AFGHANISTAN A STUDY IN PROFILE

Prelude Afghanistan, a landlocked country, occupies a strategic position between China, the Western, Central and South Asian regions. The geographic location attributes Afghanistan a great strategic significance. Afghanistan has remained an arena for the clashing interests of external powers for centuries. Though Afghanistan emerged as a nation state around 1747, its current political borders evolved only towards the end of the 19th century as an outcome of power struggle between the British and the Tsarist Russia. This geostrategic location made Afghanistan a regional flashpoint in the major powers game for gaining areas of influence.1 Afghanistan was a focal point in the "Great Game" that the Czarist Russia and the British Empire played in the 19th century for containing each other's expansion and for gaining control of the Western, Central and South Asian regions. More recently, Afghanistan got directly involved in the Cold War between the two superpowers, the former Soviet Union and the United States. In the post Cold War era, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, Afghanistan became a victim of the internal power struggle among the warlords. The conflict got further complicated due to external interference by different countries for their own vested interests especially after the incident of 9/ 11.2 Scope This paper is objectively aimed at providing an insight of Afghanistan to its readers. Country profile covered in this paper will highlight following aspects:a. b. Historical Perspective Geopolitical Afghanistan

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Afghan Conflicts PART - I HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Etymology- Name Origin The first part of the name "Afghan" designates the Pashtun people since ancient times, the founders and the largest ethnic group of the country. This name is mentioned in the form of "Abgan" in the 3rd century CE and as "Avagana" in the 6th century CE. The Encyclopedia Iranica states:From a more limited, ethnological point of view, "Afghan" is the term by which the Persian-speakers of Afghanistan (and the nonPasto-speaking ethnic groups generally) designate the Pastun. The equation [of] Afghan [and] Pastun has been propagated all the more, both in and beyond Afghanistan, because the Pastun tribal confederation is by far the most important in the country, numerically and politically. The term "Afghan" has probably designated the Pastun since ancient times. Under the form Avagana, this ethnic group is first mentioned by the Indian astronomer Varaha Mihira in the beginning of the 6th century CE in his Brihat-samhita.3 A people called "Afghans" are mentioned several times in a 10th century geography book, Hudud al-'alam. Al-Biruni referred to them in the 11th century as various tribes living on the western frontier mountains of the Indus River, which would be the Sulaiman Mountains.4 Ibn Battuta, a famous Moroccan travelling scholar visiting the region in 1333, writes:We travelled on to Kabul, formerly a vast town, the site of which is now occupied by a village inhabited by a tribe of Persians called Afghans.5

Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah (Ferishta) explains about Afghans in the 16th century. For example, he writes:The men of Kabul and Khilj also went home; and whenever they were questioned about the Musulmans of the Kohistan (the mountains), and how matters stood there, they said, "Don't call it Kohistan, but Afghanistan; for there is nothing there but Afghans and disturbances." Thus it is clear that for this reason the people of the country call their home in their own language Afghanistan, and themselves Afghans.6 Pre Islamic Period Archaeological evidence indicates that urban civilization began in the region, occupied by modern Afghanistan, between 3000 and 2000 B.C. The first historical documents date from the early part of the Iranian Achaemenian Dynasty, which controlled the region from 550 to 331 B.C. Between 330 and 327 B.C., Alexander the Great defeated the Achaemenian emperor Darius-III and subdued local resistance in the territory that is now Afghanistan. Alexanders successors, the Seleucids, continued to infuse the region with Greek cultural influence. Shortly thereafter, the Mauryan empire of India gained control of southern Afghanistan, bringing with it Buddhism. In the mid-third century B.C., nomadic Kushans established an empire that became a cultural and commercial center. From the end of the Kushan empire in the third century A.D. until the seventh century, the region was fragmented and under the general protection of the Iranian Sassanian empire.7 The Islamic and Mongol Conquests After defeating the Sassanians at the Battle of Qadisiya in 637 A.D., Arab Muslims began a 100-year process of conquering the Afghan tribes and introducing Islam. By the tenth century, the rule of

the Arab Abbasid Dynasty and its successor in Central Asia, the Samanid dynasty, had crumbled. The Ghaznavid Dynasty, an offshoot of the Samanids, then became the first great Islamic dynasty to rule in Afghanistan. In 1220 A.D. all of Central Asia fell to the Mongol forces of Genghis Khan, however Afghanistan remained fragmented until the 1380s, when Timur consolidated and expanded the existing Mongol empire. Timurs descendants ruled Afghanistan until the early sixteenth century.8 The Pashtun Rulers In 1504 A.D. the region fell under a new empire, the Mughals of northern India, who for the next two centuries contested Afghan territory with the Iranian Safavi Dynasty. With the death of the great Safavi leader Nadir Shah in 1747 A.D., indigenous Pashtuns, who became known as the Durrani, began a period of at least nominal rule in Afghanistan that lasted until 1978. The first Durrani ruler, Ahmad Shah, known as the founder of the Afghan nation, united the Pashtun tribes and by 1760 A.D. built an empire extending to Delhi and the Arabian Sea. The empire fragmented after Ahmad Shahs death in year 1772 A.D., but in 1826 A.D. Dost Mohammad, the leader of the Pashtun Muhammadzai tribe, restored order.9 Post Independence Period In 1919 A.D. Afghanistan signed the Treaty of Rawalpindi, which ended the Third Anglo-Afghan War and marks Afghanistans official date of independence. In the inter-war period, Afghanistan again was a balancing point between two world powers; Habibullahs son Amanullah (ruled 191929) skillfully manipulated the new British-Soviet rivalry and established relations with major countries. Amanullah introduced his countrys first constitution in 1923. However, resistance to his domestic reform program forced his abdication in 1929. In 1933 Amanullahs

nephew Mohammad Zahir Shah, the last king of Afghanistan, began a 40 year reign.10 After World War-II during which Afghanistan remained neutral, the long-standing division of the Pashtun tribes caused tension with the neighboring state of Pakistan, founded on the other side of the Durand Line in 1947. In response, Afghanistan shifted its foreign policy towards the Soviet Union. The prime minister-ship of the kings cousin Mohammad Daoud (195363) was cautiously reformist, modernizing and centralizing the government while strengthening ties with the Soviet Union. However, in 1963 Zahir Shah dismissed Daoud because his anti-Pakistani policy had damaged Afghanistans economy.11 A new constitution, ratified in 1964, liberalized somewhat the constitutional monarchy. However during the ensuing decade, the economic and political conditions worsened. In 1973, Daoud overthrew the king and established a republic. When economic conditions did not improve and Daoud lost most of his political support, communist factions overthrew him in 1978. In 1979 the threat of tribal insurgency against the communist government triggered an invasion by 80,000 Soviet troops, who then endured a very effective decade-long guerrilla war. Between 1979 and 1989, two Soviet-sponsored regimes failed to defeat the loose federation of Mujahideen guerrillas that opposed the occupation. In 1988 the Soviet Union agreed to create a neutral Afghan state and the Soviet troops left Afghanistan in 1989. The agreement ended a war that killed thousands, devastated industry and agriculture, and created 5 to 6 million refugees.12

