EE 3CL4, 2

1 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
EE3CL4:
Introduction to Linear Control Systems
Section 2: System Models
Tim Davidson
McMaster University
Winter 2012
EE 3CL4, 2
2 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Outline
1 Modelling physical systems
Translational Newtonian Mechanics
Rotational Newtonian Mechanics
2 Linearization
3 Laplace transforms
4 Laplace transforms in action
5 Transfer function
6 Step response
7 Transfer function of DC motor
8 Our rst control system design
9 Block diagram models
Block diagram transformations
EE 3CL4, 2
4 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Differential equation models
Most of the systems that we will deal with are dynamic
Differential equations provide a powerful way to
describe dynamic systems
Will form the basis of our models
We saw differential equations for inductors and
capacitors in 2CI, 2CJ
What about mechanical systems?
both translational and rotational
EE 3CL4, 2
5 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Translational Spring
F(t ): resultant force in direction x
Recall free body diagrams and action and reaction
Spring. k: spring constant, x
r
: relaxed length of spring
F(t ) = k
_
[x
2
(t ) x
1
(t )] x
r
_
EE 3CL4, 2
6 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Translational Damper
F(t ): resultant force in direction x
Viscous damper. b: viscous friction coefcient
F(t ) = b
_
dx
2
(t )
dt

dx
1
(t )
dt
_
= b
_
v
2
(t ) v
1
(t )
_
EE 3CL4, 2
7 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Mass
F(t ): resultant force in direction x
Mass: M
F(t ) = M
d
2
x
m
(t )
dt
2
= M
dv
m
(t )
dt
= Ma
m
(t )
EE 3CL4, 2
8 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Rotational spring
T(t ): resultant torque in direction
Rotational spring. k: rotational spring constant,

r
: rotation of relaxed spring
T(t ) = k
_
[
2
(t )
1
(t )]
r
_
EE 3CL4, 2
9 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Rotational damper
T(t ): resultant torque in direction
Rotational viscous damper.
b: rotational viscous friction coefcient
T(t ) = b
_
d
2
(t )
dt

d
1
(t )
dt
_
= b
_

2
(t )
1
(t )
_
EE 3CL4, 2
10 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Rotational inertia
T(t ): resultant torque in direction
Rotational inertia: J
T(t ) = J
d
2

m
(t )
dt
2
= J
d
m
(t )
dt
= J
m
(t )
EE 3CL4, 2
11 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Example system (translational)
Horizontal. Origin for y: y = 0 when spring relaxed
F = M
dv(t )
dt
v(t ) =
dy(t )
dt
F(t ) = r (t ) b
dy(t )
dt
ky(t )
M
d
2
y(t )
dt
+ b
dy(t )
dt
+ ky(t ) = r (t )
EE 3CL4, 2
12 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Example, continued
M
d
2
y(t )
dt
+ b
dy(t )
dt
+ ky(t ) = r (t )
Resembles equation for parallel RLC circuit.
EE 3CL4, 2
13 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Example, continued
Stretch the spring a little and hold.
Assume an under-damped system.
What happens when we let it go?
EE 3CL4, 2
15 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Taylors series
Nature does not have many linear systems
However, many systems behave approximately linearly
in the neighbourhood of a given point
Apply rst-order Taylors Series at a given point
Obtain a locally linear model
EE 3CL4, 2
16 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Pendulum example
Torque due to gravity: T = MgLsin
Linearize around = 0. At that point, T = 0
Linearized model
T MgL
d sin
d

=0
= MgL
EE 3CL4, 2
18 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Laplace transform
Once we have a linearized differential equation we can
take Laplace Transforms to obtain the transfer function
We will consider the one-sided Laplace transform, for
signals that are zero to the left of the origin.
F(s) =
_

0

f (t )e
st
dt
What does
_

mean? lim
T
_
T
.
Does this limit exist?
If |f (t )| < Me
t
, then exists for all Re(s) > .
Includes all physically realizable signals
Note: When multiplying transfer function by Laplace of input, output
is only valid for values of s in intersection of regions of convergence
EE 3CL4, 2
19 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and zeros
In this course, most Laplace transforms will be rational
functions, that is, a ratio of two polynomials in s; i.e.,
F(s) =
n
F
(s)
d
F
(s)
where n
F
(s) and d
F
(s) are polynomials
Denitions:
Poles of F(s) are the roots of d
F
(s)
Zeros of F(s) are the roots of n
F
(s)
Hence,
F(s) =
K
F

