Noise Pollution

Sound is certain modulations of atmospheric pressures perceived by ear. It is

the quickly varying pressure wave within a medium.
Human ears perceive certain modulations of the atmospheric pressure as sound.
Such modulations result from propagated vibration of an elastic media or
superposition of such vibrations. These vibrations cause an alteration in
pressure, stress, particle displacement, or particle velocity of the media.
Sound propagates through the media as a wave. In the absence of acoustic
energy in a particular space the air molecules move about in random thermal
motion. There occur frequent collisions amongst the molecules without loss of
energy. The net result is an equilibrium condition with characteristic absolute
temperature and pressure.
On introduction of a vibrating surface the molecules gain additional momentum
by momentum transfer and the disturbance propagates into the space with a
velocity essentially equal to the thermal speed of individual molecules.
If the vibrating surface is a pulsating sphere the sound wave spreads out
spherically with a wave of single frequency.
This disturbance spreads by momentum transfer. The disturbance induces
displacement of the individual particles of the medium.
The particles attain velocities in the direction of propagation. These bring
changes in absolute pressure and temperature.
Human ears or microphones detect this pressure change as sound.
How small and rapid are the changes of air
pressure which cause sound?
When the rapid variations in pressure occur between about 20 and 20,000
times per second (ie at a frequency between 20Hz and 20kHz) sound is
potentially audible even though the pressure variation can sometimes
be as low as only a few millionths of a Pascal. Movements of the ear
drum as small as the diameter of a hydrogen atom can be audible!
Broad bands of frequencies of periodic, aperiodic and impulse sounds constitute
industrial and community noise.


Depending on its quality, noise can be
ambient or background noise: Ambient or background noise is the noise in an
environment from both near and far sources. Usually it refers to minimum levels
when no strong sources of noise or sound are present.

steady-state noise: Steady-state noise often refers to machinery or apparatus
where sound levels are reasonably constant.

fluctuating or intermittent noise : In fluctuating noise sound may vary in levels
but remains for longer duration than the integration time of the human ear
(about 200 msec).

impulsive noise: An impulsive noise is of very short duration for its peak
pressure levels (change in rms pressure levels greater than 40 dB per 0.5 sec).
NOISE
NOISE SOURCE
MOBILITY PERIODICITY
CHARACTERISTICS
Mobile
Semi mobile
Fixed
Continuous
Intermittent
Random
Constant continuous
Constant intermittent
Periodically fluctuating
Non-periodic
fluctuating
Repeated impulse
Single impulse
Types of noise sources.
Threshold of hearing
It is the minimum sound pressure level that the
human ear can detect. The threshold is frequency
dependent. Terminal threshold is the upper limit of
hearing . Some discomfort is apparent at 120 dB, and
sensation of tickle and pain are experienced when 1000
Hz tone is about 140 dB.
Persistence of hearing
The sound sensation decays to the threshold of
hearing in 0.14 sec regardless of the initial intensity.
Blending of two signals occur when time lag between the
two is 1/20th of a sec or 50 msec.
Auditory fatigue
Exposure to prolonged stimulus results in a change in sensitivity of ear. Auditory fatigue or
auditory adaptation is function of sound intensity and frequency. At 10 to 40 dB intensities simple
exponential loss of sensitivity occurs over short periods. At high intensities, there appears to be a rather
rapid decrease in sensitivity followed by a more gradual fall off in the hearing sensitivity. Fatigue is
sequential .It is temporary loss of sensitivity to one stimulus following exposure to another stimulus.
Masking
It is defined as the loss of sensitivity to concurrent exposure i.e. loss in sensitivity to a stimulus
during exposure to another stimulus.
Sound and Hearing
Cochlear damage at very high sound levels
Moderately high sound levels.
Repeated exposures.
Asymmetrical exposure.
Sociacusis and presbyacusis
The Mabaan tribesmen.
Effect of diet.

