouslycalculated. (d) Release the calibrate signal control and adjust the meter to read fullscalebyusingthesensitivitycontrolapplicabletothechannelinwhicha pickupistobeused. (e) Eachchannelusingapickupiscalibratedaccordingtotheprocedure discussedintheprevioussteps.Ineachcase,theappropriatechannelsensitivity controlshouldbeused. (2) Intheprecedingstepsofthecalibrationprocedure,youareadjusting the sensitivity of the meter to the corrected sensitivity of the pickup. This completes our discussion of the vibration meter. Let's proceed to the typical pickupcalibrator. 6. VIBRATIONPICKUPCALIBRATORS.Thematerialcoveredinthischapterisincluded to help you understand how mechanical vibrations can be detected by means of a pickup and how the displacement or velocity resulting from the vibration can be measuredbyusingatypicalvibrationmeter.Atypicalmetercalibrationprocedure is included so that you can know the basic steps involved in assuring that the vibrationmetersensitivitymatchedthatofthepickup.Informationisincludedin thissectiontohelpyouunderstandhowvibrationpickupsarecalibrated.Wewill discuss the major components of the PC1A Vibration Pickup Calibrator, its operatingtheory,andtheprocedureneedtocalibrateapickup. a. Vibration Exciter. The vibration exciter consists of two major components:thebodystructureandthemovingelementassembly. (1) The body structure contains two permanent magnets which are used to supplytwoseparatefieldofmagneticforceacrossannularairgaps. Themoving elementassemblyconsistsessentiallyofthefollowing: Drivercoil. Asignalgeneratingcoil. Anexcitertable. Twosupportflexures.

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SM0486 Aconnectingrod. (2) The moving element assembly is mounted in the body structure so that the two rodconnected coils are centered in the annular air gaps of the two permanentmagnets. Thetwoflexuresservetopositionthecoilsandtoconstrain thereciprocatingmovementoftheelementassembly. b. Electric Panel Assembly. The electric panel assembly is equipped to providethefollowing: Analternatingelectriccurrenttothedrivercoil. Amplificationofthesignalfromthegeneratorcoil. Controloftheamplitudeofvibrationproducedattheexcitertable. Amplificationoftheelectricsignalreceivedfromthevibrationpickup undertest. Ameansofcomparingthesignalvoltagesofthevibrationpickupandthe signalgenerator. c. Operating Theory. Figure 5 will help you to understand the operating principleofthecalibrator. (1) LocatetheACinputonthecircuit,youcanseethatthe115voltinput power is applied to a transformer containing two secondary coils. The first secondaryreducestheinputvoltageto3.5voltsAC,whichisusedtoenergizethe driver coil of the calibrator's moving element. The remaining secondary coil raisestheinputvoltageto125volts.Leadsfromthissecondaryarewiredintoa seleniumrectifierandvoltagedoublercircuitwhichproduces250voltsB+supply fortheamplifiercircuit. (2) TheoperationofthePC1Aexcitermechanismanditssignalgenerator is based upon fundamental principles of electromagnetic theory. Alternating current,at3.5volts,ispassedthroughthedrivercoilofthemovingelementfrom the transformer. This current creates an alternating magnetic field around the driver coil. Because the driver coil is located in the air gap of a strong permanentmagnet,aninterplayofmagneticforcestakesplacewheneverthedriver coil is energized. The alternating characteristic of the flux field around the coil,reactingagainstthepermanentmagnetfield,impartsareciprocatingmovement to the driver coil so that it moves in and out of the permanent magnet air gap withinthelimitsimposedbyavailablevoltage.

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SM0486 Figure5.PickupCalibratorSchematic

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SM0486 (3) The reciprocating movement of the driver coil is transferred to the signalgeneratorcoilbytheconnectingrod. Thesignalgeneratorcoilisforced tomoveinandoutofthefixedmagneticfieldofthesignalgeneratorpermanent magnet at the same rate as that produced at the driver coil. The cutting of magnetic lines of force by the wires of the signal generator coil produces a voltageattheterminalsofthecoil. (4) Thethirdcomponentofthemovingelementassembly(theexcitertable) isattachedtothesamerodasthedrivercoilandthesignalgeneratorcoil.All threemovingelementcomponentsarethusforcedtomoveinthesamemannerandat the samerate. Sincethetableandthesignalgeneratorcoilaremovingatthe samerate,andsincethevoltageproducedbythemovementofthesignalgenerator coilthroughtheairgapofthesignalgeneratorpermanentmagnetisproportional totherateofcoilmovement,thevoltageoutputofthesignalgeneratorcoilcan beusedasanindicationoftablevelocity. (5) Examine the input circuits in Figure 5, you can see that the output voltage of either the calibrator signal generator or the vibration pickup under testcanbefedtotheamplifiercircuitdependingontheselectedpositionofa twopole,doublethrowswitchmountedonthepanel.Inoneoftheselectorswitch positions,thevalueoftheoutputoftheamplifiedcalibratorsignalgeneratoror vibrationpickupiscontrolledbytwovariableresistorsarrangedinseries.This hookup permits vernier adjustment to the desired value. Amplitude of vibration producedatthecalibratortableiscontrolledbyapanelmountedrheostat,which controlsthecurrentinthemovingelementdrivercoil. (6) Thesignalgeneratoroutputacrossthenullindicatormeterisadjusted by a calibrated potentiometer. The potentiometer is equipped with a calibrated dial thatreadsdirectlyinsensitivityunitsofmillivoltsperinchpersecond. AnACoutputjackistiedinbetweenthecalibratedpotentiometerandtheamplifier to provide a means of reading actual calibrator signal generator voltage output with an accessory vacuum tube voltmeter during testing of the calibrator, after repairoroverhaul. Anymeterorotherdevicepluggedintotheoutputjackmust have a high input impedance (2 megohms or larger) to prevent loading the signal generatororpickupcoils. d. CalibratorApplication.Beforeweproceedtothecalibrationofapickup, let's examine the instrument panel and the controls which you use in the calibrationofapickup.ThecontrolsandpanelcomponentsareshowninFigure6. (1) ThemodelPC1Acalibratormeterpanelprovidesthemeansofcomparing vibrationpickupvoltageswiththeoutputofthesignalgenerator. Thepanelis equippedwithanonoffpowerswitchwhichcontrolstheoperatingvoltageforthe circuits represented on the panel and to the voltage needed for the exciter's driver coil. The amplitude of the exciter table's movement is limited by the positionoftheamplitudecontrol.