PART - II GEOPOLITICAL AFGHANISTAN Geography General The Hindu Kush Mountains, running northeast to southwest across the country, divide the country into three major regions. The Central Highlands, forms part of the Himalayas, accounts for roughly two third of the countrys area. The Southwestern Plateau, which accounts for one-fourth of the land and the smaller Northern Plains area which contains the countrys most fertile soil. Land elevations generally slope from northeast to southwest, following the general shape of the Hindu Kush massif, from its highest point in the Pamir Mountains near the Chinese border to the lower elevations near the border with Iran. The northern plains pass almost imperceptibly into the plains of Turkmenistan whereas in the west and southwest, the plateaus and deserts merge into those of Iran. Afghanistan is located on the Eurasian Tectonic Plate. The Wakhan Corridor and the rest of northeastern Afghanistan, including Kabul, are situated in a geologically active area.13 Borders Almost as large as the U.S. State of Texas,

Afghanistan is bounded by six different countries. Its longest border is the poorly marked Durand Line, accounting for its entire southern and eastern boundary with Pakistan. The shortest one, bordering Chinas Xinjiang province, is a mere 76 km at the end of the Wakhan Corridor, the Afghan Panhandle. This narrow 241 km long silver land, extending eastward between Tajikistan and Pakistan, is only 11 km wide at its narrowest point. Length of Afghan borders shared with neighbouring countries is appended below:14 a. b. Pakistan Tajikistan 2,430 km 1,206 km

c. d. e. f.

Iran Turkmenistan Uzbekistan China

936 km 744 km 137 km 76 km

Mountain Ranges

The Hindu Kush reaches a height of

7,492 meter (24,580 feet) at Noshaq, Afghanistan's highest peak. Of the ranges extending southwestward from the Hindu Kush, the Foladi peak (Shah Fuladi) of the Baba mountain range (Koh-i-Baba) reaches the greatest height of 5,142 meter (16,870 feet). The Safed Koh range, which includes the Tora Bora area, dominates the border area southeast of Kabul.15 Mountain Passes Important passes include the Unai Pass across the Safed Koh, the Kushan and Salang Passes through the Hindu Kush, and the Khyber Pass that connects Afghanistan with Pakistan. The summit of the Khyber Pass at 1,070 meter (3,510 feet) at Landi Kotal, Pakistan is 5 kilometer east of the border town of Torkham. Other key passages through the mountainous border with Pakistan include two from Paktika Province into Pakistan's Waziristan region: one at Angoor Ada, a village that straddles both sides of the border east of Shkin, and further south, the Gumal River crossing alongwith the Charkai River passage south of Khowst, at Pakistan's Ghulam Khan village into North Waziristan. In the north east the Wakhan Corridor lies between the Hindu Kush and the Pamirs and leads to the Wakhjir Pass into Xinjiang in China.16 Climate Taking the highlands of the country as a whole, there

is no great difference between the mean temperature of Afghanistan and that of the lower Himalaya. However the remarkable feature of Afghan climate is its extreme range of temperature within limited

periods. Waves of intense cold occur, lasting for several days, and one may have to endure a cold of 24 C (11.2 F), rising to a maximum of 8 C (17.6 F). On the other hand, the summer temperature is exceedingly high, especially in the Oxus regions, where a shade maximum of 4550 C (113122 F) is not uncommon.17 The mughal empror Babur observed, within a day's ride from Kabul it is possible to reach a place where snow never falls. But within two hours one can go where the snow never melts - except in the rare summer so severe that all snow disappears. Both tropical and coldweather fruits are abundant in Kabul's dependencies, and they are nearby.18 Rivers and Lakes Afghanistan does not face any water

shortage because it receives huge amount of snow during winter and once that melts the water runs into rivers, lakes, and streams but most of its national water flows to neighboring states. It loses about two-third of its water from snow and rain annually, which flows mainly to Pakistan, Iran and Tajikistan. Most of the rivers and streams end in shallow desert lakes or oases inside or outside the countrys boundaries. Nearly half of the countrys total area is drained by watercourses south of the Hindu KushSafid ridge line, and half of this area is drained by the Helmand and its tributaries alone. Countries main water courses are:19 a. Amu Darya northeast. constitutes The 2,661 kilometer long Amu Darya Some 965 kilometer border of its with upper course

originates in the glaciers of the Pamir Mountains in the Afghanistans Turkmenistan,

Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. Flowing in rapid torrents in its upper course, the Amu Darya becomes calmer below the mouth of the Kokcha, 96 kilometer west of Fayzabad. The

Kunduz River is another major tributary. During flood seasons, the upper course of the Amu Darya, swollen by snow and melting ice, carries along much gravel and large boulders.20 b. Helmand River The Helmand River is the principal river in the southwest, bisecting the entire region. Starting some 80 kilometer west of Kabul in the Baba mountain range, the Helmand is approximately 1,400 kilometer long, making it the longest river situated entirely within Afghanistan. With its many tributaries, especially Arghandab River, it drains more than 298 square kilometer .21 c. Kabul River The Kabul River, 515 kilometer long, is a

vital source of water in the Baba Mountains and for Kabul itself, which it flows through. The Kabul and its tributaries are among the few in Afghanistan that eventually reach the sea, as it flows east into the Indus River in Pakistan.22 d. Hari and Morghab Rivers In the west, the sandy deserts

along most of the Iranian frontier have no watercourses. However, in the northwest, the Hari and Morghab Rivers flow into Turkmenistan's Karakum Desert.23 Sociology and Politics Ethnic Division The population of the country is divided into a wide variety of ethnolinguistic groups. Because a systematic census has not been held in the nation in decades, exact figures about the size and composition of the various ethnic groups are unvailable. In this regard, the Encyclopedia Britannica states:No national census has been conducted in Afghanistan since a partial count in 1979, and years of war and population dislocation have made