v
v
EFFECTS OF NOISE
DIRECT
INDIRECT
INTEGRATED
SENSATION
MASKING
HEARING
SLEEPING
PHYSIOLOGICAL
PERFORMANCE
ANNOYANCE
BEHAVIOUR AND
PSYCHOLOGY
EFFECTS OF NOISE ON HUMAN BEINGS
Noise Effects Human Factors Acoustic Factors
Sex
Age
Health State
Occupation
Personality
Exposure History
Attitude
Situations
Relaxations
Sleep
Noise Type
Noise Level
Distance from Source
Frequency
Fluctuation
Impulsiveness
Intermittance
Occurrence Time
Duration
Rise Time
Directivity
Figure 2 Factors influencing effects of noise on human
beings.
Cumulative
exposure
Number of Noise Interval Exposures per 8-h Workday
1 3 7 15 35 75 150 or
more
8h 90
6h 91 92 93 94 94 94 94
4h 93 94 95 96 98 99 100
2h 96 98 100 103 106 109 112
1h 99 102 105 109 114 (115)
30 min 102 106 110 114 (115)
15 min 105 110 115
8 min 108 115
4 min 111
Table 2 Permissible noise exposure for different interval of exposures.
Physiological Effects Related to Noise
1 Frequent blurring of eye sight
2 Frequent strain in eyes
3 Frequent clogging of ears
4 Frequent choking lump in throat
5 Sneezing
6 Constant staffing of nose
7 Troubles due to constant sputum
8 Trouble of constant coughing
9 Heavy chest colds
10 Soaking sweats at night
11 Getting out of breath compared to others
12 Cold hands or feet even in hot weather
13 Stomach upset
14 Nausea of vomiting
15 Feeling of substantial burning or taste sour
16 Cuts in skin staying open for a long time
17 Frequent heavy feeling in the head
18 Having hot or cold spells
19 Dizziness
20 Dizziness just after standing
21 Frequent feeling of faint
22 Trembling of hands or feet
23 Painful menstrual period
24 Loosing control of bladder
25 Getting up tired and exhausted in the morning
26 Difficulty in falling sleep
27 Easily getting awakened from sleep
28 Frequent yawning
29 Thinking get completely mixed up when to do things quickly
30 Wishing somebody to be to advise always
31 Wishing to die
32 Getting easily upset or irritated
33 Getting constantly keyed up and jittery
34 Getting scared at sudden movements or noises at night
35 Becoming suddenly scared for no good reason
36 Difficulty in memorising
37 Difficulty in thinking clearly
38 Difficulty in concentrating
Table 1 List of diseases having relationship with noise exposures
Noise Descriptor
Scaled Composite
Frequency
Weighting
Frequency and
Band Analysis
Duration and Time
Dependency
Scaled Descriptor
Operational Factors
Physiological Factors
Composite Index
Composite Index
Noise descriptors.
Statistical descriptors are almost always
used as a single number to describe varying
traffic noise levels. The two most common
statistical descriptors used for traffic noise
are L
10
and L
eq
. L
10
is the sound level that is
exceeded 10 percent of the time.
M
RT
v
sound

=
: adiabatic constant (for air 1.4)
R: gas constant , 8.314 J/mol K
M: Molecular mass in kg/mol(for dry air
28.95 gm/mol)
T: Absolute Temperature, K
m/s , 6 . 0 4 . 331
air in sound C
T v + ~
Commonly accepted formulae:
Acoustic Variables and their Relationships
pressure (P),
velocity (U),
density (), and
temperature (T).

( )
( ) p x t P kx t
R
, sin = + e |
|
The equation for pressure fluctuation is:



where,
P
R
: amplitude of the pressure fluctuation
: phase of sound signal being measured relative to some reference
e: frequency in rads-1 defined as:
e
t
t = =
2
2
T
f
f : frequency of pressure change within the cycle time, T

k
c
=
e


Wave number, k
The one dimensional wave equation of propagation of sound in air is:


o o
o
2
2
2
2
2
dt
c
x
=
Where,
: displacement of a particle for equilibrium position, m
c : velocity of propagation of sound, ms-1
The general solution of the one-dimensional wave equation of airborne sound is:

( ) ( )
p F x ct F x ct = +
1 2
Here,
p : sound pressure that is the difference between instantaneous pressure and ambient
pressure
For spherical wave propagation from a point source the pressure perturbation is derived as:

( ) p r t
A
r
ft
r
, cos =
|
\

|
.
|
|
\

|
.
| 2t

where, A is the amplitude
r: distance from the centre of the source
Intensity (I) of sound is the average amount of acoustic power passing through a unit area
of the medium that is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of sound.
Acousticor Sound Power (W) of a sound source is the acoustic energy generated per second by the
source and it is calculated in watts as:

