Vipu Exam R1

WrittenExamforDr.
Vipu
NormanS.Hoffman,PE
3651Foremast.Dr.Galveston,TX77554
Phone:(409)6216740
Email:eshoffman007@aol.com
April1,2010
April1,2010 WrittenExamforDr.Vipu

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
Phone:(409)6216740,Email:eshoffman007@aol.com
Page2of29
Tableofcontents
PlainConcreteConstitutiveLaws 3
SmearedConcreteConstitutiveLaws 6
NanoparticleConcrete 21
FiguresandTables
Figure1,SmearedConstitutiveModelforConcrete 7
Figure2,StressStrainrelationshipforPanelsTEF3,4,and5 9
Table1,ConstitutiveEquationComparisonforPlainConcreteandFiberConcrete 11
Table2,SoftenedMembraneModel(SMM)SmearedConstitutiveEquation
ComparisonforConcreteandSteelFiberConcrete 17
References 26

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
Page3of29
Summarizeincompleteandconciseformthestateofknowledgeontheconstitutivemodels
forconcrete(stressstrainandfailure).
Asurveyofliteraturerevealsthatconstitutivematerialmodelsforplainconcretecanbe
categorizedintothreeverybroadgroupsbasedonloadingsituation,namely:
1) Unixialmodels
2) Biaxialmodels
3) Triaxialmodels
Thebasicuniaxialstressstrainmodelforplainconcreteconsistsofanascendingbranchanda
descendingbranch.Thepeakofthecurveoccursatalocationcalledconcretecompressive
strengthwhilethecorrespondingstrainisthepeakcompressivestrain.Therehavebeen
numerousstudiesandapproximationsformodelingthestressstraincurveofplainconcrete
(Popovics,1970).Importantandstraightforwardapproximationsofthecurveincludethose
rangingfromtheHognestad,1952parabola(towhichHognestadattributestoStussi,1932),to
thoseofDesayi&Krishnan1964andWang&Shah,1978.(SeeTable1).Thebasicapproach
forresearchersmodelingthecurveistobasetheshapeonkeyparametersthatcanbe
obtainedeasilyfromphysicaltestsofspecimens,namelythefailurecriteria,fcande0.
Interestingly,foralltheresearchdoneonthestressstraincurveforplainconcrete,thebasic
Stussi,1932modelisstillusedtodayinflexuraldesign.
Tensionmodelsofplainconcretedependonthetestingprocedureused(Belarbi,1994)A
linearbehaviorisobtaineduptothetensilecapacitywhichthenendsabruptlywithabrittle
failure,thusprovidingnodescendingbranch.Gopal&Shah,1985developedatesting
techniqueandcorrespondinganalyticmodelfordeterminingthedescendingbranchofthe
tensilecurve.
BiaxialmodelsforplainconcreteincludethosedevelopedZaman1993,andGerstle,1981.
PleaserefertoTable1forasummaryandshortdescriptionofthesemodels.

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
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Howwilltheconstitutivemodelsofconcretebeaffectediffibersareadded?
Theadditionoffibertotheconstitutivemodelsforconcretewillbynecessityhavethesame
effectasonthephysicalorexperimentaltestresults.Theadditionoffiberstoplainconcrete
hasanimprovingeffectonthekeymaterialpropertieslistedbelow,andthusaffectsthe
constitutivemodelforfiberconcrete(Rao2009,Thomas2007,Vandewalle2002,Li1992,
Traina1991).
UnixialCompressiveStrength,f
c
UniaxialPeakstrainatcompressivestrength,e
0
ModulusofElasticity,E
c
UniaxialTensileStrength,f
t
ModulusofRuptureDuctility
PoissonsRatio,v
Theadditionoffiber,particularlysteelfiber,affectsmostsignificantlythetensilestrengthand
ductilityofconcrete.Thomas2007achieved38.2%increaseintensilesplitcylinderstrength
usingjust1.5%fibercontentbyvolume.TestsbyRao2009onstandardModulusofRupture
testprisms(6x6x24)showamarkedpostpeakimprovementinloadcarryingcapacityof
fiberconcreteascomparedtoplainconcrete.Whereastheplainconcretespecimensfailed
completelyandsuddenlyuponreachingpeakload,thefiberconcretespecimenssustained
significantloadpostpeak(steelfibercontentrangedfrom0.5%to1.5%byvolume).Rao
attributesthistothebridgingeffectofthefibersacrossthetensilecrack.Otherresearchers(Li
1992,Thomas2007)showsimilartensileresults.
Theaffectoffiberonuniaxialcylindercompressivestrengthwasmodest,ascomparedtoits
affectonthetensilestrength.Thomas2007foundan8.3%increaseincompressivecapacity
using1.5%fibercontentbyvolume.Hefoundthatthereisanincreasinglinearrelation
betweenfibercontentandcompressivestrength,upto1.5%fiber,whichwasthelimitofhis
investigation.