M
i =1
(s + z
i
)

n
j =1
(s + p
j
)
=
_
K
F

M
i =1
z
i

n
j =1
p
j
_

M
i =1
(s/z
i
+ 1)

n
j =1
(s/p
j
+ 1)
where z
i
are the zeros and p
j
are the poles
EE 3CL4, 2
20 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Visualizing poles and zeros
Consider the simple Laplace transform F(s) =
s(s+3)
s
2
+2s+5
.
zeros: 0, 3; poles: 1 + j 2, 1 j 2
Pole-zero plot (left) and magnitude of F(s) (right)
EE 3CL4, 2
21 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Visualizing poles and zeros
F(s) =
s(s+3)
s
2
+2s+5
; zeros: 0, 3; poles: 1 + j 2, 1 j 2
|F(s)| from above (left) and prev. view of |F(s)| (right)
EE 3CL4, 2
22 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Laplace transform pairs
Simple ones can be computed analytically;
often available in tables; see Tab. 2.3 in 12th ed. of text
For more complicated ones, one can typically obtain
the inverse Laplace transform by
identifying poles
constructing partial fraction expansion
using of properties and some simple pairs to invert
each component of partial fraction expansion
EE 3CL4, 2
23 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Some Laplace transform pairs
Recall that complex poles come in conjugate pairs.
EE 3CL4, 2
24 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Key properties
Linearity
df (t )
dt
sF(s) f (0

)
_
t

f (x) dx
F(s)
s
+
1
s
_
0

f (x) dx
EE 3CL4, 2
25 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Final value theorem
Can we avoid having to do an inverse Laplace transform?
Sometimes.
Consider the case when we only want to nd the nal value
of f (t ), namely lim
t
f (t ).
If F(s) has all its poles in the left half plane, except,
perhaps, for a single pole at the origin, then
lim
t
f (t ) = lim
s0
sF(s)
Common application: Steady state value of step response
What if there are poles in RHP, or on the j -axis and not at
the origin?
EE 3CL4, 2
27 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Mass-spring-damper system
Horizontal (no gravity)
Set origin of y where spring is relaxed
F = M
dv(t )
dt
v(t ) =
dy(t )
dt
F(t ) = r (t ) b
dy(t )
dt
ky(t )
M
d
2
y(t )
dt
+ b
dy(t )
dt
+ ky(t ) = r (t )
EE 3CL4, 2
28 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
MSD system
M
d
2
y(t )
dt
+ b
dy(t )
dt
+ ky(t ) = r (t )
Consider t 0 and take Laplace transform
M
_
s
2
Y(s)sy(0

)
dy(t )
dt

t =0

_
+b
_
sY(s)y(0

)
_
+kY(s) = R(s)
Hence
Y(s) =
1/M
s
2
+ (b/M)s + k/M
R(s)
+
(s + b/M)
s
2
+ (b/M)s + k/M
y(0

)
+
1
s
2
+ (b/M)s + k/M
dy(t )
dt

t =0

EE 3CL4, 2
29 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Response to static init. cond.
Spring stretched to a point y
0
, held, then let go at time t = 0
Hence, r (t ) = 0 and
dy(t )
dt

t =0

= 0
Hence,
Y(s) =
(s + b/M)
s
2
+ (b/M)s + k/M
y
0
What can we learn about this response without having to
invert Y(s)
EE 3CL4, 2
30 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Standard form
Y(s) =
(s + b/M)
s
2
+ (b/M)s + k/M
y
0
=
(s + 2
n
)
s
2
+ 2
n
s +
2
n
y
0
where
n
=
_
k/M and =
b
2

kM
Poles: s
1
, s
2
=
n

n
_

2
1
> 1 (equiv. b > 2

kM): distinct real roots, overdamped

= 1 (equiv. b = 2

kM): equal real roots, critically damped

< 1 (equiv. b < 2

kM): complex conj. roots, underdamped

EE 3CL4, 2
31 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Overdamped case
s
1
, s
2
=
n