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SM0486 The amplifier gain control is used to vary the voltage amplification of the vibrationpickupandsignalgeneratoroutputs. Theouterknobisusedforcoarse adjustments,andtheinnerknobisusedforfineadjustments.Bothadjustmentsare usedtocenterthenullmeterpointer.Additionalcontrolsandaccessorieslocated onthemeterpanelareasfollows: Pickupinputphonejackfeedsthepickupinputtothemeterpanel. AC output phone jackto facilitate signal generator or pickup output monitoring. Pickup/signal generator selector switchallows selection of output of eitherthesignalgeneratororthevibrationpickup. Nullindicatormeterusedtodeterminewhenthepickupoutputandsignal generatoroutputarebalanced. Themeterismostsensitiveinthecenter position. Sensitivitycontroladjustssignalgeneratoroutputacrossnullindicator meter. Figure6.PickupCalibratorFrontPanel

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SM0486 (2) Thecalibratorisdesignedtotestvibrationpickupsthatregisterineither the vertical or horizontal position. You have to determine the type of pickup being tested and position it according to its orientation axis (vertical or horizontal). For vertical operation, place the case on a firm support with the coveratthetop.Forhorizontaloperation,placethecasesothatwhenthecover is removed, the meter panel is vertical and faces in your direction. Mount the pickuptobecalibratedonthePC1Aexcitertablewiththerearendofthepickup awayfromtheoperator.ThetableisprovidedwithfourholestappedforNo.632 NC2 threaded bolts. Selection of the proper size mounting bolts and table mountingboltholesdependsonthetypeofvibrationpickupbeingcalibrated. (3) The preliminaries are over. You can proceed with the pickup calibration, using the procedure which follows. As you read each step of the procedure,locatethecomponentinFigures5and6. (a) Connect the voltage output cable of the vibration pickup to the meterpanelbymeansofthejackmarkedPICKUPINPUT.Donotconnectthevibration pickupsignalvoltageoutputcabletothecalibratorjackmarkedACOUTPUT. This jackisusedonlytomeasurethevoltageoutputofthecalibratorsignalgenerator duringoverhauladjustmentofthecalibratoritself. (b) Attach the power cord of the calibrator to an electrical power source which produces a regulated input of 115volt, 5060 cycle, singlephase alternatingcurrent. (c) Rotate the knob marked AMPLITUDE to the full counterclockwise position (minimum amplitude) and move the calibrator power switch to the ON position. After the pilot lamp lights, move the signal selector switch marked PICKUP/SIGGENtoPICKUP. (d) Rotate the amplitude adjustment to an appropriate midpoint between the arrow and the maximum position and adjust the amplifier gain knob until the nullindicatormeterregistersazeroreading. Youshouldnothandlethetester excessivelywheninusesincethiscanaffectthesensitivityreadings. (e) Throw the signal selector switch to SIG GEN and adjust the calibrator potentiometer knob marked MV/IN/SEC MULTIPLY X 10 until the null indicatordialiszeroed. (f) Takingcarenottodisturbtheadjustmentofthecalibrator,throw the signal switch to its PICKUP position. The null indicator should remain at zero.Ifazeronullindicatorreadingisnotobtained,repeatstepsb,c,d,and euntilthereisnochangeinthenullindicatorreadingwhentheselectorswitch isthrownfromSICGENtoPICKUP. (g) Read andrecordthevibrationpickupsensitivitydirectlyfromthe calibratorpotentiometerintermsofmillivoltsperinchpersecond.

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SM0486 (4) Beforeshuttingdownthecalibratorwiththepowerswitch,reducethe amplitudeofvibrationtoaminimumbyrotatingtheamplitudecontrolknobtothe fullcounterclockwisepositionofitsadjustmentrange.Youshouldusethetester onlyonarigidsurface,preferablyinthesamearea,eachtimepickupsaretested. Anoscilloscopemustbeusedwiththetesterinordertoobservethewaveformbeing generatedbythepickup. (5) Thiscompletestheoperatingprocedureusedwiththepickupcalibrator. Youarerequiredtocalibratethepickupcalibrator. However,sinceyoumustuse theprocedureoutlinedintheTB,explanationofthecalibrationprocedureisnot includedinthiscourse. (6) Before you begin the next lesson, be sure to answer the exercise questions.