W I a = 4
2
t
where,
a : radius of a sphere whose centre is the sound source
Human ears can hear sounds of root mean square sound pressure ranging from 20 mPa to
200 Pa. Because of such a large range, it is customary to report sound measurements in
decibels.
Decibel Scale
To measure sound pressure, sound power and sound intensity in decibels one requires
their standardised reference values.
p
ref
=

2 10
5
W
ref
=

10
12
I
ref
=

10
12
Wattm
-2

Watt
Pa
The following equation gives Sound Pressure Level (SPL) in terms of reference pressure (p
ref
)
and root-mean square sound pressure:
L
p
p
p
ref
=
|
\

|
.
|
|
20log

A doubling of mean square sound pressure corresponds to approximately 3 dB increase in
sound pressure level (SPL). The following equation is used to determine the root mean
square sound pressure from the SPL:
( )
p
rms
L
p
=

2 10
100 20



Sound power level is defined as the ratio of sound power to a reference power as follows:

L
W
W
W
W
W
ref
=
|
\

|
.
|
|
=
|
\

|
.
|
= +

10
10
10
10 120
12
log
log
log


where,
LW : sound power level, decibel
W : sound power of the source, watt
Wref : reference sound power, watt

L
p
I
L
p
=

10 10
12
10

W r I = 4
2
t
If the sound pressure level at a point at a distance r from the source is in dBA, the
intensity at that point is:

To provide this intensity at a distance r the source must have a power, W given by:


Sound pressure level at that point is:
L
W
r
L r
p W
=
|
\

|
.
|
|
|
=

10
4
10
20 11
2
12
log log
t

If the source is near the ground and sound transmits hemispherically, the expression
reduces to:
L L r
p W
= 20 8 log
If the sound pressure levels contributed by the noise sources are known their
combined effects is calculated as:
L
pT
L L
p p
= + +
|
\

|
.
|
10 10 10
1 2
10 10
log
where,
LpT : combined sound pressure level due to the sources
Lpi : sound level of the ith source
If the noise level (L) of certain activity is known, the allowable daily exposure time
(T) can be calculated from the following equation (Lord et al., 1980):



Here, CL is the Criterion Level defined as the allowable sound level for 8 hours per
day exposure. OSHA and Health Conservation Amendment (HCA) consider this
level as 90 dBA, whereas the Department of Defence (DOD, USA) considers it as 84
dBA.
( )
T
L CL
ER
=

8
2
Frequency Weighting
Industrial noise is the result of contributions from a number of sources. Therefore,
it may have sound pressure waves of different frequencies.

Perception of loudness by the human ear varies with the frequency of sound. A
noise appears to be louder if the concentration of energy is near 1 kHz.

Sound at frequencies near 1000 Hz seems to be louder than sound at higher
frequencies (near 20 kHz).
Frequency weighting takes typical human response into account when all the audible
frequency components of noise samples are to be described by a single number. There are
five types of weightings viz A, B, C, D and SI as shown in Figure
20
-40
-80
0
-20
-60
20 50 100 200 500 1 k 2 k 10 k 5 k 20 k
Frequency, Hz
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

R
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
,

d
B
A
B
SI
SI
B and C
A
D
D
C
A Directivity Factor , of a directional noise source of power W, defines the ratio
of the sound intensity Iq, at some distance r, from the source and at an angle
q, to a specified axis to the sound intensity , at the same distance due to a
uniformly radiating sound source of equal power.
Directional Characteristics of Sound Sources
A Directivity Factor , of a directional noise source of power W, defines the ratio
of the sound intensity Iq, at some distance r, from the source and at an angle q,
to a specified axis to the sound intensity , at the same distance due to a
uniformly radiating sound source of equal power. Thus,

Q
I
I
s
u
u
=
Directivity Index is defined as:

DI Q
u u
=10log
Ignoring the effect of atmospheric attenuation, absorption by vegetation and terrain
conditions the sound pressure level at a point of observation can be related to the
sound power level of the source and the directivity factor as:

L L
r
Q
p W
= 10
4
2
log
t
u


Position

Directivity Factor

Free space (e.g. near the centre of a large room)

1

Centre of a large flat surface (e.g. centre of a wall, floor or ceiling)

2

Intersection of two large flat surfaces (e.g. intersection of a wall and a floor)
4