n
_

2
1
Overdamped response: > 1 (equiv. b > 2

kM)
y(t ) = c
1
e
s
1
t
+ c
2
e
s
2
t
y(0) = y
0
= c
1
+ c
2
= y
0

dy(t )
dt

t =0
= 0 = s
1
c
1
+ s
2
c
2
= 0
What does this look like when strongly overdamped
s
2
is large and negative, s
1
is small and negative
Hence e
s
2
t
decays much faster than e
s
1
t
Also, c
2
= c
1
s
1
/s
2
. Hence, small
Hence y(t ) c
1
e
s
1
t
Looks like a rst order system!
EE 3CL4, 2
32 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Critically damped case
s
1
= s
2
=
n
y(t ) = c
1
e

n
t
+ c
2
te

n
t
y(0) = y
0
= c
1
= y
0

dy(t )
dt

t =0
= 0 = c
1

n
+ c
2
= 0
EE 3CL4, 2
33 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Underdamped case
s
1
, s
2
=
n
j
n
_
1
2
Therefore, |s
i
| =
n
: poles lies on a circle
Angle to negative real axis is cos
1
().
EE 3CL4, 2
34 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Underdamped case
Dene =
n
,
d
=
n
_
1
2
. Response is:
y(t ) = c
1
e
t
cos(
d
t ) + c
2
e
t
sin(
d
t )
= Ae
t
cos(
d
t +)
Homework: Relate A and to c
1
and c
2
.
Homework: Write the initial conditions y(0) = y
0
and
dy(t )
dt

t =0
= 0 in terms of c
1
and c
2
, and in terms of A and
EE 3CL4, 2
35 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Numerical examples
Y(s) =
(s+2
n
)
s
2
+2
n
s+
2
n
y
0
, where
n
=
_
k/M, =
b
2

kM
Poles: s
1
, s
2
=
n

n
_

2
1
> 1: overdamped; < 1: underdamped
Consider the case of M = 1, k = 1. Hence,
n
= 1,
b = 3 0. Hence, = 1.5 0
Initial conds: y
0
= 1,
dy(t )
dt

t =0
= 0
EE 3CL4, 2
36 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and transient response,
b = 3
EE 3CL4, 2
37 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and transient response,
b = 2.75
EE 3CL4, 2
38 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and transient response,
b = 2.5
EE 3CL4, 2
39 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and transient response,
b = 2.25
EE 3CL4, 2
40 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and transient response,
b = 2
EE 3CL4, 2
41 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and transient response,
b = 1.95
EE 3CL4, 2
42 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and transient response,
b = 1.75
EE 3CL4, 2
43 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and transient response,
b = 1.5
EE 3CL4, 2
44 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and transient response,
b = 1.25
EE 3CL4, 2
45 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and transient response,
b = 1
EE 3CL4, 2
46 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and transient response,
b = 0.75
EE 3CL4, 2
47 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and transient response,
b = 0.5
EE 3CL4, 2
48 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and transient response,
b = 0.25
EE 3CL4, 2
49 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and transient response,
b = 0
EE 3CL4, 2
51 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Transfer function
Denition: Laplace transform of output over Laplace
transform of input when initial conditions are zero
Most of the transfer functions in this course will be
ratios of polynomials in s.
Hence, poles and zeros of transfer functions have
natural denitions
Example: Recall the mass-spring-damper system,
EE 3CL4, 2
52 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Transfer function, MSD system
For the mass-spring-damper system,
Y(s) =
1/M
s
2
+ (b/M)s + k/M
R(s)
+
(s + b/M)
s
2
+ (b/M)s + k/M
y(0

)
+
1
s
2
+ (b/M)s + k/M
dy(t )
dt

t =0

Therefore, transfer function is:

1/M
s
2
+ (b/M)s + k/M
=
1
Ms
2
+ bs + k
EE 3CL4, 2
54 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Step response
Recall that u(t )
1
s
Therefore, for transfer function G(s), the step response
is:
L
1
_
G(s)
s
_
For the mass-spring-damper system, step response is
L
1
_
1
s(Ms
2
+ bs + k)
_
What is the nal position for a step input?
Recall nal value theorem. Final position is 1/k.
What about the complete step response?
EE 3CL4, 2
55 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Step response
Step response: L
1
_
G(s)
1
s
_
Hence poles of Laplace transform of step response are
poles of G(s), plus an additional pole at s = 0.
For the mass-spring-damper system, using partial
fractions, step response is:
L
1
_
1
s(Ms
2
+ bs + k)
_
= L
1
_
1/k
s
_

1
k
L
1
_
Ms + b
Ms
2
+ bs + k
_
=
1
k
u(t )
1
k
L
1
_
Ms + b
Ms
2
+ bs + k
_
Consider again the case of M = k = 1, b = 3 0.

n
= 1, = 1.5 0.
EE 3CL4, 2
56 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and step response, b = 3
EE 3CL4, 2
57 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and step resp., b = 2.75
EE 3CL4, 2
58 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and step resp., b = 2.5
EE 3CL4, 2
59 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and step resp., b = 2.25
EE 3CL4, 2
60 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and step resp., b = 2
EE 3CL4, 2
61 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and step resp., b = 1.95
EE 3CL4, 2
62 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and step resp., b = 1.75
EE 3CL4, 2
63 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and step resp., b = 1.5
EE 3CL4, 2
64 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and step resp., b = 1.25
EE 3CL4, 2
65 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and step resp., b = 1
EE 3CL4, 2
66 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and step resp., b = 0.75
EE 3CL4, 2
67 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and step resp., b = 0.5
EE 3CL4, 2
68 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and step resp., b = 0.25
EE 3CL4, 2
69 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Poles and step resp., b = 0
EE 3CL4, 2
71 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
A DC motor
We will consider linearized model for each component
Flux in the air gap: (t ) = K
f
i
f
(t ) (Magnetic cct, 2CJ4)
Torque: T
m
(t ) = K
1
(t )i
a
(t ) = K
1
K
f
i
f
(t )i
a
(t ).
Is that linear?
Only if one of i
f
(t ) or i
a
(t ) is constant
We will consider armature control: i
f
(t ) constant
EE 3CL4, 2
72 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Armature controlled DC motor
i
f
(t ) will be constant (to set up magnetic eld), i
f
(t ) = I
f
Torque: T
m
(t ) = K
1
K
f
I
f
i
a
(t ) = K
m
i
a
(t )
Will control motor using armature voltage V
a
(t )
What is the transfer function from V
a
(s) to angular
position (s)?
Origin?
EE 3CL4, 2
73 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Towards transfer function
T
m
(t ) = K
m
i
a
(t ) T
m
(s) = K
m
I
a
(s)
KVL: V
a
(s) = (R
a
+ sL
a
)I
a
(s) + V
b
(s)
V
b
(s) is back-emf voltage, due to Faradays Law
V
b
(s) = K
b
(s), where (s) = s(s) is rot. velocity
Remember: transfer function implies zero init. conds
EE 3CL4, 2
74 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Towards transfer function
Torque on load: T
L
(s) = T
m
(s) T
d
(s)
T
d
(s): disturbance. Often small, unknown
Load torque and load angle (Newton plus friction):
T
L
(s) = Js
2
(s) + bs(s)
Now put it all together
EE 3CL4, 2
75 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Towards transfer function
T
m
(s) = K
m
I
a
(s) = K
m
_
V
a
(s)V
b
(s)
R
a
+sL
a
_
V
b
(s) = K
b
(s)
T
L
(s) = T
m
(s) T
d
(s)
T
L
(s) = Js
2
(s) + bs(s) = Js(s) + b(s)
Hence (s) =
T
L
(s)
Js+b
(s) = (s)/s
EE 3CL4, 2
76 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Block diagram
T
m
(s) = K
m
I
a
(s) = K
m
_
V
a
(s)V
b
(s)
R
a
+sL
a
_
V
b
(s) = K
b
(s)
T
L
(s) = T
m
(s) T
d
(s)
T
L
(s) = Js
2
(s) + bs(s) = Js(s) + b(s)
Hence (s) =
T
L
(s)
Js+b
(s) = (s)/s
EE 3CL4, 2
77 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Transfer function
Set T
d
(s) = 0 and solve (you MUST do this yourself)
G(s) =
(s)
V
a
(s)
=
K
m
s
_
(R
a
+ sL
a
)(Js + b) + K
b
K
m