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an accurate ethnic count impossible. Current population estimates are therefore rough approximations, which show that Pashtuns comprise somewhat less than two-fifths of the population. The two largest Pashtun tribal groups are the Durrani and Ghilzay. Tajiks are likely to account for some one-fourth of Afghans and Hazara nearly one-fifth. Uzbeks and Chahar Aimaks each account for slightly more than 5 percent of the population and Turkmen an even smaller portion.24 An approximate distribution of the nation's total ethnic groups is given as under:25 Ethnic group Pashtun Tajik Hazara Uzbek Aimak Turkmen Baloch Others Nuristani, Brahui, Gujjar, etc.) (Pashai, Arab, Pamiri, 4% 6.9 percent Library of Congress estimate (2004-2010) 42% 27% 9% 9% 4% 3% 2% Library of Congress estimate (1992-2003) 38-44 percent 25-26.3% (of this 1% are Qizilbash) 10-19 percent 6-8% percent 500,000 to 800,000 2.5 percent 100,000

Sectarian Divide

Over 99% of the Afghan population is

Muslim with approximately 80-85% following the Sunni sect, 15-19% followers of Shi'a sect where as 1% are Ismaili and others. Until 1890s, the region around Nuristan was known as Kafiristan (land of the kafirs) because of its inhabitants: the Nuristanis, an ethnically distinctive

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people who practiced animism, polytheism and shamanism. Other than Muslims, there are tiny communities of Hindus and Sikhs found in the four major cities of the country and number in the thousands. There was also a small Jewish community in Afghanistan who emigrated to Israel and the United States by the end of the last century.26 Culture Afghan culture is motivated by one factor; the struggle

to survive- which implies necessity to retain their values, their quality of life, their racial pride and purity and their ethnic, tribal, political identity. The love of freedom as an individual and his penchant for vendetta make the Afghans a unique nation. No Afghan is considered a man if he cannot handle his rifle. Afghan society has following prominent characteristics: a. b. Afghan population is a blend of politically, ethnically and culturally mixed society. The cultural diversity of the country is accentuated by the fact that various nationalities speak different languages, have different physical features and practice different customs. As a result, there is very little of Afghan national consciousness. c. The Afghans are ignorant of everything connected with their religion beyond its most elementary doctrines. They are much under influence of their Mullah with his extremely orthodox approach. d. Any regime that tries to break tradition of local rule is bound to encounter resistance. Afghan Provinces Afghanistan is administratively divided into

34 provinces (wilayats), with each province having a capital and a governor in office. The provinces are further divided into about 398 smaller provincial districts, each of which normally covers a city or a

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number of villages. Each provincial district is represented by a subgovernor, usually called a district governor, who are voted into office during the nation's presidential election which takes place every five years. However there is an exception in the capital city of Kabul where the Mayor is selected directly by the President and is completely independent from the Governor of Kabul. In each province, the provincial Chief of Police is appointed by the Ministry of Interior in Kabul and works together with the provincial governor on law enforcement for all the districts within the province.27 The list of 34 provinces in alphabetical order alongwith a map reflecting their geographic location is appenede below:28

Figure 1
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Badakhshan Badghis Baghlan Balkh Bamyan Daykundi Farah Faryab Ghazni

18. Konar 19. Kunduz 20. Laghman 21. Logar 22. Nangarhar 23. Nimruz 24. Nurestan 25. Oruzgan 26. Paktia 27. Paktika

10. Ghor

13 11. Helmand 12. Herat 13. Jowzjan 14. Kabul 15. Kandahar 16. Kapisa 17. Khost 28. Panjshir 29. Parvan 30. Samangan 31. Sare Pol 32. Takhar 33. Wardak 34. Zabul

Political Parties During 2010 elections, a report noted that there are over 100 political parties in Afghanistan. However due to reregistration issues, many of these political parties are no longer officially recognized. Few of the main political parties are as under:29 a. Major Political Parties Ideology Islamic Party Republicanism Islamic party Islamic party Social democracy Islamic party Islamic party Islamic party

English name Original name Islamic Party Hezb-e Islami Republic Party of Hezbi Jumhori Afghanistan Afghanistan Islamic Society Jamiat-e Islami Islamic Movement of Harakat-e Islami-yi Afghanistan Afghan Social Democratic Afghan Mallat Party Islamic United Party of Hezb-e Wahdat-e Islami Afghanistan Afghanistan Islamic Dawah Organization Ittehad-I Islami Bara-yi of Afghanistan Azadi Afghanistan National Rescue Front hezb jabha nijat mili b. Minor Political Parties (1) (2) (3)

National Islamic Front (Hezb-e-Mahaz-e-Mili Islami) Islamic Dawah Organization (Tanzim Dawat-e-Islami) National Movement of Afghanistan (Hezb-e-Nuhzhat-e-Mili Afghanistan)

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(4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

National Sovereignty Party (Hezb-e-Eqtedar-e-Mili) National Solidarity Movement (Hezb-e-Nahzat-eHambastagee Mili) People's Islamic Movement (Harakat-e Islami-yi) National Islamic Unity Party (Hezb-e-Wahdat-e-Mili Islami) National Solidarity Party (Hezb-e-Paiwand Mili) Pashtoons Social Democratic Party (De Pashtano Tolaneez Wolaswaleez Gwand) Solidarity Party of Party Afghanistan (Hezb-e-

(10) Youth (11) National Afghanistan)

Hambastagee Mili Jawanan) Congress (Hezb-e-Congra-e-Mili

(12) Haqiqat e Afghan Association (Majma e Haqiqat e Afghan) (13) Unit Party Afghan Constitution Countrys, 502-member, loya jirga or grand tribal council adopted countrys new constitution following three weeks of vigorous debate. The new basic law, which provides for a directly elected president and bicameral legislature, paved the way for elections in mid 2004.30 The document seeks to blend democratic ideals into the country's traditionally Islamic fabric. It emphasizes the primacy of civil law in the country, which is now officially known as the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. At the same time, it stresses that the country's laws should not contravene the main tenets of Islam. The constitution granted the president, The Chief Executive broad powers, some observers still question whether he will have sufficient authority to dilute the power of warlords, who control many Afghan regions, and to counter the lure of radical Islam.31