Intersections of three large flat surfaces (e.g. corner of a room)
8
Sound field is the space in which the sound waves exist as a disturbance caused by
the noise sources, reflecting surfaces and other influencing factors in the medium.
Measurements of sound pressure levels at close grid points can give a complete
description of sound field. Such surveys enable us to predict the type of source and
its location. This helps also in computing the sound power radiated from the source.
There are three types of radiation field of a sound source, namely hydrodynamic near
field, geometric near field and far field.
Sound field
0.3
0.5
1
30
2
3
5
10
20
1 30 20 10 5 3 2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5
Hydrodynamic Near Field
T
r
a
n
s
itio
n
Geometric Near Field
Far Field
T
r
a
n
s
itio
n
T
r
a
n
s
i
t
i
o
n
Transition

=

2

r
/
l
k = tl/

=

k

=

1
/
k
The radiation fields of a noise source
three conditions for far field are:
r r l r
l
>> >> >>

t
t
2 2
2
, ,
where, r is the distance from the
source to measurement position, l is
the wavelength of the radiated
sound and l is the maximum source
dimension

= =
2r
l
K
l
,


Attenuation
Duration per day (hours) Sound level dBA (slow response)
8.0 90
6.0 92
4.0 95
3.0 97
2.0 100
1.5 102
1.0 105
0.5 110
0.25 or less 115
Safe sound exposure limits.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1 10 100 1000
Area source :
c
b
. Point source :
Point
Line
Area
Distance, m
c/ t a/ t
Line source :
a
b/ t
S
o
u
n
d

L
e
v
e
l
,

d
B
Effect of source type on attenuation due to
spreading.
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Distance, m
f
m
a
x
,

H
z
h=0.5
h=0.75
h=1.0
h=1.25
h=1.5
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
0 1 2 3 4
Mean Height of Source-Receiver Path, m
f
m
a
x
,

H
z
R=10
R=20
R=40
R=80
R=160
Frequency of maximum ground attenuation as a function of path height (h) and
distance (R).
S
D
x
2
x
H
s
R
S
H
r
Attenuation due to vegetation.
.
Shadow
Shadow
Source
Effect of temperature gradient
(daytime).
Inverted temperature gradient.
Country
Standards,
Guidelines or
Recommendations
Road
Facade (F)
Free-field (FF)
L
Aeq
(or as stated)

Railway
Facade (F)
Free-field (FF)
L
Aeq
(or as stated)
Duration in a day
Note
Denmark G 58(F) 63(F)
88 L
Amax

24 h
24 h
Norway R - 60(F) 24 h

Sweden

S
- 63(F)
30(indoor,
living)
50 LAmax(indoor, bed)
24 h
24 h
2200-0600
France R 60(F) 65-70(F) 0800-2000 1
Germany S 59(FF)
49(FF)
59-64(FF)
49-54(FF)
0600-2200
2200-0600
1
Netherlands S -
55(F)
50(F)
45(F)
60(F)
60(F)
55(F)
50(F)
24 h
0700-1900
1900-2300
2300-0700
1, 2
1, 2
1
1
Italy R **
Switzerland S 55
45
60(FF)
50(FF)
0600-2200
2200-0600
1
1
UK S: Road
R: Railway
68 L
A10
,18h 68(F)
63(F)
0600-2400
2400-0600
1
1
Recommended noise standards for new railways and new roads.
1: Insulation to property provided when those levels exceeded.
2: These limits to be reduced to 57 dBA on 1 January, 2000.

Land Areas

Maximum L
eq
(dBA)

Day
(6.00 - 22.00 )