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
Page5of29
Althoughthereisonlyamodestincreaseincompressivestrength,thereisasubstantial
increaseincompressivestrain,e
0
.Thomasattributesthegaininstraintotheconfinement
effectofthefiberswithintheconcretematrix.Again,therelationislinearwithincreasingfiber
contentandtheimprovementoverplainconcreteisupto29%for1.5%fiberbyvolume.
Thomas2007alsofoundonlyaslightgaininEc(8%)withincreasingfibercontent,upto1.5%
byvolume.Therewasalessergaininpoisonsratio.
Keyinvestigationintothebiaxialbehavioroffiberreinforcedconcretewasperformedby
Kupfer1969,Traina1991andYin&Hsu1989.Theseresearchersestablishedthebasicfailure
envelopeforfiberconcrete,withrespecttoplainconcrete.Bothshowthatthereare
differencesbetweenthetwotypesofconcrete.Theprimarydifferenceunderbiaxialloadingis
theincreaseincompressivestrengthoverplainconcrete,forallstressratios.Furthermore,
whencomparedtotheuniaxialstrength,thebiaxialstrengthincreasesbyasmuchas85%with
1.5%fibervolumeoverplainconcrete(Traina1991).
ImportantConstitutivemodelsforfiberconcreteincludebiaxialmodelsdevelopedbyTan1993
andHu2003.TheTan1994modelconsidersonlycompressioncompressionwhileHu2003
considersbothcompressionandtension.Hupresentsasinglesmoothbiaxialfailurecurve.
ThesemodelsutilizetheTrainaandYinexperimentaldata.
Towhatproblemscanyouapplytheseconstitutivemodels.
Fiberconcretehasbeenusedformanyyearstoreducecrackingoffloorslabs.Itisanticipated
thoughthatfiberconcretecanbeusedinbeamsandgirderstoreduceorminimizeshear
stirrups.Theanalyticmodelscanbeusedincomputersimulationmodels(finiteelement)to
predictbehaviorofplainandsteelfiberconcretestructureswithoutthenecessityof
performingactualtesting.(Althoughitisgoodpracticetoperformsomephysicaltestingto
calibratethefiniteelementmodel).
UseTablestoSummarizeequations.(SeeTable1)

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
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SummarizeincompleteandconciseformthestateofknowledgeontheSmearedconstitutive
modelsforconcrete.
ThemostcurrentandcompletemodelforprestressedandreinforcedconcreteistheSoftened
MembraneModelorSMM(Hsu,2009).Thisisa2Dmodelwhichappliestomembrane
elementsandbroadlyencompassesallshearmemberssuchaswalls,girderwebs,particularly
deepbeams.
TheindividualSMMconstitutiveequationsaresummarizedinTable2andillustratedinFig.1for
concrete.Theequationscoverthefollowing:
- ConcreteinTension(precrackingandpostcrackingbranches)
- ConcreteinCompression(ascendinganddescendingbranches)
- EquilibriumEquations
- CompatibilityEquations
- PostCrackingHsu/Zhu(Poisson)Ratios
- UniaxialBiaxialTransformationEquations
- EmbeddedMildSteel
- EmbeddedPrestressingTendon
ConstitutiveModelsforConcrete,Discussion:
Constitutivemodelsforconcretearebeinginvestigatedbytwogeneralgroupsofconcrete
researchers.Therearethosemodelsthathavebeendevelopedbymaterialsresearchersand
therearethosemodelsdevelopedbyresearchersattemptingtopredictthebehaviorofwhole
structuralassemblies,includingreinforcing.Thelattergroupofmodelsisgenerallyreferredto
assmearedmodels.Themodelsoverlapandindeedthematerialsmodelsformthebasisofthe
structuresmodels.Itmustbeclearlyunderstoodthatthedistinctivedifferencebetweenthe
twosetsofresearchisthepresenceofreinforcingsteelsuchasdeformedmildsteelrebaror
stressingtendon.Concretewithreinforcingsteelbehavesdifferentlythanconcretewithout
reinforcingsteel.
TheresearchattheUniversityofHoustonwithrespecttoconcreteDr.Hsusconstitutive
models(suchastheSMM)hasfocusedonstructuralassembliesofconcreteandreinforcing