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Key Points of Constitution Few of the key points of countrys first post Taliban constitution are as under:32 a. religion; b. c. Islam; d. law; e. f. g. Afghanistan will have a presidential system of government; The president is responsible to the nation and the lower house, or Wolesi Jirga; The president will be directly elected by the Afghan people with two vice-presidents, who are nominated by presidential candidates when standing for election; h. i. people; j. k. l. The Wolesi Jirga has the authority to impeach ministers; The president will appoint ministers, the attorney general and central bank governor with the approval of the Wolesi Jirga; Ministers should not hold foreign passports but the Wolesi Jirga should vote whether to approve appointments of ministers holding dual nationality; m. Former king Mohammad Zahir Shah is to be accorded the title "Father of the Nation" for his lifetime; A national assembly will consist of two houses: a Wolesi Jirga or "house of people" and a Meshrano Jirga or "house of elders"; The Wolesi Jirga will be directly elected by the Afghan Men and women have equal rights and duties before the Followers of other religions are free to perform religious ceremonies in accordance with the provisions of the law; No law shall be contrary to the beliefs and practices of Afghanistan is an Islamic republic with Islam as its "sacred

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Pashto and Dari are the official languages with other minority languages to be considered official languages in the areas in which they are spoken; Natural Resources General It is estimated that forty million years ago the tectonic plates of India-Europe, Asia and Africa collided in a massive upheaval. This upheaval created the region of towering mountains that now includes Afghanistan. That process also deposited vast amounts of minerals, including gold, copper, lithium, iron ore, cobalt, natural gas and oil in a country later written off as wartorn and poverty stricken.33 As of 2006, the mineral resources of Afghanistan were relatively under explored from a global perspective. The country has extensive deposits of barite, chromite, coal, copper, gold, iron ore, lead, natural gas, petroleum, precious and semiprecious stones, salt, sulfur, talc, and zinc. Precious and semiprecious stones include high-quality emerald, lapis lazuli, red garnet and ruby. Ongoing instability in certain areas of the country, the countrys remote and rugged terrain, and an inadequate infrastructure and transportation network have made mining these deposits difficult. The country has approximately over 200 mines, some of which are still under the control of local warlords.34 Major Findings Years 2010 During year 2010, a small

team of Pentagon officials and American geologists discovered nearly $1 trillion in untapped mineral deposits in Afghanistan, far beyond any previously known reserves. According to other reports the total mineral riches of Afghanistan may be worth over three trillion US dollars. American officials believe that "the previously unknown deposits including huge veins of iron, copper, cobalt, gold and critical industrial metals like lithium are so big and include so many minerals that are essential to modern industry that Afghanistan could eventually be

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transformed into one of the most important mining centers in the world. It is also estimated that the Ghazni Province might be holding world's largest lithium reserves.35 President Hamid Karzai remarked "Whereas Saudi Arabia is the oil capital of the world, Afghanistan will be the lithium capital of the world." Deposits in the United States and Canada which need mining operations similar to those necessary for the deposits in Afghanistan went out of production due to cheaper production from lithium containing brines. Afghanistan had invited 200 global companies for the development of its mines.36 Mining prospects mining are as under: a. Copper In the past, copper had been mined from Herat Province and Farah Province in the west, Kapisa Province in the east, and Kandahar Province and Zabul Province in the south. As of 2006, interest was focused on the Aynak, the Darband, and the Jawkhar prospects in southeastern Afghanistan. Although a resource of 240 million metric tons at a grade of 2.3% copper had been reported, a number of small ore lenses were not practically and economically minable. The Government issued a public tender for the deposit in 2006 in which nine mining companies from Australia, China, India, and the United States offered their bids. However, China Metallurgical Group won the bidding for a copper mining project in Aybak, Afghanistan.37 b. Gold As of 2006, gold was mined from the Samti placer deposit in Takhar Province in the north by groups of artisanal miners. Badakhshan Province also had occurrences of placer gold deposits. The deposits were Few of the important minerals inviting

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found on the western flanks of the mountains in alluvium or alluvial fan in several river valleys, particularly in the Anjir, the Hasar, the Nooraba, and the Panj Valleys. The Samti deposit located in the Panj River Valley and was estimated to contain between 20 and 25 metric tons of gold. An estimated gold worth $30 billion is persumed in gold and copper deposits in the Zana Khan, an area of the Zarkashan skarn deposit in Ghazni province.38 c. Iron Ore The best known and largest iron oxide deposit

in Afghanistan is located at Hajigak in Bamyan Province. The deposit itself stretches over 32 kilometer and contains 16 separate zones, up to 5 kilometer in length, 380 meter wide and extending 550 meter down dip, seven of which have been studied in detail. The ore occurs in both primary and oxidized states. The primary ore accounts for 80% of the deposit and consists of magnetite, pyrite and minor chalcopyrite. The remaining 20% is oxidized and consists of three hematitic ore types. The presence of coking coal nearby at Shabashak in the Dar-l-Suf District and large iron ore resources made the deposit viable for future development of an Afghan steel industry. Open pit mining and blast furnace smelting operations were envisioned by an early feasibility study.39 d. Gemstones Afghanistan is known to have exploited its

precious and semiprecious gemstone deposits. These deposits include aquamarine, emerald, fluorite, garnet, kunzite, ruby, sapphire, semiprecious lapis lazuli, topaz, tourmaline, and varieties of quartz. The four main gemstone producing areas are those of Badakhshan, Jegdalek,

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Nuristan, and the Panjshir Valley. Artisanal mining of gemstones in the country used primitive methods. Some gemstones were exported illicitly, mostly to India which was the worlds leading import market for colored gemstones and an outlet for higher quality gems.40 e. Petroleum and Natural Gas The U.S. Geological

Survey and the Ministry of Mines and Industries, jointly assessed the oil and gas resources in northern Afghanistan. The estimated mean volumes of undiscovered petroleum were 1,596 million barrels (Mbbl) of crude oil, 444 billion cubic meters of natural gas, and 562 Mbbl of natural gas liquids. Most of the undiscovered crude oil occurs in the Afghan-Tajik Basin and most of the undiscovered natural gas is located in the Amu Darya Basin. These two basins within Afghanistan encompass areas of approximately 515,000 square kilometers.41 External Influence General Since, the country contains an ethnic diversity, each minority in one way or the other is affiliated to a neighbouring country and each minority is supported, ideologically and militarily by these countries. The motives of both neighbouring countries as well as the global power players are explained in succeeding paragraphs:
a.

Pakistan

Historically and ethnically, Pakistan has

the longest and strongest connections with Afghanistan. During the Afghan war with the Soviet Union, all efforts to support the Afghans were staged out of Pakistans western border areas. Even today a large number of refugees still reside in refugee camps throughout Pakistan. Therefore, it would be correct to say that Pakistan has the greatest

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involvement and the most to gain or lose from Afghan conflict. In the economic sphere, a friendly government in Kabul provides multiple opportunities for Pakistan. The opening of trade route to Central Asian Republics and energy corridor are some of the gains Pakistan seems to be looking at.
b.