Night
(22.00 - 6.00)
1. Particularly Protected Areas 50 40
2. Mostly Residential Areas 55 45
3. Mixed Areas 60 50
4. Areas of Intense Human Activity 65 55
5. Mostly Industrial Areas 70 60
6. Exclusively Industrial Areas 70 70
Land classification scheme and maximum sound levels allowed
for outdoor noise.
Define Work Zones
1
3
2
4
}
List Zonal Activities
and Duration
1
3
2
4
Define
Activity Centres
Determine
Activity Sound
Power Spectra
Geometric Limits
Estimate SPL Spectra
on Geographic Grid
Calculate Activity L
eq
at Grid Points
Calculate the Resultant
L
eq
at Grid Points
Estimate of Attenuation
at Grid Points
Sound Field Modifiers
Geometric Spreading
Air Absorption
Ground Absorption
Barrier Losses
}
Steps involved in predicting the noise levels around an industrial area.
ATTENUATION
FACTORS
IDENTIFICATION OF
RECEIVERS
LOCATIONS
EVALUATION OF SOUND POWER
IDENTIFICATION
OF
THE NOISE ZONE
EVALUATION OF
PROPAGATION
PATH
ESTIMATION OF
ATTENUATION
FACTORS
BASIC DATA
INPUT
PREDICT NOISE LEVEL
AT THE REGULAR GRID
DETERMINATION
Of
Eac of
Work zone
SITE EFFECT
GROUND
ABSORPTION
AIR
ABSORPTION
INTERPOLATE TO
FINER GRID
GIS INTERFACE
SITE PLANNING DATA
PRODUCTION TARGET
PRODUCTION SCHEDULE
EQUIPMENT SELECTION
RESOURCE LAYOUT
GEOGRAPHIC FEATURES
ENVIRONMENTAL
FEATURES
PRESENTATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL
NOISE IMPACT
DIRECTIVITY
CORRECTIONS
The noise prediction system for surface mines and quarries.
M1
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
M7
M8
M9
M10
M11
M12
r
12
r
11
r
10
r
9
r
8
r
7
r
6
r
1
r
5
r
4
r
3
r
2
r
1
C(x
c
, y
c
, z
c
)
M: Monitoring stations, r: Distance from EAC, C: EAC location
The principle of Equivalent Acoustic Centre (EAC) for number of noise sources generating sound within a workzone..
Noise Control
Traffic Noise Control
Motor Vehicle Control
Land Use Control
Highway Planning and Design
Noise Reduction on Existing Roads
Open space can be left as a buffer zone between
residences and a highway
Shadow Effect of Noise Barrier
Speed
(mph)
Noise at 50 ft (dB)
Auto Medium
Truck
Heavy
Truck
30 62 73 80
31 62 74 80
32 63 74 81
33 63 75 81
34 64 75 81
35 64 76 82
36 65 76 82
37 65 77 82
38 66 77 82
39 66 77 83
40 67 78 83
41 67 78 83
42 67 78 84
43 68 79 84
44 68 79 84
45 68 79 84
46 69 80 85
47 69 80 85
48 70 80 85
49 70 81 85
50 70 81 85
51 71 81 86
52 71 82 86
53 71 82 86
54 72 82 86
55 72 82 86
56 72 83 87
57 72 83 87
58 73 83 87
59 73 83 87
60 73 84 87
61 74 84 88
62 74 84 88
63 74 84 88
64 74 85 88
65 75 85 88
66 75 85 88
67 75 85 89
68 75 86 89
69 76 86 89
70 76 86 89
Source: Cowan, Environmental
Acoustics,
PROTECTION FROM NOISE POLLUTION
GENERAL MEASURES- CERTAIN MEASURES COULD BE TAKEN SUCH AS:
- Repair and oil machines. Tune cars regularly.
- Avoid use of loud speakers.
- Planting of trees helps in the damping and absorption of the noise.
- Provide thick foliage between road dividers.
- Railways and highways should be away from residential areas.
- Non-insulating and noise absorbing roads and buildings help greatly in the noise control. Roads
with high intensity of vehicular movement should be made of porous asphalt, as done by the Netherlands, for busy
roads carrying more than 35,000 vehicles a day.
- Public awareness about the problems of the noise to living things and the inanimate things should
be increased.
- Ban on loudspeakers between 10.00 p.m. and 5.00 a.m.
- Blasting, explosions should be done away from residences with good time intervals between 2
explosions.
- Noise - insulated rooms should be made.
- To abate noise pollution by honking of vehicles, they should be compulsorily fitted with the type
of horns as specified in the CMV (Rules) of 1998. The violators should be prosecuted and
punished but till date no such action seems to have been taken.
- Public awareness about noise hazards to be created through TVs, popular seminars and simple
published material.
- All factory workers should wear earmuffs.
- Noise pollution to be introduced as a subject in schools.
- The airlines should conform to noise regulations by using hush kitted or new generation aircrafts
to reduce noise levels around airports.

LEGISLATION- LEGISLATIVE MEASURES COULD BE USED FOR THE CONTROL OF THE
NOISE POLLUTION.
Industries should be checked for excess noise prior to license renewal and
during inspection.
Ban on loudspeakers especially during festival times.
Factories Act, 1948 should be implemented in the factories properly.
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. Section 6(2)(b) states that anyone violating
the Act would be penalized and liable for punishment.
The police also have power to enforce these rules.
The administration should implement, without fear, Noise
Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules 2000. Non-
implementation of court orders, in respect of violators of the above rules, by the
executive should be treated as contempt of court.