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SM0486 ACCPSUBCOURSENUMBERSM0486 MECHANICALANDELECTROMECHANICALMEASUREMENTPRINCIPLES EXERCISESFORLESSON4 1. Amajorcauseofvibrationisthe a. b. c. d. 2. strobscope. imbalanceoftherotatingparts. displacementoftherotatingparts. weightaddedtothecounterpoise.

Avelocitypickupisusedto a. b. c. d. measurethevelocityofamovingobject. connectthevibrationmetertothecylindricalmagnet. measuretherevolutionsperminute(RPM)ofarotatingshaft. translatevibrationsintoelectricalsignals.

3.

Theinputimpedanceofavibrationmeteris a. b. 10kilohms. 1kilohm. c. d. 600ohms. 50ohms.

4.

Thevibrationmeter1117has a. b. c. d. avariablefrequencyfilter. anaveragevelocityfilter. fourinputchannels. threeexternalmonitorjacks.

5.

Themeterreadingobtainedfromthevibrationmeter a. b. c. isdirectreading. mustbemultipliedbythefactorindicatedontheoperationselector. isdirectreadingforpeaktopeakdisplacement.

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SM0486 d. isdirectreadingforaveragevelocity.

6. Youareperformingthesensitivitycontroltest.Ifoperatingproperly,the outputmeterwillindicate a. b. c. d. 7. halfscaleonallchannelpositions. fullscaleonallchannelpositions. fullscaleforchannel1and2andhalfscaleforchannel3and4. halfscaleforchannels1and2andfullscaleforchannels3and4.

Thesensitivityofthevibrationmeterisadjusted a. b. c. d. tothecorrectedsensitivityofthepickup. tothesensitivityofthepickup. formaximumsensitivity. forminimumsensitivity.

8.

Theelectricpanelofthepickupcalibratorprovides a. b. c. d. amplificationofthedrivercoil. adirectcurrenttothedrivercoil. controlofthevibrationproducedbythecoil. a means of comparing the signal voltages of the vibration pickup and thesignalgenerator.

9.

WhatvoltageispassedthroughthedrivercoilofthePC1Aexciter? a. b. .35VDC .35VAC c. d. 3.5VDC 3.5VAC

10.

Vibrationpickupsensitivityisread a. b. c. d. directlyinvoltsperinchpersecond. directlyinmillivoltsperinchpersecond. indirectlyinmillivoltsperinchpersecond. directly inmillivoltsperinchpersecond,afterapplyingcorrection factors.

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SM0486 LESSON5.WEIGHTSANDBALANCES AIPDSubcourseNumberSM0486...........Mechanical and MeasurementPrinciples ElectroMechanical

LessonObjective.......................Given learning objectives and supportive text you should be able to answer all exercise questions pertaining to mass and itsmeasurements,andtheanalytical(micro) balancewithnoerror. CreditHours...........................One TEXT 1. INTRODUCTION

Thetraininginformationinthischapterisacontinuationofyourtrainingin theareasoflength,mass,andtimemeasurements.Thischapterisdesignedtohelp youincreaseyourknowledgeoftheprinciplesappliedwhenweightsandbalancesare used in mass measurements. A review of mass measurement principles is combined with construction and operation principles to help you become proficient at your job. Thesectionsinthischapterteachthefundamentaltheoriesofmassandits measurements; construction and operation principles for bullion balances; metric analyticalbalances,andtheweightsassociatedwitheachtypeofbalance. 2. MASSANDITSMEASUREMENT

a. The mass of an object is a measure of its inertia. Inertia is usually definedasthatgeneralpropertyofmatterwhichcausesabodyinmotiontoremain in motion or a body at rest to remain at rest unless acted upon by an external force. Any discussion on mass and balances must also include a discussion of weights,sinceinourgravitionalenvironmentanymassalwaysexhibitstheproperty ofweight. Therelationshipbetweenmassandweightissoinseparablethatmass determinations by means of comparing unknown weights to reference standards are referredtoas"weighingprocesses." b. Mass Standards. The metric standard of mass in the kilogram. Smaller unitsareusedinthemeasurementsyouperform.Massstandardssimilartotheone in Figure 1 are generally called weights. The National Bureau of Standards, in order toidentifyweightsastotheirgeneralprecision,stability,anduse,has setupclassificationsfordifferentweights. Althoughnotmandatory,thisscheme hasfoundwideacceptanceincommerceandindustry.Weights,asdescribedbyNBS, aredividedintofourbasicclassifications,whichare: (1) PrecisionLaboratoryStandards.