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
Page7of29
steel.Theseassembliesaretestedtodeterminetheconstitutivepropertiesonwhatiscalleda
smearedoraveragebasis.Smearedmodelpropertiesbydefinitionspanmultiplecracksinthe
concrete.Thesmearedconstitutivemodelisamacroorfullscalemodelwhichisusedtomodel
wholestructuralbehavior,particularlyshearbehaviorofreinforcedconcretecontinuumssuch
aswallsbeamwebs,andothermembranestructures.Smearedconstitutivemodelsare
designedandcalibratedtofullscalestructures.
Thematerialsresearchmodelsforconcretefocusonthemircolevelofconcrete.They
generallyconsiderconcreteonthesinglecracklevel,andmayevenmodelthecracks
themselves.
Theoverlapofmodelgroupsoccursattheconcreterebarinterface.Constitutivebond
researchersmodelthebondbetweenconcreteandreinforcing.Thesemodelsformabridge
betweenthematerialsmodelsandthesmearedmodelresearch.
Fig.1SmearedConstitutiveModelforConcrete(Hoffman,2009)

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
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TowhatproblemscanweapplytheseconstitutivemodelsforConcretewithFibers?
FiberConcretehasbeenusedformanyyearstoreducecrackingoffloorslabs.Itisanticipated
thoughthatconcretecontainingsteelfibers(SFC)canbeusedinbeamsandgirderstoreduce
orminimizeshearstirrups.Phase2ofthisresearchisunderwayatUofH(Rao,2009)totest
fullscaleprestressedSFCbridgegirderswithoutshearsteel.Themodelscanalsobeusedto
predictpostpeakbehaviorofanysheardominantstructure,suchaslowriseshearwalls,deep
beams,etc.
ThedistinctivefeatureoftheSMMisthatitcanpredictpostpeakshearbehavior(descending
branchbehavior)becausePoissoneffects(HsuZhuratios)areincludedintheelasticityfunction
thatbridgesbetweenstressandstrain.Postpeakbehaviorofconcretestructuresisimportant
inseismicdesignandresearchwherepredictionofdeflectionandstrengthofdamaged
structuresiscritical.
Thesolutiontotheconstitutive,equilibrium,andcompatibilityequationsrequiresaniterative
algorithminordertogeneratethecompletemonotonicshearstressstraincurve.The
constitutivemodelsareultimatelybeusedinfiniteelementsoftware,suchasOpenSees,to
modelstructuralbehaviorconcretestructures.
BytestingindividualmacroelementsofprestressedSFCintheUniversalElementTesting
machine,onecanlikewisedeterminetheconstitutivelawswithintheSMMframeworkthat
governprestressSFCbehavior.TheselawscanthenbeputintoOpenSeestomodelthe
behaviorofcompleteprestressedSFCstructures.
TheeffectofsteelfibersontheConstitutiveModels:
PleaserefertoTable2foracomparisonandremarksregardingtheeffectofsteelfiberonthe
SMM.
Thesoftenedmembranemodelconsistsoftheconstitutiveequationslistedinthesummary
tablebelow.Theseequationsareboundtogetherandsatisfythenecessaryconditionsof
compatibilityandequilibrium.
Thesmearedconstitutivelawsforconcretecomprisethoseforconcrete,formildsteel,andfor

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
Page9of29
steelprestressingstrand.Thelawsaredepictedgraphicallyinthefiguresbelow.Theeffectsof
fiberaregivenwithrespecttotheFiberFactorwhichisfibervolumetimesfiberaspectratio:
FF=Vf*(lf/Df)
ThetwoconstitutivelawsthatwillbeinfluencedthemostarethepostcrackingTensileStress
curveandtheembeddedmildsteelandembeddedtendoncurves.Themostsignificantthough
isthesteelfiberconcteteintensioncurve.Regularconcreteundergoesasimplesmoothdecay
ofstrengthpostcracking.Steelfiberconcreteontheotherhandexhibitsinitiallyhigher
tensionstiffeningcharacteristicsjustpastcrackingduetothefibersbridgingthecrackwitha
tensileforce.However,ascrackingincreases,thesteelfibersbegintopulloutorotherwisefail.
Thepointwherethisbeginstohappenisroughlyattheyieldstrainofthesteel.Asthefibers
failthebridgingforcedecreasesuntilfinallyadominantcrackopenswheremostofthebridging
fibersfailed.Thebridgingforceistransferredtothetendon.
Theinfluenceofsteelfiberonthetensilebehaviorofconcreteisillustratedinthefigureabove.
Theresultsofprestresedsteelfiberconcretepanels(dashedlines)areplottedconcurrently

Fig. 5.2
1 1
c o relationships of panels TEF-3, 4, and 5
Cracking of the panels
Tensile Strain,
1
c
T
e
n
s
i
l
e

S
t
r
e
s
s

1

,

M
P
a

(
k
s
i
)