Iran Iran considers itself, the protector of the

Hazaras, who have fought against Taliban and are religiously at a variance with overwhelming Sunni majority. Major reasons for Iranian interference in Afghanistan are: (1) (2) (3) c. (1) To render maximum assistance to Shia groups. Provision of land routes to Central Asian Republics through Iran and get maximum share of trade. To counter U.S. and Saudi policies in the region. Central Asian Republics Uzbekistan Uzbekistans president Islam Karrimov has clandestinely supported his fellow Uzbek General Rashid Dostum, with tanks, aircrafts and technical persons in the past. Karrimov believes the six autonomous, Uzbek dominated provinces in the northern Afghanistan provide a buffer against the spread of Islamic fundamentalism from Afghanistan. (2) Turkmenistan Turkmenistan is heavily dependent on the Russian troops for its own security. The Pushtuns have historically victimised a significant Turkmen population in the western Afghanistan and therefore Turkmenistan seeks for buffer zone. (3) Tajikistan Tajikistan, which was racked by civil war and with a government wholly, backed by the

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Russian troops, has been sympathetic to fellow Tajiks in Afghanistan. Many Afghan Tajiks also support the idea of greater Tajikistan while annexing the Tajik dominated areas of Afghanistan.
d.

Russia

Russia

has

political

and

economic

interests in Afghanistan besides keeping Central Asian Republics under political, economical and even militarily control. Since these interests are perused through Afghanistan, therefore Russians have permanent and long term interests there. Few of the long term Russian interests in Afghanistan are: (1) (2)
e.

As part of grand strategic design, to accomplish her desire to reach warm waters. Counter the U.S. policies in Afghanistan. United States of America American interests in the

region have always been changing. America supported Mujahideens during the Soviet invasion but after Soviet collapse her Afghan policy was abandoned. However, the recent developments have once more placed Afghanistan on U.S. policy chess board with economic priorities besides circumscribing the role and capacity of neighbouring Russia and China. The hidden motives appear to be directed towards: (1) (2) Installation of friendly government which would guarantee safeguard of U.S. interests in the region. To prevent the expansion of fundamentalist influence in the region.
f.

India

Major Indian interests in Afghanistan have

always remained Pakistan specific. As a policy, India has

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been supporting anti Pakistan elements in Afghanistan so as to destabilize Pakistani border areas. Few of the Indian interests in Afghanistan include following: (1) (2) (3) No assistance from Afghan tribesman should come for Kashmir struggle. Gain maximum economic benefits from reconstruction of Afghanistan. Deny Pakistan an easy access to Central Asian Republics through Afghanistan. g. China Chinas support to Afghan Mujahideen during

Soviet Invasion is an open secret. After the Soviet collapse, China has been supporting the efforts to contain radical Islamic movements in Central Asian States and Afghanistan. These efforts are aimed to control the religious and ethnic tremors being felt in Sinkiang Province (China), sharing its borders with Tajikistan, Kirghistan and Afghanistan.

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PART - III AFGHAN CONFLICTS Afghan Invasions Civic amenities have become a thing of the past. Land mines have turned the whole country into a deposit of explosives. There are approximately "6 million mines in the country", causing casualties to "ten to twelve victims per day", and "30 per cent of whom are children".42 (Anonymous) The Great Game: Dost Mohammad ruled at the beginning of the Great Game, a century long contest for domination of Central Asia and Afghanistan between Russia, which was expanding to the south, and Britain, which was intending to protect India. During this period, Afghan rulers were able to maintain virtual independence, although some compromises were necessary. In the First Anglo-Afghan War (1839 42), the British deposed Dost Mohammad but abandoned their Afghan garrisons in 1842. In the following decades, Russian forces approached the northern border of Afghanistan. In 1878 the British invaded and held most of Afghanistan in the Second Anglo-Afghan War. In 1880 Abdur Rahman, a Durrani, began a 21-year reign that saw the balancing of British and Russian interests, the consolidation of the Afghan tribes, and the reorganization of civil administration into what is considered the modern Afghan state. During this period, the British secured the Durand Line (1893), dividing Afghanistan from British colonial territory to the southeast and sowing the seeds of future tensions over the division of the Pashtun tribes. Abdur Rahmans son Habibullah (ruled 190119) continued his fathers administrative reforms and maintained Afghanistans neutrality in World War - I.43

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Soviet Invasion In 1978, a prominent member of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), Mir Akbar Khyber, was allegedly killed by the Daoud government. Leaders of the PDPA feared that Daoud was planning to dismantle them because many were being arrested. Hafizullah Amin along with other PDPA members managed to remain un-arrested and organised an uprising. The PDPA, led by Nur Mohammad Taraki, Babrak Karmal and Hafizullah Amin, overthrew the regime of Mohammad Daoud, who was assassinated along with his family during the April 1978 Saur Revolution. Taraki was declared President, Prime Minister and General Secretary of the PDPA. Once in power, the PDPA implemented a socialist agenda and moved to carry out an ill-conceived land reforms, which were misunderstood by virtually all Afghans. They also imprisoned, tortured or murdered thousands of members of the traditional elite, the religious establishment, and the intelligentsia. They also prohibited usury and made a number of statements on women rights, by declaring equality of the sexes and introducing women to political life.44 As part of its Cold War strategy, the United States began recruiting, financing and arming Mujahideen fighters during Operation Cyclone in 1979, which was aimed to defeat the Soviets. President Jimmy Carter's National Security Advisor, Brzezinski, warned at the time that this might prompt a Soviet intervention. In March 1979, Hafizullah Amin took over as prime minister, retaining the position of field marshal and becoming vice-president of the Supreme Defence Council. Taraki remained President and in control of the army until September 14 when he was killed.45 To bolster the Parcham faction, the Soviet Union decided to intervene on December 24, 1979 when the Red Army invaded its southern neighbor. Over 100,000 Soviet troops took part in the