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SM0486 (2) GeneralLaboratoryWeights. (3) Commercial Standards (state references, working and field standards usedinlawenforcement). (4) TradeWeights(weightsusedinthesaleofcommoditiesandservices). Figure1.MassStandards

c. Sinceallmassstandards(weights)arebasicallythesame,withexceptions suchasmanufacturingtolerancesandrequirements,werestrictourinstructionto weightclassification1,whichistypicalofallclassifications.Classification1 ismadeupoffourseparategroupsorclassesofweights,whichare: ClassJ Metricweightsdesignedasmgstandards. ClassM Metricweightsdesignedasreferencestandardsforworkofthe highestprecision. ClassS Metricweightsdesignedasworkingstandardsforthecalibration ofotherweights. ClassS1 Precision weights used for routine analytical work. Included weightsareexpressedinunitsofavoirdupois,apothecary,and troy,aswellasmetricweights.

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SM0486 d. Although the information presented is used on tolerances, denominations andmaterials,weightsinallclassesmustmeetthefollowingNBSrequirements: Material hardness, corrosion resistance, contamination, magnetic properties,density. Designgeneralshape,thickness,numberofpieces. Surfaceirregularities,porosity. Denominationssystemsofunits,numericalseries. Tolerancesacceptance,maintenance. Markingidentification. Handlinglifters. e. Tolerances. Wedon'tincludealloftheclassesintowhichweightsare divided. The classes identified are included so that you realize differences between weights used in your laboratory. The list which follows compares acceptanceandmaintenancetolerancesforsomeofthedifferentclassesofweights. TABLE1.ClassesofWeights

f. Fromtheprecedinglistofcomparisons,youshouldconcludethatasingle class of weights has an acceptance tolerance which each weightmust meet when manufacturedandamaintenancetolerancewhicheachweightmustmeetwhileitisin use.Asindicatedintheprecedinglistofcomparisons,weightsofdifferentsizes withinagivenclassmayormaynotbethesame.

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SM0486 g. Characteristics. Some classes of weights have provisions for adding or removingsmallamountsofweightforadjustmentpurposes.ClassSandS1weights haveremovableknobswhichcoverasmallchamberwithintheweight.Smallfilings or shot added to or removed from the chamber are used to trim the weights to maintain tolerance such as those in the preceding list. Weights of one class generallyaresuppliedinsetssuchasthoseshowninFigure2. Weightsetsare delivered in various denomination sequences; however, the most common acceptable sequences are: 5321, 5221, or 8421. The sequences listed are in the descendingorder. Insomeinstancesyoumayseethemidentifiedintheascending order. h. Theusual1225weightarrangementandtherecentlyestablished1236 sequencesarerelatedtoabinarycodeddecimal(BCD)sequence. Insomeinstances a true binary sequence has replaced the BCD sequence because the use of four weightsin16possiblecombinationsexpandstheirrangebyafactorof1.6without additionaldecodingproblems.TheconsiderationofBCDversusbinarycodedsystems isamatterofdecreasingthesearchsteps(trialanderrorweightmatching)toa minimum,andatthesametimereducingthemaximumnumberofweightsrequired. i. Materials. Weight measurements are subjected to errors caused by humidity, absorption, desorption, wear, influence of electrostatic charges, and temperatureeffects.Theseeffectstendtocausetemporaryorpermanentchangesin thevalueofthestandardweights,therebyproducingweightmeasurementerrors.In an effort to reduce the errors caused by the changes in materials, large mass standardsareusuallyrestrictedtothefollowingmaterial: Platinumiridium(90%10%) Platinum Stainlesssteel(25%chromium,20%nickel) Nonmagneticnickelchromium(80%20%) Brassplatedwithrhodium,platinum,orchromium.

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SM0486 Figure2.WeightSetsandtheirCase

j. Thematerialsarelistedintheorderoftheirpreferencewithregardto stability. The first four materials are also considered applicable for use in smaller weights, in addition to materials such as gold (alloy), tantalum, and aluminum.Itisimportanttoassumethatthetotalerrorcausedbychangesinany ofthematerialsintheprecedinglistdoesnotexceedonetotenpartspermillion (ppm). k. MassMeasurements.Sinceweightistheforcewithwhichamassorbodyis attracted to the center of the earth (the pull gravity), mass measurements determine the force W (weight) produced in a gravitational field: W = (M) (G). Thisforcedependsongravity(G)whichvarieswithlatitudeandaltitude. Known masseswhosevaluesarecalibratedforspecificlocationsaresometimesused.The process by which an unknown weight (mass) is compared with a calibrated weight (mass)iscalledaweighing.