Fig. 2

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
Page10of29
withtheresultsforprestressedregularconcrete(solidlines).Thesteelfibersincreasethe
stiffnesspostcrackingandgreatlyimprovetoughness.
Howtheeffectsoffiberarebeingdetermined:
Thepurposeofthecurrenttestingistodeterminetheeffectoffibercontent,specificallyFiber
Factor,ontheconstitutivelawsofprestressedSFC.Todeterminethis,fiveprestressedSFC
panelsweretestedunderthesequentialloading.Thedatainthetwoloadingstageswere
recordedseparately.Inthefirststageoftensileloading,allfivepanelswereusedtoobtainthe
tensileconstitutivelawsofSFCandprestressingtendons.Inthesecondstagecompressive
loading,thesofteningcoefficientsofprestressedSFCweredeterminedasrelatedtothe
perpendiculartensilestrains,andfiberfactor.InthefirstseriesofpanelsTEF1,2,and3,the
prestresslevelandfiberaspectratiowasheldconstantwhilethefiberpercentagewas
increased.Thetensilestraintargetsrangedfrom0.005to0.016.Wang(2006)showedthatthe
softeningcoefficient, , ,decreaseswithincreasedtensilestrain,
1
c ,inprestressedconcrete.
TheSFCresultswerenormalizedwithrespecttotensilestrainleveltoshowtheeffectof
softeningwithrespecttofiberfactor.
Thetensiletargetstrainsforthesequentialloadpanels(TEF)werenotdesignedtoexamine
ultimatetensilepropertiesoftheSFC.Fortunately,panelTEF5wastested(inadvertently)until
tensilefailureofthestrand,sothereisdataavailableforthisrangeoftensilestrainforSFC.
Forproportionalloading,itisanticipatedthatthesimultaneousapplicationofcompressive
forceinconjunctionwithtensileforceswillincreasethepulloutcapacityofthesteelfibers,
thusenhancingtheirperformance.Yin(1989)hasshownthatthisisthecaseforbiaxial
compressioncompressionloadingandHu(2003)preparedananalyticmodelforcompression
tensionloading.Thisfactorwillshowupinf1(x)asafunctionofthecompressiveforceor
strain.

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
Page11of29
Table1ConstitutiveEquationComparisonforPlainConcreteandFiberConcrete
Constitutive
Property
EquationforPlainConcrete EquationforFiberConcrete Remarks
Plain
Concrete,or
Fiberin
Uniaxial
Tension
AscendingBranch,GopalandShah,1985
DescendingBranch,GopalandShah,1985
1.01
SeeTable2,Eq.17&18forconstitutiveequationforFiberConcreteintension
Eq.1
Eq.2

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
Page12of29
Constitutive
Property
Plain
Concreteor
fiber
Concretein
Uniaxial
Compression
Hogenstad,1952andStussi,1932
k1rangesfrom0.7to0.9
eurangesfrom0.003to0.005
SeeTable2,Eq.21,22forconstitutiveequationforFiberConcreteinCompression.
TheHognestad/StussiCurveiswhatisusedtodayforconcrete
design.Thecurveisdefinedbykeyparametersk1,k2,andk3.
Itismoreamethodforapplyinganassumedstressstrain
distributionorgradienttoaconcretebendingmember,as
opposedtobeingatruemodelrelatingstresstostrain.
Plain
Concreteor
fiber
Concretein
Uniaxial
Compression
Desayi,1964(equationforthefullcurve)
Desayiequationisforthefullascendinganddescendingstress
straincurve.Thedescendingbranchinflectionpointisnotwell
captured.
Eq.3

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
Page13of29
Constitutive
Property
Plain
Concreteor
fiber
Concretein
Uniaxial
Compression
Wang1978(equationforthefullcurve)
TheWangequationisforthefullascendinganddescending
stressstraincurve.Thisequationdoesabetterjobat
capturingthedescendingbranchinflectionpointthanthe
Desayiequation.
Plain
Concreteor
fiber
Concretein
Biaxial
Compression
Gerstle,1981
Hu2003
where,
Andkappavaluesarematerialconstantsdeterminedfromaexperimentaltestcurvefor
anyspecificfiberconcrete
Huutilizesasinglesmoothbiaxialfailurecurve.Requirestest
datapoints.Modelissolvediterativly.
Eq.4
Eq.5
Eq.6

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
Page14of29
Constitutive
Property
Plain
Concreteor
fiber
Concretein
Biaxial
Compression
Chen,1994
Tan,1994Biaxialstressstraincurveisgivenby
where,
,
,
,and
,finally,
wherenu1,nu0,l,r,Vfandtauare
propertiesofthefiberswiththeconcretematrix.
Tanequationsdonotrequiretestpoints,unlikeHu.
Eq.7
Eq.8
Eq.9

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
Page15of29
Constitutive
Property
Tan1994furtherdefinesthefailureenvelopeby:
where,
and,
Eq.10

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
Page16of29
Constitutive
Property
Plain
Concreteor
fiber
Concretein
Triaxial
Compression
Warkne1975
where:
Eq.11