Continuous noise
exposure
(Hrs/day)
Loudness
(dbs)
Loudness (dbs)
Permitted no. of
impulses/ day
8 90 140 100
6 92 135 315
4 95 130 1000
3 97 25 3160
2 100
An employee working in a noisy area
should have an audiologic evaluated
at baseline and every 12 months
1.5 102
1 105
0.75 107
0.50 110
0.25 115
In Factories Act, 1948, the following things are laid down.

In factories : to decrease the noise produced
- Use welding to riveting
- Use belts to gears
- Helical gears to spur gears
- Hot rather than cold conditions
- Rubber belts to chains.
- Keep noisy area away and isolated
- Keep machines oiled, balanced and tight
- Barriers should be installed at places to safeguard the human
ears from the damage.
- Ear plugs/ear muffs to be provided to the workers in the noisy
areas of the factory.
- Noise - less technique to be used in the industry as much as
possible.
- Automatic techniques would keep the humans in the operating
chamber, away from the noisy machines.
Back
The speed of sound for a uniform medium is determined by its elastic property (bulk
modulus) and its density,

B
v =
B= Bulk Modulus
dV
dP
V
V
V
P
B =
A
A
=
When a sound travels through an ideal gas, the rapid compressions and expansions
associated with the longitudinal wave can reasonably be expected to be adiabatic and
therefore the pressure and volume obey the relationship
air for 1.4 constant Sdiabatic
, constant
= =
= =

C P V
The adiabatic assumption for sound waves just means that the compressions associated
with the sound wave happen so quickly that there is no opportunity for heat transfer in or
out of the volume of air. The bulk modulus can therefore be reformulated by making use
of the adiabatic condition in the form
[2]
[1]
Substituting P from [2] in [1] ,

V
C
B = and taking gas density = nM/V
M
RT
v nRT PV
P
V
C
nM
PV
nM V
V C
v
sound
sound

= =
= = = ,
How is sound measured ?

A sound level meter is the principal instrument for general noise
measurement. The indication on a sound level meter (aside from
weighting considerations) indicates the sound pressure, p, as a level
referenced to 0.00002 Pa.

Sound Pressure Level = 20 x lg (p/0.00002) dB

Peak levels are occasionally quoted. During any given time interval
peak levels will be numerically greater, and often much greater than
the (rms) sound pressure level.

How does the ear work ?

The eardrum is connected by three small jointed bones in the air-filled
middle ear to the oval window of the inner ear or cochlea, a fluid-
filled spiral coil about one and a half inches in length. Over 10,000
hair cells on the basilar membrane along the cochlea convert minuscule
movements to nerve impulses, which are transmitted by the auditory
nerve to the hearing center of the brain.

The basilar membrane is wider at its apex than at its base, near the
oval window, whereas the cochlea tapers towards its apex. Different
groups of the delicate hair sensors on the membrane, which varies in
stiffness along its length, respond to different frequencies
transmitted down the coil. The hair sensors are one of the few cell
types in the body which do not regenerate. They may therefore become
irreparably damaged by large noise doses.
At what level does sound become unsafe ?

It is best, where possible, to avoid any unprotected exposure
to sound pressure levels above 100dB(A). Use hearing protection when
exposed to levels above 85dB(A), especially if prolonged exposure is
expected. Damage to hearing from loud noise is cumulative and is
irreversible. Exposure to high noise levels is also one of the main
causes of tinnitus. The safety aspects of ultrasound scans are the
subject of ongoing investigation.

There are other health hazards from extended exposure to vibration. An
example is "white finger", which is found amongst workers who use hand-
held machinery such as chain saws.

How does sound decay with distance ?

The way sound changes with distance from the source is dependent on the size and shape of
the source and also the surrounding environment and prevailing air currents. It is relatively
simple to calculate provided the source is small and outdoors, but indoor calculations (in a
reverberant field) are rather more complex.

If the noise source is outdoors and its dimensions are small compared with the distance to the
monitoring position (ideally a point source), then as the sound energy is radiated it will spread
over an area which is proportional to the square of the distance. This is an 'inverse
square law' where the sound level will decline by 6dB for each doubling of distance.

Line noise sources such as a long line of moving traffic will radiate noise in cylindrical pattern, so
that the area covered by the sound energy spread is directly proportional to the distance and
the sound will decline by 3dB per doubling of distance.