25

invasion, which was backed by another one hundred thousand Afghan military men and supporters of the Parcham faction. In the meantime, Hafizullah Amin was killed and replaced by Babrak Karmal. In response to the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, the Reagan administration in the U.S. increased arming and funding of the Mujahideen who began a guerilla war. The U.S. handled most of its support to Mujahideen through Pakistan's ISI with Saudi Arabia providing financial support.46 The 10-year Soviet occupation resulted in the killings of between 600,000 and two million Afghans, mostly civilians. About 6 million fled as Afghan refugees to Pakistan and Iran. Faced with mounting international pressure and great number of casualties on both sides, the Soviets withdrew in 1989. Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan was seen as an ideological victory in America, which had backed some Mujahideen factions to counter Soviet influence in the vicinity of the oil rich Persian Gulf. The USSR continued to support President Mohammad Najibullah (former secret service head, KHAD) until 1992.47 Civil War and Taliban End of Najib Government After the Soviet withdral from Afghanistan in February 1989, fighting between the communist backed government and Mujahideen continued. With material help from the Soviets, Mohammad Najibullah's government survived, but after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, it was overthrown on April 18, 1992. The forces of Abdul Rashid Dostum surrendered to Ahmed Shah Massoud and Kabul soon fell to forces of Massoud.48 First Jamiat-e Islami Seeking to resolve these differences, the leaders of the Peshawar-based Mujahideen groups established an interim Jamiat-e Islami in mid-April to assume power in Kabul. Moderate leader Professor Sibghatullah Mojadeddi was to chair the council for 2 months, after which a 10-member leadership council

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composed of Mujahideen leaders and presided over by the head of the Jamiat-i-Islami, Professor Burhanuddin Rabbani, was to be set up for 4 months. During this 6-month period, a Loya Jirga, or grand council of Afghan elders and notables, was to convene and designate an interim administration to hold power up till pending elections.49 But in May 1992, Rabbani prematurely formed the leadership council, undermining Mojaddedi's fragile authority. On June 28, 1992, Mojaddedi surrendered power to the Leadership Council, which then elected Rabbani as President. Nonetheless, heavy fighting broke out in August 1992 in Kabul between forces loyal to President Rabbani and rival factions, particularly those who supported Gulbuddin Hekmatyar's Hezb-i-Islami. After Rabbani extended his tenure in December 1992, fighting in the capital flared up in January and February 1993. The Islamabad Accord, signed in March 1993, which appointed Hekmatyar as Prime Minister, failed to have a lasting effect. A follow-up agreement, the Jalalabad Accord, called for the militias to be disarmed but was never fully implemented. Through 1993, Hekmatyar's Hezb-iIslami forces, allied with the Shi'a Hezb-i-Wahdat militia, clashed intermittently with Rabbani and Massoud's Jamiat forces. Cooperating with Jamiat were militants of Sayyaf's Ittehad-i-Islami and troops loyal to ethnic Uzbek strongman Abdul Rashid Dostam. On January 1, 1994, Dostam switched side, precipitating large scale fighting in Kabul and in northern provinces which caused thousands of civilian casualties in Kabul and elsewhere and created a new wave of displaced persons and refugees. The country sank even further into anomie, forces loyal to Rabbani and Masud, both ethnic Tajiks controlled Kabul and much of the northeast, while local warlords exerted power over the rest of the country.50

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Rise of the Taliban

In reaction to the warlordism prevalent in

the country, and the lack of Pashtun representation in the Kabul government, a movement arose called the Taliban. Many Taliban were educated in madrasas in Pakistan and were largely from rural Pashtun backgrounds. This group was made up of mostly Pashtuns that dedicated itself to removing the warlords, providing law and order, and imposing the strict Islamic Sharia law in the country. In 1994 Taliban developed enough strength to capture the city of Kandahar from a local warlord and proceeded to expand its control throughout Afghanistan, occupying Herat in September 1995, then Kabul in September 1996, and declaring the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. By this time Afghanistan was in its 17th year of war and had the highest infant, child and maternal mortality rates in Asia. An estimated 10 million landmines covered its terrain and two-million refugees were in camps.51 Pakistan recognized the Taliban as the legitimate rulers of Afghanistan in 1997. By the end of 2000, the Taliban occupied about 95% of the country, limiting the opposition to a small corner in the northeast Badakhshan Province. Efforts by the UN, prominent Afghans living outside the country and other interested countries to bring about a peaceful solution to the continuing conflict came to nothing.52 Post 9/11 Afghanistan War on Terror From the mid-1990s the Taliban provided sanctuary to Osama bin Laden, a Saudi national who had fought with them against the Soviets. The United Nations Security Council repeatedly sanctioned the Taliban for these activities. Bin Laden provided both financial and political support to the Taliban untill September 11, 2001. Bin Laden and his al Qaeda group were charged with the bombing of the United States embassies in Nairobi and Dar Es Salaam in 1998 and in August 1998 the United States launched a

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cruise missile attack against bin Laden's terrorist camp in Afghanistan. Bin Laden and al Qaeda are believed to be responsible for the September 11 attacks in the United States, among other crimes.53 By September 2001, the remaining opposition to the Taliban had been confined to the Panjshir Valley and a small region in the northeast. The opposition by this time had formed the Afghan Northern Alliance but controlled less than 5% of the country. Nevertheless, they held onto Afghanistan's diplomatic representation in the United Nations as only three countries in the world continued to recognize the Taliban government. Following the Taliban's refusal to handover bin Laden and his group to the United States, allied air campaign was launched against Afghanistan on October 7, 2001. Meanwhile the Northern Alliance, fighting against Talibans weakened by U.S. bombing and massive defections, captured Mazari Sharif on 9 November. It rapidly gained control of most of northern Afghanistan and took control of Kabul on 13 November after the Talibans unexpected fleeing.54 Current AfPak War Strategy Only two months in office,

President Barack Obama unveiled his first strategy on the Afghan war in a speech on March 27, 2009. He updated his strategy in ten months time, on 1st December in a speech at the US Military Academy at West Point. In his first strategy statement, Obama said, "we have a clear and focused goal: to disrupt, dismantle, and defeat al Qaeda in Pakistan and Afghanistan, and to prevent their return to either country in the future." Afghan war was thus expanded to include Pakistan into the war zone and came to be known by the acronym, AfPak war.55 Obama in his 1st December speech has added military muscle to his strategic goal. He has ordered a surge of 30,000 additional soldiers to the Afghan war theatre, raising the figure to about 100,000. He has combined this decision to dramatically increase the number of soldiers