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
Page17of29
Table2SoftenedMembraneModel(SMM)SmearedConstitutiveEquationComparisonforConcreteandSteelFiberConcrete
Constitutive
Property
SMMEquationforReinforcedConcrete(RC),includingprestressed ProposedSMMEquationforSteelFiberConcrete(SFC),includingprestressed Remarks
Concrete,or
SFCinTension
ForSFC,thereisatensionstiffeningeffectthat
occursduringStageT2.Afterthereinforcing
steelyields,therebeginsasofteningregionwhen
thefibersbridgingthecracksbegintopullout.
ThiseffectwasnotmodeledbyMansour(2005)
forsequentialloading.Korb(2006)attemptedto
modelthisbehaviorfromtheresultsofhis
proportionalloadpaneltests,butthecausewas
notrealizedandtheequationusedisawkward.
ThusstageT2ismodifiedandStageT3isadded
toaccountforfiberfailureacrossthecrack
bridge.StageT3willtendtozeroasstrain
increases.EquationsproposedbyMansour
(2005)accountforincreasesductilityand
stiffnessoftheSFC,butdonottendtozerowith
increasingstrain.
Functionsf1(F)andF2(F)arefunctionsofthe
FiberFactor,F=(Lf/Df)Vf
ProperunderstandingofSFCintensioniscrucial
tobeingabletoproperlymodelitandpredict
experimentalcurveswithanalyticfunctions.
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.005 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
C
o
n
c
r
e
t
e
S
t
r
e
s
s
(
M
P
a
)
ConcreteStrain(mm/mm)
TEF3,ConcreteStressvsStrain(ksi)
ExperimentalResults,1.5%
SteelFibers
ExistingTheory(NoFibers)
Stage UC
Stage T1
StageT2
Stage T3
Eq.12
Eq.13
Eq.14
Eq.16
Eq.17
Eq.18
Eq.15

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
Page18of29
Constitutive
Property
Concreteor
SFCin
Compression
SofteningforRC:
SofteningforpresteressedSFC:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 9 . 0
1
s ' =
p c
W f f f f F f | c ,
o
,where
( ) F F f 2 . 0 1+ =
SFCwilleffectthedescendingbranchoftheSFC
incompressioncurve,stageC2.Functionf2(F)
willbeusedtoadjusttheshapeoftheparabolic
curvetofittheexperimentaldata.
Additionally,theexperimentaldatashowsthat
increasingthefiberfactor,increasesthe
softeningcoefficient(increasesthepeak
compressiveconcretestress).Thesoftening
factorwillthusinfluencetheshapeofbothStage
C1andC2oftheSFCincompressioncurve.
Eq.20
Eq.19
Eq.22
Eq.21

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
Page19of29
Constitutive
Property
MildSteel
)) ( 2 93 . 0 (
5
F f B
y n
= c c

SteelFibershavetwoeffectsonembeddedsteel.
Firstitlowerstheapparentyieldstressand
second,itstiffensthepostyieldbehavior,which
forthebarebaristypicallyperfectlyplastic.
ThefactorsF5(F)andF6(F)areusedtoadjustthe
apparentyieldofsteelandpostyieldslope.
Thesefactorsareobtainedfromthe
experimentalresults.
Embedded
Prestressing
Strand
TheprestressingtendonembeddedinSFC
displaysstifferpostyieldmodulusthanconcrete
withoutsteelfiber.Assuch,functionf4(F)willbe
usedtoadjustthepostyieldstiffnessandwillbe
fittedfromtheexperimentalresultsofthe
sequentialloadtests.
Becauseoftheshapeofthekneeofthetendon
stressstraincurve,theyieldstressisnotawell
definedpointasitiswithmildsteel.Assuchthe
apparentyieldstressfortendonembeddedin
SFCshouldnotrequiremodificationtothe0.7fpu
apparentyieldvaluecurrentlybeingusedfor
tendonembeddedinregularconcrete.
Equilibrium
SameasRC
Eq.23
Eq.25
Eq.24
Eq.27
Eq.28
Eq.26
Eq.30
Eq.29
Eq.31
Eq.32
Eq.35
Eq.34
Eq.33