Close to a source (the near field) the change in SPL will not follow the above laws because the
spread of energy is less, and smaller changes of sound level with distance should be expected.

In addition it is always necessary to take into account attenuation due to the absorption of
sound by the air, which may be substantial at higher frequencies. For ultrasound, air absorption
may well be the dominant factor in the reduction.

The noise prediction system integrates the source power model and the
attenuation models such that:



Where,
Lp : sound pressure level at the receivers location
Lw : sound power level of the equivalent acoustic centre of the work zone
As : attenuation due to spreading
Ag : attenuation due to ground absorption
Aa : attenuation due to air absorption
Ab : attenuation due to slope as noise barrier
Dc : directivity corrections
Rc : reflection correction
It should be noted that before deciding a noise level prediction model elaborate
listing of possible noise level modifiers and insignificant noise sources should be
identified.

L L A A A A D R
p w s g a b c c
= + +
What is sonoluminescence ?
Air attenuation (dB) measurement stations elevation (m)
S
r
PUBLIC
ZONE Earth/OB dump
DESIGN FOR NOISE, DUST, VISUAL CONTROL OF SURFACE MINE

Methods of noise control
Noise control is a system-related problem, the system being
composed of a noise source, a path of propagation and the
individual receiving the noise. A noise control method should
reduce the strength of the source, impede the acoustic energy
along its transmission path or protect the individual at the
receiving end from exposure to the noise
Protective planning
Noise control should be taken into consideration during the initial stages of planning
a new building; for example, as follows:
Noisy operations should be grouped in one area.
The machines purchased should be those with low noise output.
Noisy areas where workers spend time should have adequate sound absorption
materials on the ceiling and the walls.
Noisy equipment should be fastened on a rigid and heavy base with adequate
isolating elements to avoid propagation of vibration.
Noise sources (machines) should be enclosed with structures which supply adequate
sound insulation.
Offices and other places where mental work is carried out should be situated far from
the noise source. The intervening rooms, which will act as buffers, should be used for
parking, stores etc. .
(c) Reduction of noise along its transmission path
Noise control along the transmission path entails reduction of the energy
communicated to the individual at the receiving end. This is achieved through the
following methods:
positions (increasing the distance between the noise source and the individual);
careful planning of the layout of the building, reflection of the energy back towards its
source, by means of discontinuities;
use of barriers, enclosures and absorption materials.

Enclosures may be placed around machines or around the individual.
Enclosures around the individual are applicable in situations where remote control of
the process (noise source), from a separate room, is possible.