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SM0486 l. Simplecomparisons.Thesimplemethodofcomparingtwoweightsistolet them hang from opposite ends of a lever which is supported and pivoted at its center. Exact measurements require that you know the ratio of the beam (lever) arms; thatyoususpendtheweightsfromequal,correspondingpointsfromeachof theendsofthebeam;andthatthefrictionatthepivotpointbereducedtoits lowestvalue. m. Measurementmethods.Someofthemethodsusedforweightmeasurementsare asfollows: (1) Direct methodPlacethesample(unknown)weightononeofthepans suspended from one of the beam (lever) arms, and the calibrated weights on the otherpan. (2) Transposition method Perform two successive direct weighings, reversingthesampleandweightpositionsinthesecondweighing. (3) Substitution method Place the unknown in the right pan and counterbalance with calibrated metal weights placed in the left pan. Bring the balanceintoequilibrium,firstbytheadditionofweightstothelefthandpanand secondbythemovementofthelefthandrider(metalaccessoryplacedonthebeam) whiletherighthandriderremainsatzero. Replacetheunknownintherightpan with standard weights and move the right rider to the same equilibrium point as before. Theweightoftheunknownisthesumofthesubstitutedweightsandthe readingoftherider. n. Letusexamineeachofthemeasurementmethodslistedtobesurethatyou understandtheprincipleused.Inthestatementwhichdescribedthedirectweight measurement method, we are referring to the use of a balance such as the one represented in Figure 3. When the calibrated weights on the right pan counterbalance the unknown mass on the left pan, the weights of the known and unknownmassesshouldbewithin3to5gramsofeachother.Theconditionwhereby the two weights are nearly equal is evidenced by the fact that the instrument pointernolongermoves. Whenthenearlybalancedconditionisreached,thepan arrests(devicesdesignedtorestrictthemovementofpans)arereleased.Thepans are released so that the righthand rider on the beam shown in Figure 4 can be manipulated until the pointer in Figure 3 remains between the extreme graduation marksonthescale.Afteryoubringthebalanceintoapproximateequilibrium,the totalweightonthelefthanger(unknownmass)isthesumof: (1) Theweightsontherightside. (2) The effective weight of the rider or beam weight determined by its position. (3) Plusorminustheswingofthepointerinterpretedinmilligrams.

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SM0486 Figure3.RepresentativeBalanceAssembly

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SM0486 Figure4.BeamwithRider

o. YouinterpretthebeaminformationinFigure4bynotingthelocationof therideronthebeamandconsideringtheweightoftherider.Ifyoumovea10mg riderfromzero(atthecenter)to10attherightsideofthebeam,ithasthe same effect asplacing a 10mg weight on the right pan in Figure 3. Leave the riders on the beam to prevent a change in the center of gravity of the moving system.Thischangeisoftencausedbytheremovalandreplacementofriders. p. Our description of the transposition method of weight measurement needs clarification. Yourfirststepisthedeterminationoftheunknownbythedirect weighingmethod. Next,youtransposetheloads(movetheunknownandstandardto opposite pans) so that the unknown weight (mass) is on the left pan. After a secondreadingistaken,determinethetrue

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SM0486 weight of the unknown by extracting the square root of the product of the two weighings.Youcanapproximatethetruevalueoftheunknownmasssimplybytaking the average of the two weighings (one half the algebraic difference of the two added to the smaller). Because our description of the substitution method of weightmeasurementwasquiteextensive,anexpansionisnotnecessary. 3. ANALYTICAL(MICRO)BALANCE

a. In this section we discuss the conversion of units between the avoirdupois, troy, and apothecary mass measurement systems. In addition, we discuss factors which must be considered in mass measurements. The factors discussed are buoyancy volume, density, and sensitivity. After we establish relationshipsbetweenbuoyancyandvolumeanddensity,wediscussthesensitivity ofabalance.Thesectionendswithexplanationsoftheconstructionandoperation ofatypicalanalyticalbalance. b. MassMeasurementSystems. Althoughthekilogramisanacceptedstandard for mass measurements, most manufacturers use the avoirdupois system, which is basedontheton,pound,dram,andgrain.Thebasisforanyofthethreesystems mentioned is the grain. The grain, which is the same in all three systems, is definedasbeingequalto.064798918grams,orconversely: 15.432356grains=1gram Therelativemagnitudeoftheunitsineachsystemsfollows:

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SM0486 c. The numbers directly to the right of the terms indicate the conversion betweenadjacentunits,whilethenumbertothefarrightindicatesthenumberof grainsperpound.Noticethatthebasicdifferencebetweenthetroyandapothecary systems is the terms employed to subdivide the pound. The troy and apothecary systems are used very little and restricted to highly specialized fields. The preceding listofvaluesindicatesthenecessitytoidentifythesystemofunits usedforeachmeasurement. d. If 1 grain is equal to 15.432356 grains as stated, we can check the relationships of the value listed for the different weight measuring systems. Examples: (1) In the avoirdupois system, 27.343 grains x 16 grams equals approximately437grainsperounce. Whenyoudivide437grainsby15.432356(one gram),youfindthat1avoirdupoisounceisequaltoapproximately28.3gramsper ounce. Multiplying 28.3 grams per ounce by 16 ounces per pound, you find that thereareapproximately452gramsin1pound.(AVOIRDUPOIS) (2) In the troy system, 24 grains x 20 pennyweights equals approximately 480grainsperounce. Whenyoudivide480grainsby15.432356grains(onegram), you find that 1 troy ounce is equal to approximately 31.1 grams per ounce. Multiplying31.1gramsperounceby12ouncesperpound,youfindthatthereare approximately373gramsinonepound.(TROY) e. For your convenience Table 2 lists conversion factors for most of the commonmassunits.Youshouldbeabletousethevalueslistedtoconvertfromone systemtoanother.Let'scontinueourstudyofmassmeasurementtheoryassociated withanalyticalbalancesbyexaminingtwoconsiderationswhicharefactorsinthe accuracyofmeasurementsmadewithanalyticalbalances. Theseconsiderationsare buoyancyandsensitivity. f. MassMeasurementConsiderations. Althoughthematerialpresentedinthis section concerns the construction and operation of analytical balances, the discussion of buoyancy and sensitivity which follows applies to any other mass measurementdevice. g. Buoyancy. Theliftingeffectwhichairhasonabodyisconsideredwhen standardmassesareusedorcalibrated.Anybodyimmersedinafluidorsuspended inairisbuoyedupbyaforceequaltotheweightofthedisplacedfluidorair. Because of this buoyant force, exact numerical values of the apparent mass of standards usedwithatypicalanalyticalbalancearebasedonspecificvaluesof airdensityandthedensityofthestandardmass. h. Thedensityofairdependsontemperature,pressure,andhumidity. From specifiedvaluesofthesefactors,standardconditionsforairarespecifiedas1.2 milligrams/cm3. However,becausethedensityofagivenmaterialisafactorin buoyant force determinations, the comparison of weights of different densities requiresthecalculationofabuoyancycorrection.