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
Page20of29
Constitutive
Property
Compatibility
SameasRC
Poisson(Hsu
Zhu)
TheHsuZhuratiosarepresumedtobethesameasRC,however,literaturereviewfortestsonun
reinforcedSFC(plainSFC)indicatesthatSFCtendstobeincreaseconfinementandthiscould
influence(reduce)thePoissonratioofplainSFC.However,panelcracking(reinforcedconcreteand
reinforcedSFC)isusuallysoextensiveatthetargettensilestrains(usually1%ormore)thatthatthe
effectmaynotbesignificant.
ForSFC,thiscould haveeffectonpeakandpost
peakshearbehavior.Ifexperimentalpeakshear
strainsaredifficulttocorrelatewiththeanalytic
model,thentheHsuZhurelationmayneed
refinement.
Uniaxialbiaxial
transformation
2
21 12
12
1
21 12
1
1 1
1
c
v v
v
c
v v
c
= ,
2
21 12
1
21 12
21
2
1
1
1
c
v v
c
v v
v
c
= ,
2 2
21
2
2
1 2
2
2
cos sin 2
2
sin cos o o
o c o c c + + =
,
2 2
21
2
2
1 2
2
2
cos sin 2
2
cos sin o o
o c o c c + =
t
.
TheuniaxialbiaxialstrainrelationshipsarethesameasforRC Notethatthestressandstrainsinthe
compatibilityandequilibriumequationsare
biaxial.Thekeytoarelativelysimplesolution
algorithmisthisstraightforwardtransformation
betweenuniaxialandbiaxialstrain.
Eq.37
Eq.38
Eq.36
Eq.41
Eq.40
Eq.39
Eq.45
Eq.44
Eq.43
Eq.42

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
Page21of29
ConcreteMixtureswithNanoparticles
Whatarethetypesofnanoparticlesusedinconcrete?
Althoughtherearemanytypesofnanoparticlesthatcanbeaddedtoconcrete,researchhas
generallyfocusesonthreetypesofparticles(Chung,2004,Hui2007,Gao2009):
a) Nanosilica(SiO
2
)
b) Nanotitaniates(TiO
2
)
c) Nanocarbonfibers
NanosilicatesaresphericalparticlesofSiO
2
withadiameterontheorderof10
9
m.Nanosilcates
arepopularbecausetheyarereadilyavailableastheyareabyproductoftheextractionof
metallicsilicaandaluminafromelectricarcfurnaces.
Nanocarbonfibersareextremelyshortlengthofcarbonfiberwithdiametersontheorderof
10
9
mandaspectratiosrangingfrom(L/d)of50200.
Propertiesofnanoparticleconcretethatarebeingstudiedinclude:
a) IncreasedCompressivestrength
b) ImprovedTensiletoughness,strength,andfatiguebehavior
c) ReducedCreep
d) Electricalresistivity,particularlyfornanaocarbonfibers.
Whatfactorsmustbeconsideredindesigningconcretemixtureswithnanoparticles?
Factorstobeconsideredindesigningmixesinclude:
a) Dispersionduetohighspecificsurfaceelectricalcharge
b) Effectofdispersantsontheconcretemix
c) Influenceofflockingoraggregationofnanoparticlesandformationofinclusionsor
weakpockets
d) Increaseindensityaffectsstrengthandcreepfornanosilcate.
e) Increaseinwaterdemandvs.strengthandworkability(seediscussionitem3)

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
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Dispersion:
Tominimizeaggregationofnanoparticlesinthecementmatrixwhereinclusionsorweakness
couldform,nanoparticleconcreteadditivesmustbethoroughlydispersedthoroughlyand
uniformlydispersedthroughoutthecementpasteduringmixing.
Dispersantsandspecialmultistepmixingtechniquesandsequencesarerequiredformixing
nanoparticlesandfibersinconcreteduetotheirhighspecificsurfaceenergy.Highspeedpre
mixingofsmallbatchesofnanoparticlesorfibersinspecialblendershelpswithdispersion,as
doestheuseofchemicalsurfactants,suchasliquidsoapandsuperplasticizers.Sonicationis
anothermethodtodispersenanoparticles.Soncationistheuseofsoundorultrasoundenergy
toagitateandmixthenanoparticlesbybreakingtheinterparticleattraction.Theunclumped
particlesarethenfreetodispersewithinthewaterandultimatelytheconcretepaste.
Jo(2007),forexample,useda5stepprocedureformixinga50cubicinchbatchofnanosilicate
concrete:
1) Mixnanoparticleswithwaterathighspeedfor1minute(120rpm)
2) Cementwasaddedandmixedatmediumspeed(80rpm)for30seconds
3) Sandwasthenadded,gradually,atmediumspeed
4) Superplasticizerwasaddedandstirredathighspeedfor30seconds
5) Themixturewasallowedtorestfor90seconds,thenmixedforanadditionalminuteat
highspeed.
Creep:
Amorecreepresistantconcrete(longterm)isdesirable;however,currentconcretedesign
codeswouldneedtobeextendedforapplicationswherecreepresistantconcreteisused.Long
termcreepinfluencesresidualsteelforcesinprestressedandposttensionedconcrete
structuressignificantly.Serviceabilityconsiderationswouldbeimproved.Particularattention,
forexample,wouldneedtobepaidtoACIsect.18.4.Forexample,section18.4.2limitson
stressforstructureswithrelativelyhighsustainedserviceloadingscouldbeincreasedfor
structuresusinglowcreepconcrete.