=
K
m
s(s
2
+ 2
n
s +
2
n
)
Third order :(
EE 3CL4, 2
78 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Second-order approximation
G(s) =
(s)
V
a
(s)
=
K
m
s
_
(R
a
+ sL
a
)(Js + b) + K
b
K
m

Sometimes armature time constant,

a
= L
a
/R
a
, is
negligible
Hence (you MUST derive this yourself)
G(s)
K
m
s
_
R
a
(Js + b) + K
b
K
m

=
K
m
/(R
a
b + K
b
K
m
)
s(
1
s + 1)
where
1
= R
a
J/(R
a
b + K
b
K
m
)
EE 3CL4, 2
79 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Model for a disk drive read
system
Uses a permanent magnet DC motor
Can be modelled using arm. contr. model with K
b
= 0
Hence, motor transfer function:
G(s) =
(s)
V
a
(s)
=
K
m
s(R
a
+ sL
a
)(Js + b)
Assume for now that the arm is stiff
EE 3CL4, 2
80 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Typical values
G(s) =
(s)
V
a
(s)
=
K
m
s(R
a
+ sL
a
)(Js + b)
G(s) =
5000
s(s + 20)(s + 1000)
EE 3CL4, 2
81 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Time constants
Initial model
G(s) =
5000
s(s + 20)(s + 1000)
Motor time constant = 1/20 = 50ms
Armature time constant = 1/1000 = 1ms
Hence
G(s)

G(s) =
5
s(s + 20)
EE 3CL4, 2
83 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
A simple feedback controller
Now that we have a model, how to control?
Simple idea: Apply voltage to motor that is proportional to
error between where we are and where we want to be.
Here, V(s) = V
a
(s) and Y(s) = (s).
EE 3CL4, 2
84 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Simplied block diagram
What is the transfer function from command to
position? Derive this yourself
Y(s)
R(s)
=
K
a
G(s)
1 + K
a
G(s)
Using second-order approx. G(s)

G(s), and K
a
= 40,
Y(s) =
200
s
2
+ 20s + 200
R(s)
What is the response for R(s) = 0.1/s?
Does it meet our design criteria?
Within 1m within 50ms?
EE 3CL4, 2
85 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Step response
Response to r (t ) = 0.1u(t )
EE 3CL4, 2
87 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Bock diagram models
As we have just seen, a convenient way to represent a
transfer function is via a block diagram
In this case, U(s) = G
c
(s)R(s) and Y(s) = G(s)U(s)
Hence, Y(s) = G(s)G
c
(s)R(s)
Consistent with the engineering procedure of breaking
things up into little bits, studying the little bits, and then
put them together
EE 3CL4, 2
88 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Simple example
Y
1
(s) = G
11
(s)R
1
(s) + G
12
(s)R
2
(s)
Y
2
(s) = G
21
(s)R
1
(s) + G
22
(s)R
2
(s)
EE 3CL4, 2
89 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Example: Loop transfer function
E
a
(s) = R(s) B(s) = R(s) H(s)Y(s)
Y(s) = G(s)U(s) = G(s)G
a
(s)Z(s)
Y(s) = G(s)G
a
(s)G
c
(s)E
a
(s)
Y(s) = G(s)G
a
(s)G
c
(s)
_
R(s) H(s)Y(s)
_
Y(s)
R(s)
=
G(s)G
a
(s)G
c
(s)
1 + G(s)G
a
(s)G
c
(s)H(s)
Each transfer function is a ratio of polynomials in s
What is E
a
(s)/R(s)?
EE 3CL4, 2
90 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Block diagram transformations
EE 3CL4, 2
91 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Using block diagram
transformations
EE 3CL4, 2
92 / 92
Tim Davidson
Modelling
physical
systems
Trans. Newton.
Mech.
Rot. Newton. Mech.
Linearization
Laplace
transforms
Laplace in
action
Transfer
function
Step response
Transfer fn of
DC motor
Our rst
control system
design
Block diagram
models
Block dia. transform.
Using block diagram
transformations