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SM0486 i. Asanexample,let'scomparea100gramstainlesssteelmasswitha100 grambrassstandardandcomputethebuoyancycorrectionusingavalueof10grams percm3 forthedensityofstainlesssteelandavalueof8.4gramspercm3 for brass. Becausethevolumesofthemassesarefactorsinthebuoyancycorrection computation,computethevolumeswiththeformulaswhichfollow: TABLE2.ConversionFactorsforUnitsofMass

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SM0486 Figure5.TypeIONAnalyticalBalance

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SM0486

You determine the volume of the brass standard by using the first formula, and substitutingthegivenvaluesforthemassanddensityofbrass.

Youdeterminethevolumeofthestainlesssteelmassbyusingthesecondformula andsubstitutingthegivenvaluesforthemassanddensityofthestainlesssteel mass.

Because the buoyant effect is proportional to the difference between the two volumes,thevolumetricdifferenceisfoundby V = = = VBrVas 11.9cm310cm3 l.9cm3

j. KnowingthatthevolumeofamasscanbedeterminedfromtheformulaV= M,wecantransposevaluesintheformulatodeveloptheformulaformassinterms P ofvolumeanddensity,M=(V)(p).Using1.9cm3(the 136

SM0486 differenceofthetwovolumes)and0.0012gm/cm3(thedensityofair),wedetermine thevalue(intermsofmass)oftheerrorcausedbythebuoyancyofairis

k. We could also figure the buoyant effect air has on each of the two differentmassesandthensubtracttofindthedifferenceinbuoyanteffect.Since thebrassstandardhadthegreatestvolume,wecanstatethatairhadthegreatest effect on it. From the preceding example since the brass was our standard, we shouldaddthemasscorrectionduetobuoyancytothestainlesssteelmass. l. Now,usingtheinformationandexamples,determinethebuoyancycorrection for the100gramstainlesssteelmassintheexampleafterwearbitrarilychange itsdensityfrom10gramspercm3 to12.5gramspercm3. Usethequestionswhich followasaguidetoyoursolution: (1)Whatvalueorvaluesdoyouneed? Examinetheexample. Thevolumesofthe unknown and the standard were computed. Since brass is our standard in this problem,itsvolumeisthesame. Forthestainlesssteelmasswiththearbitrary densityof12.5gramspercm3itsvolumebecomes:

(2) What is the second step, after the volumes for stainless steel and brassareknown? Asstatedbefore,oneeasymethodoffindinganequivalentmass for buoyancy is to find the difference between the two masses and then find the productofthecalculateddifferencesandthedensityofair,(V)().Thismeans thatyournextstepistodeterminethedifferencesinvolumeforthe100grammass standardbrassandthe100grammassofstainlesssteel. (3) Youknowthedifferencebetweenthetwovolumes.Whatnext?

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SM0486

m. Sensitivity. The sensitivity of a balance is defined as the amount of weight required to cause a given swing or deflection. This may be stated in various ways. For example, if a 4mg weight causes the pointer to swing 10 divisions, it may be stated that the balance has a sensitivity of 0.4 mg per division. Likewise,itmightbestatedthatthebalancehasareadabilityof1/4 division and a sensitivity of 0.1 mg. In the latter case, the balance has a detectablesensitivityof1/4divisionor0.1mg. Ifthepointerwereallowedto cometorest,itwouldbefoundthatthis4mgweightonlycausedachangeof5 divisions in the final rest point of the pointer from the zero or initial rest point. Now,itshouldbestatedthatthebalancehasasensitivityof0.8mgper division. You should be aware that there are different ways to define the term "sensitivityofabalance"butforthepurposesofthiscourseandyourcalibration program,thesensitivityistheamountofweightrequiredtochangetherestpoint of the balance one division. Now that you have completed your study of mass measurement considerations, lets study the construction and operating principles ofatypicalanalyticalbalance. n. Typical Analytical (Micro) Balance. The construction and operation principles for the typical analytical balance are so interdependent that it is difficulttoteachonewithoutteachingtheother. However,inthissection,we identify some of the major components of a typical analytical balance before we teachthebasicoperatingprinciplesforthebalance. o. Construction. The illustration in Figure 5 shows how the knurled digitizer drum of the analytical balance protrudes through the front panel to permit manipulation for the digital readout shown in the illustration. Only the upperportionofthefrontpanelisshowninFigure5A.Thelowerportionofthe instrument is constructed so that square openings on the front and sides permit easyaccesstothesinglepanonwhichtaresandweightsareplaced,asshownin Figure5B.