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
Page23of29
Whatarethemechanismsthatwillexplainthemodifiedbehaviorofnanoparticleconcrete?
Mechanismsthatexplainnanoparticlebehavior,particularlysilicates,revolvearoundthe
increasedhomogeneityofCa(OH)
2
crystalgrowthduringhydration.Hydrateproducts
crystallizearoundananoparticlekernelduringhydration.Iftheappropriatecontentof
nanoparticleswithrespecttohydrateproductsisincorporatedinthemix,thehydratecrystal
growthwilltendtobecontrolledandtheresultingproductwillbemorehomogeneous.This
homogeneitymakesthecementmatrixmorecompactandthusimprovesdensityandreduces
porosity.Thisdenser,moreuniformmatrixhelpsexplaintheimprovedflexuralandfatigue
propertiesfoundbyresearchers(Li2002).
ThehardnessofthehydratedCa(OH)
2
crystalshasbeenstudiedbyUlm(2009)inorderto
determinehowcreepbehaviorisinfluenced.Thecontrolledgrowthcrystalsaredenserand
thusexhibitbettercreepperformance.Becauseofthemoreuniformcrystalgrowtharoundthe
nanokernel,porestypicallyfilledwithwaterarenowfilledwiththesenanocrystals.Themore
denselypackedcrystalsinhibitCSHmovementovertime,thusreducingthemovement
associatedwithcreep.
Nanosilciaincreasedthewaterdemandofthecementpast.Whenthemixisdesignedwiththe
appropriateamountofwaterandsuperplasticizer,thisincreasedhydrationorpozzolanic
reactionofthenanosilicaextenderisthemechanismthatimprovesthecompressivestrength.
Designingamixusingnanosilciarequirescarefulattentiontowatercontent.Duetothespecific
surfaceareaoftheSiO2nanoparticlesthepozolanicreactionismoreeffectiveandefficient
thanwithlargerparticlesofthesamematerial.HighernanoSiO
2
contentmustbe
accompaniedbyadjustmentstothewatercontentandsuperplasticizer(Jo2007).Thehigher
hydrationofthenanoparticlesrequiredadditionalwatertoavoiddesiccation,howevertoo
muchwaterreducedstrength.Therightbalanceofwaterandsuperplasticizerisrequiredwhen
designingnanosilciamixes.
Themechanismbywhichcarbonnanofibersoperatetoimprovetheflexuraltoughnessand
tensilecharacteristicsofconcrete(Chen1992)areverymuchdifferentfromthechemical
interactionbehaviorofnanosilicateparticles.Theindividualfibersacttoholdthemortar
matrixtogetherlongerbybridgingmicrocracks.Nanocarbonfibersbondtosomeextenttothe
cement,butimprovedchemicalbondingcanbeachievedbytreatingthefiberswithozonegas.

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
Page24of29
Thisincreasesthesurfaceoxygenconcentrationonthenanocarbonfibersandincreases
wetabilityandthusthedegreeoffiberdispersion(Chung,2003).
Whataretheimportantfactorsthathavetobeconsideredfortheconstitutivemodelsfor
nanoconcretematerials?
Factorstoconsiderwhendevelopingconstitutivemodelsofnanoconcreteincludethe
modificationofthecompressivestressstraincurve.TestsatUofHoncarbonfiber
nanoconcretespecimens(Gao,2009),forexample,indicateincreasedductilityincompression
whencomparedtoregularhighstrengthconcretes.Thesetestswereperformedwithcarbon
nanofibercontentsrangingfrom1%to2.5%byvolume.
Thesmearedtensilestressstraincurvealsoneedstobedevelopedfornanoconcretesduetoits
increasedtoughnessovernormalconcrete(Zhou,2010).
Themodificationtotheexistingsetofconstitutiveequationsfornormalconcrete(eg.,the
SoftenedMembraneModelframework)wouldlikelybestraightforward.Itwouldrequire
materialstesttodeterminetheconstitutivelaws,butthegeneralstructureofeachconstitutive
equationandsolutionmethodwouldgenerallybethesame.
Howwillyoudevelopaconstitutivemodelfortheseconcretematerials?
Todevelopconstitutivemodels,uniaxialcompressiontestsmustbeperformedtodetermine
thenanoconcretesstressstraincurve(Gao,2009).Specifically,strength,peakandmaximum
strains,ductilityandinparticulartheshapeofthedescendingbranchofthestressstraincurve
needtobedetermined.Thiswouldbetheunsoftenedcharacteristicstressstraincurveofthe
nanoconcrete.Todeterminehowtensilestraininfluencesthepeakcompressiveperformance,
thesofteningfactorswouldneedtobedeterminedfromtestsintheUniversalElementTesting
MachineintheTCHsuStructuralLab(Zhou,2010).
Sincenanoparticlesimprovefatigueandflexuralstrength,additionaltestingneedstobedone
todevelopthetensilepropertiesofthematerial.Thepostcrackingsmearedstressstraincurve
needstobedetermined.Sincetensileductilityisenhanced,theshapeandareaunderofthe