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with an announcement that the American soldiers will start leaving Afghanistan by 2011. By announcing this exit-deadline, Obama has tried to address the worries of the Americans that they have committed themselves to an endless war in Afghanistan and has attempted to revive the original domestic unity behind the war. At the same time, he has tried to send two messages to Afghanistan: first, the Afghan government must soon take responsibility of their own country; secondly, America will not follow the cut-and-run policy as of Vietnam.56 However, the biggest thrust of Obama's strategic policy is not in Afghanistan but in Pakistan. Obama himself explained the rationale of his new strategy and said, "I make this decision because I am convinced that our security is at stake in Afghanistan and Pakistan. This is the epicenter of violent extremism practiced by al Qaeda." He noted, "Al Qaeda has not re-emerged in Afghanistan in the same numbers as before 9/11, but they retain their safe havens along the border." He darkly warned, "the stakes are even higher within a nuclear-armed Pakistan, because we know that al Qaeda and other extremists seek nuclear weapons, and we have every reason to believe that they would use them.57 Though Obama has made Pakistan, a theatre of his AfPak war but is unable to send troops to Pakistan. In his 1st December speech, he has re-emphasized the crucial role of Pakistan as U.S. partner in the fight against the al-Qaeda and Taliban. As a corollary to the surge of troops in Afghanistan to bolster counter insurgency campaign there, Obama, disclosed the New York Times, has authorized the CIA to expand its operations in Pakistan to ratchet up its counter terrorism campaign against the al-Qaeda and Taliban.58 Indo-Afghan Involvement and Pakistan

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Post-Taliban Afghanistan Hamid

Karzais

interim

administration took charge on 22 December 2001 for a period of six months, after which a loya jirga, a traditional Afghan decision-making body of tribal elders, was to be convened to determine Afghanistans future political dispensation. As early as November, however, India sent a high-level diplomatic mission to Kabul to resurrect an Afghan policy that had been in the doldrums ever since the Taliban ejected the proIndia Rabbani regime from Kabul in 1996. Apart from a couple of senior diplomatic officials, the delegation included eight doctors and security personnel who were to remain in Afghanistan. During the visit, an Indian liaison office was set up as a prelude to the reopening of the Indian embassy, which was evacuated only hours before the Taliban made their triumphant entry into Kabul in September 1996, and had remained closed ever since. For over two decades, Pakistan had managed to keep India out of Afghanistan, particularly while the Taliban were in charge. For India, the speedy reopening of its embassy in Kabul symbolized the beginning of a new era in its relations with Afghanistan. With the Northern Alliance expected to play a dominant role in the future administration, India looked forward to get even with Pakistan for having compelled it to remain on the sidelines in Afghan matters for such a long time.59 To demonstrate its support for the new government in Kabul, India immediately earmarked $100 million towards the reconstruction of Afghanistan, whilst also offering assistance in the development of infrastructure, health facilities, educational institutions and information technology. Even before the interim administration formally assumed control on 22 December 2001, planeloads of relief material from New Delhi were dispatched to Kabul. Along with tea, blankets and medicines, the relief cargo also contained Hindi music and film

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cassettes, demonstrating Indian desire to use its cultural weapons in the battle for influence in post-Taliban Afghanistan.60 Several members of the Northern Alliance, part of the interim administration, were quick to respond to the Indian overtures. Foreign Minister Abdullah Abdullah, Interior Minister Younus Qanooni, and Minister for Labour and Local Affairs Mirwaiz Sadiq, all paid visits to New Delhi prior to 22 December. Qanoonis visit was probably the most significant of all and reflected the pro-India inclinations of the new regime. Just a day after the signing of the Bonn accord, that established the interim administration, Qanooni flew into India for a sixday visit. On 12 December 2001, India announced that senior police officials would be sent to Afghanistan to serve as advisers on the establishment of law-enforcement institutions. While in India, Qanooni was openly critical of Pakistan, accusing it of having contributed to Afghanistans devastation through its interference. But what must have been of particular satisfaction to India was Qanoonis warning to Pakistan to desist from any further interference in Afghanistan or Indian-held Kashmir.61 In February 2002, Hamid Karzai paid his first visit to India where he was accorded a red-carpet welcome, an indication of New Delhis desire to cultivate Karzai, an ethnic Pashtun, and to win him over to its side at Pakistans expense. Karzai was thought not to be as favourably disposed towards India as the powerful Northern Alliance troika of Qanooni, Abdullah, and Muhammad Qasim Fahim, and had chosen to visit Pakistan before coming to India. Indian analysts, however, justified his decision on the basis that Karzai wished to press upon Pakistani President General Pervez Musharraf, the need to keep pro-Taliban elements in his government under control. Karzais visit to India was a success: in addition to the substantial assistance it had already

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provided to the interim administration, New Delhi announced a grant of $10 million for immediate utilization by Afghanistan. It also promised to assist Kabul in the fields of education, health, agriculture and information technology.62 Military assistance and humanitarian relief were by no means the only points on Indias Afghan agenda: fostering greater economic ties was equally important. In September 2002, the Confederation of Indian Industries (CII) held the biggest ever four-day fair that Kabul had witnessed since 1977, with India becoming the first country to market its wares in post-Taliban Afghanistan. The response to the Made-inIndia show was enthusiastic; over 25000 people visited it, out of which 8700 were business visitors. All the exhibits, from tractors, generators and ambulances to tea and implements for everyday use, were sold out. The total business transactions added up to impressive Rs 250 million. Of the 170 exhibitors from top Indian companies, almost 60 per cent managed to appoint dealers in Afghanistan, while another 10 per cent initiated the setting up of their own offices in Kabul. Two agreements with Afghan partners were also signed, one for the production of industrial and medical gas and the other for the establishment of a mineral water plant. Previously, both of these products were being imported from Pakistan.63 Encouraged by the success of the trade fair, India has drafted a Preferential Trading Agreement (PTA) with Afghanistan to promote the export of Afghan goods to India and to facilitate the Indian private sectors efforts to participate in the reconstruction of Afghanistan. Under the terms of the PTA, India plans to build a 130-200 km road from Chabahar in Iran to Kabul, which will not only accelerate the transit of Indian goods to Afghanistan but will also solve Indian current problem of having its goods transported via Pakistan. A joint working

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group has been set up between the Ministers of Commerce of the two countries to work out the fine details of the agreement and examine the possibility of removing some of the duties imposed on the aforementioned items. It seems fairly evident that, in the economic sphere too, Indias star in Afghanistan is no less on the ascendant than it is in the political one.64 Policy Recommendations for Pakistan There are only two

options available to Pakistan: it can either desist from any unnecessary interference in Afghanistan while biding its time until a friendlier government comes to power in Kabul, or it can take active steps to destabilize the present Afghan regime. But keeping in view Indian increased involvement in the region, Pakistan cannot afford to be a totally silent spectator of whatever transpires there. It should not actively support any single party in Afghanistan, but it also must realize that its best chance of regaining its position of influence lies in the establishment of a Pashtun-dominated government. Therefore, it must keep open the lines of communication with the Pashtuns and simultaneously launch a vigorous diplomatic campaign to convince the world community, and particularly the Americans, of the need for a broad-based government in Kabul that provides representation to the Pashtuns on the basis of their numerical strength. It must highlight the dangers inherent in keeping Afghanistans most populous ethnic group deprived of its lawful share of political power.65 Pakistan must remain extremely wary of Indian attempts to mend ties with the Pashtuns in Afghanistan. There are clear signs that this time round, New Delhi intends to avoid putting all its eggs in one basket, as it did during the Soviet invasion and during the Taliban era. Pakistan must nip these reconciliatory efforts in their incipiency by reminding the Pashtuns not only of Indian support for the Soviet Union