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SM0486 Figure6.SinglePanandDoorLocation

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SM0486 p. Whentheexpression"tare"isused,werefertoaroundcontainerinwhich thecalibratedmasses(weights)areplacedbeforetheweighing.Taringdevicesare constructed with loops or hooks on the top so that they can be lifted off or suspendedabovethepansothatmassescanbeaddedtoortakenfromthecontainer. Thetaringdevicepermitssettingthebalancereadouttozeroevenwhenanempty container(tare)onthepan. Thereadoutthenbecomesadirectindicationofthe netweightofthematerialplacedinthecontainer.Byuseofataringdevice,you eliminate the necessity for making two weighings and subtracting the tare weight fromthegrossweighttodeterminethenetweight. Afteryouzerothebalanceby removingtheappropriatetarediscsstoredintiedrawerbeneaththepanshownin Figure5B,thecontainersplacedonthepanforzeroaretaredandbecomea"part ofthebalance." q. Youusethefrontpanelknobs(9.1g,1g,and10g)showninFigure5A,to addcalibratedweightsto,orremovethemfromtheweightmeasurementarm.Oneof theknobswhichisnotshowninFigure5Aisthearrestmentknob,showninFigures 5B,and6. Thiscontrolarrests(secures)orreleasesthebalancepan. Youuse the digitizer control shown in the illustration to move the optical scale line, whichisjustbelowthereferencegapintothegap,andtocenterthisscaleline inthereferencegap. Additionalinformationonbalanceconstructionisincluded intheexplanationonbalanceoperatingtheory. r. Balanceoperatingtheory.TheanalyticalbalanceillustratedinFigures5 and6istypicalofthesubstitutiontypebalances. Althoughmanynewvariations oftheanalyticalbalanceexist,anageoldprincipleisstillapplied.Apivoted levercalledthebalancebeamhastheunknownmasssuspendedfromoneendandthe standard suspended from the other. The beam is brought into a near equilibrium state by bringing the center of gravity directly underneath the pivot, shown in Figure6,andbymakingthepivotareaassmallaspossible(afewthousandthsof aninch).Undertheseconditions,anysmallweightdifferencebetweentheunknown and standard masses results in a large beam deflection (rotation), and the beam angledeflectionbecomesasensitiveindicationofequality(orinequality). The massofthestandardischangedbymanipulatingthecontrolsinFigure5A,marked "10G" (grams), "1G," and "0.1G," and the digitizer drum until an equality is indicated.

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SM0486 Figure7.ArrangementofWeightsonthetypeIONBalance

s. Thetopviewofananalyticalbalance,depictedinFigure7,showshowthe calibrated weights are placed on the balance beam. Although the side view of calibrated weights in Figure 8 is taken from the mode SCN balance, calibrated weights loaded on the beam of the model ION balance have the same general appearance when viewed from the side. Figure 9 is included so that when you compareotheranalyticalbalanceswiththemodelION,youwillrecognizethattheir controlsandoperatingprinciplesarebasicallythesame. t. Compare the readouts in the windows and on the scales of the panels in Figures5Aand9toseeiftheyarethesameastheweighingresultsstatedinthe figures.Althoughtheweighingresultsarethesameforbothinstruments,youcan seethatcontroltitlessuchasDIGITIZERDRUMandMICROMETERKNOBaredifferent. Also,youcanseechangesinthemethodsusedtoobtaindecimalreadouts.However, youshouldrememberthatthebasicprincipleofoperationisthesame. The10G, 1G,andsmallercontrolsonbothbalancemodelsaremanipulatedtoaddorremove calibrated weights to or from the balance beam to bring the balance into equilibrium.

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SM0486 Figure8.SideviewofWeightsonaTypicalAnalyticalBalance

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SM0486 u. The sequence of measurement for the balances in Figures 5A, and 9 are check zero, weigh, and read the results. The micrometer knob and the digitizer drum have stops which let you know that you have turned them to their zero positions. Afterzeroingthedigitizerormicrometer,youreleasethepaninside thebalancebyrotatingthearrestmentknob(notshown)tothereleasedposition. Thezeroprocedureiscompleteafteryourotatethezeroknobuntilthezeroline oftheopticalscaleiscenteredinthereferencegap. Figure9.Type21AnalyticalBalance

v. Whenyoustarttheweighingprocedure,youshouldarrestthebeamandload thepan.TheaccessdoorsandthepanwehavereferencedcanbeseeninFigure6. In both models of the balance, the arrestment knob is turned to its PART REL position whilethemovementofthepaniswatched. Ifthepanswings,turnthe arrestment knob back and forth several times between the PART REL and RELEASED positionsuntiltheswingingstops.Duringtheweighingprocess,youturneachof theknobs(10G,1G,and0.16G)from0to102030untilthe"removeweight"appears intheread