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
Page25of29
smearedtensilestraincurvewilldifferfromthatofregularconcrete(largerareaunderthe
curve).Inordertodeterminethissmearedcurve,onewillneedtotestspecimensreinforced
withrebarandloadedinuniaxialtension.Tensileloadwouldbeappliedtorebarembeddedin
andprojectingfromtheendsofprismaticnanoconcretespecimens.Foilstraingagesshouldbe
appliedatintervalsalongthelengthoftherebartobetterdeterminetheconstitutivecurvefor
theembeddedrebar.

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
Page26of29
ConstitutiveModelReferences:
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Belarbi, A. and Hsu, T. T. C. (1995), Constitutive Laws of Softened Concrete in Biaxial TensionCompression,
StructuralJournaloftheAmericanConcreteInstitute,Vol.92,No.5,pp.562573.
Chen,W.F.ConstitutiveEquationsforEngineeringMaterials,Vol.1:ElasticityandModelling,ElsevierPublications,
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Desayi,P.andKrishnan,S.,Equationforthestressstraincurveofconcrete,ACIJ.,Vol.61(1964)345350.
Dhonde,H.B.,Mo,Y.L.,andHsu,T.C.(2006),FiberReinforcementinPrestressedConcreteBeams,Texas
DepartmentofTransportationReport04819,March2006.
Gerstle,K.H.Simpleformulationofbiaxialconcretebehaviour,ACIJournal,78(1981)6268.
Gopalaratnam,Shah,SofteningResponseofPlainConcreteinDirectTension,ACIJournal,MayJune1985.
Hoffman(2009),ConstitutivePropertiesofSteelFiberConcrete,ProceedingsoftheOctober2009ASCETexas
SectionFallMeeting,Houston,TX.
Hognestad,FundamentalConceptsinUltimateLoadDesign,JournaloftheAmericanconcreteInstitute,V23,June
1952.
Hsu,T.T.C.(1993),UnifiedTheoryofReinforcedConcrete,CRCPress,Inc.,BocaRaton,FL,336pp.
Hsu,T.T.C.(2009),UnifiedTheoryofReinforcedConcrete,2
nd
.edition,CRCPress,Inc.BocaRaton,FL.

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Page27of29
Hsu,T.T.C.andZhang,L.X.(1996),TensionStiffeninginReinforcedConcreteMembraneElements,Structural
JournaloftheAmericanConcreteInstitute,Vol.93,No.1,pp.108115.
Hsu,T.T.C.andZhu,R.R.H.(2002),SoftenedMembraneModelforReinforcedConcreteElementsinShear,
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Hu,Day,Dux,BiaxialFailureModelforFiberReinforcedConcrete,JournalofMaterialsinCivilEngineering,
November/December2003.
Kupfer,BehaviorofConcreteUnderBiaxialStress,ACIJournal,August1969.
Limsuwan,K.(2006).ShearofSteelFiberMembraneElementsMastersThesis,
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Houston,TX.
Pang, X. B. and Hsu, T. T. C. (1995), Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Membrane Elements in Shear, Structural
Rao(2009),ShearPropertiesofSteelFiberConcreteGirders,ProceedingsoftheOctober2009ASCETexasSection
FallMeeting,Houston,TX.
Stussi,F.,ItUeberdieSicherheitdeseinfachbewehrtenEisenbetonRechteckbalkens,Publications,International
AssociationforBridgeandStructuralEngineering,Vol.1,Zurich,April,1932,pp.487495.
Tan,Murugappan,Paramasivam,ConstitutiveRelationforSteelFibreConcreteUnderBiaxialCompression,Cement
andComposites,Vol.16,1994

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Thomas,Ramaswamy,MechanicalPropertiesofSteelFibreReinforcedConcrete,ASCEJournalofMaterialsinCivil
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Vecchio,F.J.(2000),DisturbedStressFieldModelforReinforcedConcrete:Formulation,JournalofStructural
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Vecchio,F.J.(2001),DisturbedStressFieldModelforReinforcedConcrete:Implementation,JournalofStructural
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Zhu,R.R.H.,andHsu,T.T.C.(2002),PoissonEffectofReinforcedConcreteMembraneElements,Structural

NormanS.Hoffman,PE
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NanoparticleReferences
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AmericanSocietyofCivilEngineersEarthandSpaceConference,Honolulu,HA,2010

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