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during its invasion of Afghanistan but also of its intimate relations with the non-Pashtun Northern Alliance.66 Pakistan must try to increase its economic ties with the Central Asian Republics, ensuring that all deals are fair and transparent. It must counter Indian propaganda tactics designed to portray Pakistan as a sponsor of Islamic terrorism. Pakistan must closely co-operate with China in Central Asia, in order to counter Indias growing presence in the region. In addition, Pakistan must make every effort to keep India out of any political or economic grouping of Afghanistan and Central Asia, such as the SCO and the Six Plus Two arrangement. At the same time, it is vital for Pakistans security to gain membership of the SCO as it would not only allow Pakistan to end its regional isolation but will put Indian attempts ineffectual to demonize Pakistan as an instigator of terrorist movements.67 Pakistan must stop its attempts to play the Islamic card in Central Asia. Although the Central Asian Republics are independent, Russia continues to wield extensive influence in the region and strongly opposes any attempt to de-secularize it. The leaders of the Central Asian Republics are all hardened ex-Communists, presiding over repressive and undemocratic governments and paying no more than lip-service to Islam. Central Asia is generally considered to be the most secular part of the Islamic world. It will be very difficult for Pakistan to make any inroads into Central Asia if it persists with the delusion of spearheading an Islamic crescent, particularly as long as the present regime continues to control Kabul. It would be far more profitable for Pakistan to confine itself in improving the economic relations, which can only be possible if the Central Asian Republics are convinced that Pakistan no longer harbours ambitions of creating a regional Islamic block by supporting radical elements in Afghanistan.68

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Conclusion For decades Afghanistan has seen nothing but violence, death, destruction and displacement of its people. Anarchy and unrest has not only caused socio-economic and political turmoil but has also affected the mental and psychological health of the Afghan people. It is expected that it will take them ages to come out of the war syndrome. The situation in Afghanistan is in transition. The events are very dynamic and are changing very fast since September 11, 2001. Therefore, it is very difficult to predict exactly the futuristic trends in Afghanistan at this time. However, the Bonn Accord can be regarded as an historic achievement after more than 20 years of war. It is expected that the leaders would rise to face the challenge and perform their functions with responsibility. Now Afghan people are looking with hope and optimism for a government that is democratic and transparent in nature providing them their due rights. During the transitional period in Afghanistan, an effective guidance of media is essential. It is also a regional requirement as presently the whole region is passing through a difficult phase. All countries of the region should appreciate that a peaceful Afghanistan can effectively contribute towards a peaceful and prosperous region. It is in the interest of all the regional countries to make things easy for Afghans instead of trying to manipulate the situation for their own vested interests. Degenerated diplomacy by the regional countries against one another is not going to achieve durable benefits in a long run for this region. It is time to work seriously and sincerely for the people of Afghanistan.

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End Notes

IPRI Factfiles. n.d. Afghanistan. http://www.ipripak.org/factfiles/ff26.shtml (accessed May 16, 2011) 2 Ibid 3 Wikipedia. n.d. Afghanistan. http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Afghanistan (accessed May 17, 2011). 4 Ibid 5 Ibid 6 Ibid 7 Ibid 8 Ibid 9 Ibid 10 Wikipedia. n.d. History of Afghanistan. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ History_of_Afghanistan (accessed May 17, 2011). 11 Ibid 12 Ibid 13 Wikipedia. n.d. Geography of Afghanistan. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Geography_of_Afghanistan (accessed May 18, 2011). 14 Ibid 15 Ibid 16 Ibid 17 Ibid 18 Ibid 19 Ibid 20 Ibid 21 Ibid 22 Ibid 23 Ibid 24 Wikipedia. n.d. History of Afghanistan. http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/ Afghanistan (accessed May 17, 2011). 25 Ibid 26 Ibid 27 Wikipedia. n.d. History of Afghanistan. http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/ Afghanistan (accessed May 17, 2011). 28 Ibid 29 Wikipedia. n.d. List of Political Parties. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ List_of_political_parties_in_Afghanistan (accessed May 19, 2011) 30 IPRI Factfiles. n.d. The Constitution of Afghanistan. http://www.ipripak. org/factfiles/ff26.shtml (accessed May 16, 2011) 31 Ibid 32 Ibid 33 Wikipedia. n.d. Minerals of Afghanistan. http://www.nytimes.com/2010 / 06/14/world/asia/14minerals.html (accessed May 19, 2011). 34 Ibid 35 Wikipedia. n.d. Mining in Afghanistan. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining in_Afghanistan (accessed May 19, 2011).
1

Ibid Ibid 38 Ibid 39 Ibid 40 Ibid 41 Ibid 42 IPRI Factfiles. n.d. Afghanistan: a case of prolonged misery. http://www. ipripak.org/factfiles/ff26.shtml (accessed May 16, 2011) 43 Wikipedia. n.d. History of Afghanistan. http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/ Afghanistan (accessed May 17, 2011). 44 Wikipedia. n.d. History of Afghanistan. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ History_of_Afghanistan (accessed May 17, 2011). 45 Ibid 46 Ibid 47 Ibid 48 Wikipedia. n.d. History of Afghanistan. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ History_of_Afghanistan_since_1992 (accessed May 20, 2011). 49 Ibid 50 Ibid 51 Wikipedia. n.d. History of Afghanistan. http://www.historyofnations.net/ asia/afghanistan.html (accessed May 20, 2011). 52 Ibid 53 Ibid 54 Ibid 55 OBAMA'S LATEST AFPAK WAR STRATEGY.2009. Editorial, Financial Express (Dhaka), December 7. IPRI Publications. http://www.ipripak.org/ factfiles/ (accessed May 20, 2011) 56 Ibid 57 Ibid 58 Ibid 59 IPRI Factfiles. n.d. Indias Increased Involvement in Afghanistan and Central Asia: Implications for Pakistan. http://www.ipripak.org/factfiles/ ff26.shtml (accessed May 17, 2011) 60 Ibid 61 Ibid 62 Ibid 63 Ibid 64 Ibid 65 Ibid 66 Ibid 67 Ibid 68 Ibid
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