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SM0486 outwindow.Afterthe"removeweight"appears,turneachofthecontrolsbackone step.Ifthe"removeweight"doesnotappearevenwhentheknobisinitshighest position,leaveitinthatposition;donotturnbackonestep. w. Onthemodel10N,balanceifthedigitizerdrumisbetweennumbersduring theweighingprocess,movethenumberthatshowsthemostintofullview. Onthe model 21 in Figure 9 or similar balances, you have a micrometer instead of a digitizer. Whenthescalestops,turnthemicrometerknobslowlyuntilthescale line just below the reference gap is centered in the gap. There is a slight differenceintheinterpretationofthetwoscalereadings. x. Readthemodel10NscaleinFigure5A,fromlefttorightasindicated. Youshouldrealizethatthebalanceopticalscaleisextendedbeyond100divisions foreasierweighingsnearthescaleends. Thefirst"1"ofthedivisions100120 hastobecarriedmathematicallyintothedigitsattheleft. Theresultsofthe weighingbythemodel21balanceinFigure9arereadfromthelefttotheright digitsinthewindowsfirst,opticalscalesecond,andmicrometerscalelast.Tens ofmilligrams(45intheexampleofFigure9)arereadontheopticalscale.Read milligramsandtenthsofmilligramsarethemicrometerscale(6.7intheexample). Thefactthateachlineontheopticalscaleisequalto10milligrams(not1mg) could cause some confusion. For this reason, you should record each digit as a separatenumberwithoutregardtothesignificanceofeachdigit.Tocompleteyour studyofthematerialinthislesson,answerthereviewexercisespreparedforthis lesson.

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SM0486 AIPDSUBCOURSENUMBERSM0486 MECHANICAL/ELECTROMECHANICALMEASUREMENTPRINCIPLES EXERCISESFORLESSON5 1. Whichunitisthemetricstandardofmass? a. b. 2. Pound. Ounce. c. d. Gram. Kilogram.

HowareclassSandS1weightsadjustedforanintolerancecondition? a. b. c. d. Byremovingknobsandaddingorremovingsmallfilingsorshots ByusingaTaringDevice Bydrillingholesinthemoraddingsolder Replaceoutoftoleranceweight

3.

Which materialispreferred,inregardtostability,foruseinlargemass standards? a. b. Platinumiridium Iron c. d. Aluminumalloy Copper

4.

WhatisthepurposeoftheTaringDevice? a. b. c. d. Itpermitssettingthebalancereadouttozero It'susedasacounterbalance It'susedtohangweights It'susedtostoreweights

5.

InthecalibrationprogramwhatismeantbySensitivityofaBalance? a. b. c. d. Thedetectablesensitivity Therestpointoftheindicator Whenthepointerindicateszero Theamountofweightrequiredtochangetherestpointofthebalance onedivision

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SM0486 6. Whichbuoyancycorrectionformulaisusedforstainlesssteel? a. b. 7. Pss=M/Vbr Vss=M/Pss c. d. Vbr=M/Pbr SVs=P/Mss

If most manufactures use the ton, pound, dram, and grain, what measuring systemaretheyusing? a. b. Troy Apothecary c. d. Avoirdupois Trade

8.

Themassofanobjectisameasureofits a. b. length. inertia. c. d. circumference. volume.

9.

HowistheModel10Nscaleread? a. b. Fromlefttoright Righttoleft c. d. Micrometerdialfirst Noneoftheabove

10.

ThesequenceformeasurementforthebalancesinFigure5Aand9are a. b. c. d. checkzero,weight,removeweights. weigh,checkzero,removeweights. checkzero,weigh,readresults. installpan,weigh,readresults.

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SM0486 SUBCOURSENUMBERSM0486 APPROVEDSOLUTION LessonOne..........................TemperatureandHumidityMeasurements 1. dpara2b 2. apara2b(2) 3. apara2b(3) 4. dpara2b(5) 5. bpara2c(2) 6. bpara2e(2) 7. bpara2f 8. cpara3c(1) 9. cpara4(2) 10. dpara5e 11. bpara5i 12. dpara6a(9) 13. apara6b(10)(b) 14. dpara7b 15. bpara7c(3)

LessonTwo..........................PressureMeasurementsandDevices 1. apara2c 2. dpara3 3. cpara3d 4. bpara4a 5. bpara4f 6. cpara6b 7. apara7 8. apara7c(3)(a) 9. dpara7c(4)(b) 10. bpara8a 11. bpara9a(1) 12. apara10c(2) 13. cpara10c(3) 14. apara10d(4) 15. apara10e(6)

LessonThree........................RotaryTorqueMeasurementsandEquipment 1. apara2a 2. dpara2b(3) 3. apara3e 6. cpara5a 7. dpara5b(5) 8. cpara61

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SM0486 4. bpara3e 5. dpara4b 9. bpara7b 10. dpara8d

LessonFour.........................VibrationMeasurementsandEquipment 1. bpara3a 2. dpara4 3. apara4d(2) 4. cpara5a 5. bpara5b(3) 6. bpara5c(5) 7. apara5d(2) 8. dpara6b 9. dpara6c(2) 10. bpara6d(3)(9)

LessonFive.........................WeightsandBalance 1. dpara2b 2. apara2g 3. apara2i 4. apara3p 5. dpara3m 6. bpara3i 7. cpara3b 8. bpara2a 9. apara3x 10. cpara3u

All concerned will be careful that neither this solution nor information concerning thesamecomesintothepossessionofstudentswhohavenotcompleted theworktowhichitpertains.

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