Acoustic (sound absorbing) materials absorb sound. The ability of a material to absorb
sound energy can be determined; this parameter is called the sound absorption
coefficient. The absorption coefficient of a sound absorbing material is defined as the
fraction of the incident energy which is absorbed by the material. A perfect absorber
has an absorption coefficient of one, while a perfect reflector has an absorption
coefficient of zero. Acoustic materials are classified into three categories: namely,
acoustic tiles and boards, special acoustic assemblies, and acoustic roof decks.
Control of vibration is another way of controlling noise. Vibration can be reduced either
by means of vibration isolators or by increasing the rigidity and mass of the item to be
protected.
(d) Noise protection measures at the receiving end
Noise protection measures for the individual at the receiving end involve three
techniques; namely, ear protectors, hearing conservation programme and exposure
control. This method of noise control should be used only when the other control
methods are impractical, uneconomical or insufficient.
Four types of ear protectors are available, they are; ear plugs, ear muffs,
communication headsets and helmets. When ear protectors are being selected, the
following aspects should be taken into consideration:
quality and quantity of work place noice
used together ear plugs and ear muffs give maximum protection
cosideration of ergomic aspects as the correct size of ear plugs
ear protectors should be comfortable and must provide adequate ear protection.
If the attenuation of hearing protector is high, it may cause communication
problems and unnecessary decrease in comfort and thus reduce the usage rate. It
has to be remembered that the usage rate of hearing protectors has the highest
importance in the protection efficiency. The workers have to be motivated and, if
possible, be able to select the hearing protector they consider most comfortable.
A hearing conservation programme should be instituted all noisy workplaces.
The last method of noise control of the individual at the
receiving end is by limiting exposure. Limiting of
exposure entails rotation of personnel so that workers
are in the intense noise area for only a limited period of
time. This approach is used in situations where it is
impractical to reduce noise levels to acceptable levels. In
such cases, however, the wearing of hearing protectors
has to be emphasized. That may require the motivation
of workers by informing the hazardous effects of noise.
Noise Control Policy
The key elements of a noise control policy are:
(1) Goals for noise exposure and peak noise levels at the mine. For example,
these goals can be specified as follows:
To ensure that no employee's exposure (LAeq,8h) exceeds 85 dB(A) by the
year of 2000 and;
To ensure that no employee is exposed to impulse noise with a level
exceeding 140 dB(lin) peak.
(2) Design goals for new plant and equipment. A design goal should be set for
new work areas so that employee noise exposure is maintained at the lowest
possible level.
(3) The selection and purchase of quiet plant and equipment. Integrate this
program with the rest of the organisation's structure to ensure "think quiet" and
"buy quiet" procedures are used in the selection of new plant and equipment.
This process minimises the need for adding noise controls later and will allow
for progressive replacement of the existing noisy equipment with quieter
equipment at a rate that is practicable for the company.
(4) Noise controls in temporary work areas. A clearly stated commitment to
noise control should be stated in this part of the noise policy. For example:
Noise Control in Mines Department of Minerals and Energy
Document No.: ZMR922UU Guideline
Page 14 Issued: December 1997
Version 1.0
"Any temporary work area should be screened or isolated to ensure that noise
levels generated do not adversely affect employees' hearing. If necessary,
entry to such sites shall be restricted to personnel wearing approved hearing
protectors".
(5) Agreements with contractors regarding noise control and provision of
information. Ensure the policy commits all contractors engaged in any activity
on your minesite to comply with the noise control and personal hearing
protection procedures applicable to your minesite.
(6) Audiometric Testing. Audiometric testing should be offered to
employees
according to the requirements of the Workers' Compensation and
Rehabilitation
Act. The legislation prescribes employees who are required to undergo
hearing
tests, methods of recording test results and their confidentiality. Refer to
Section 4 of these guidelines for further information on this subject.
(7) The funding for the noise control program. A provision for allocation of
funds should be included in the policy to ensure the implementation of the
most
cost-effective noise control program. This process should ensure
progressive
reduction and where possible ultimate elimination of noise hazards.
(8) The period of review of the noise control policy. The policy should be
reviewed annually and adjusted to include any suggestions for
improvements if
necessary.

1
2
3 4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Measuring Point

Integrated SPL and Wind Monitoring
MILK PROCESSING PLANT
(SCHEMATIC LAYOUT)
M A I N R O A D
6/6 Timber farm
1
2
3
4
5
6
7 8
9
11
10
11
station
station
Max:4.4m/s
Ave:2.7m/s
Max:3.3m/s
Ave:2.0m/s
Timber-cutting machine
Timber-loading
machine
Measuring points
Forest area
12 13 14 15
16
17
18 19
20
21
22
23
24
2
5
2
6
2
7
28
Covered Stock Houses
SAW MILL MACHINERY(2-Floors)
STOCK YARD
Moving Machinery
CAR PARK WEIGH BRIDGE
Measuring Point

Integrated SPL and Wind Monitoring
ANTHROPOGENIC NOISE SOURCE: SAW MILL
12 13 14 15
16
17
18 19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Covered Stock Houses
SAW MILL MACHINERY(2-Floors)
STOCK YARD
Moving Machinery
CAR PARK WEIGH BRIDGE
Measuring Point

Integrated SPL and Wind Monitoring
ANTHROPOGENIC NOISE SOURCE: SAW MILL
6/5 Wind Farm
2
3
4
8
9 (BK-21)
10 (BK-18)
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22 (BK-22)
23
24
25
Wind turbine
Measuring points
250m
50m
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
EAC
MEASUREMENT LOCATION
Wind mill
ROAD
PARK
TO FIND
EAC of a Mill
Wind Firm
Plant with
Distributed Sources
Factory or Plant
RESIDENTIAL AREA
Receiver Point
0.5 m
d
h
Edge Nearside Carriageway
3.5 m
Air attenuation (dB) measurement stations elevation (m)
How is sound measured ?
A sound level meter is the principal instrument for general
noise measurement. The indication on a sound level meter (aside
from weighting considerations) indicates the sound pressure, p,
as a level referenced to 0.00002 Pa.
Sound Pressure Level = 20 x lg (p/0.00002) dB
Peak levels are occasionally quoted. During any given time
interval peak levels will be numerically greater, and often
much greater than the (rms) sound pressure level.