Supernovae I

Gerg Popping o 6th February 2008

Changes in the night sky have always called for explanation. Chinese astronomers already saw a supernova in the Crab nebula in 1054. Although these supernovae have been visible with the naked eye for thousands of years, the era of supernova research began only in 1885, with the discovery of a nova near the center of the Andromeda galaxy by Hartwig. Nowadays the supernovae are devided into categories by their spectra, SN Ia, SN Ib/c and SN II. This paper will discuss the current place of research on SN Ia and SN Ib/c. The main part of the paper will handle about the general properties, progenitors and explosion models of SN Ia. At the end the current favored model for SN Ib and SN Ic will be discussed shortly.

General properties of SN Ia

The classifation of supernovae is based on spectroscopic features. SN I are dened by the absence of hydrogen absorption lines. Some SN Ia show the presence of strong silicon lines, these are classied as SN Ia. The spectral properties of the majority of SN Ia are homogeneous, showing only small spectroscopic and photometric dierences. The spectra of SN Ia contain lines of Si, Ca, S and O at maximum light (Fig. 1), indicating that the outer layers of the ejecta are composed of intermediate mass elements. Fe II lines dominate the spectra after roughly 2 weeks. It is very interesting that the two most abundant elements of our universe, hydrogen and helium, have not been detected in the SN Ia spectra and that there is no indication for radio emission from SN Ia. SN Ia appear to be arrangable in a one-parameter sequence according to explosion strength. The weaker explosions are less luminous, redder and have a faster declining light curve and slower ejecta velocities than the more energetic events. From the general properties requirements can be found for wich every SN Ia explosion mechanism has to satisfy [1]: 1. Agreement of the ejecta composition and velocity with observed spectra and light curves. A substantial amount of high-velocity intermediate mass elements has to be formed in the outer layers. 2. Robustness of the explosion model. The standard model should not give rise to widely dierent outcomes depending on ne tuning of the model or initial parameters. This is to account for the homogeneity of normal SN Ia. 1

3. Intrinsic variability. The model should contain at least one parameter that can plausibly account for the observed sequence of explosion strength. 4. Correlation with progenitor system. The explosion strength parameter must be connected with the state of the progenitor.

Figure 1: Spectrum of SN1992A [20]

Progenitor systems

There is not a single case known where we have direct information for the progenitor of SN Ia. This is not surprising, given that the progenitors of SN Ia are most likely faint compact white dwarfs and not easily detected red or blue supergiants. First the major constraints that must be imposed on the progenitor systems will be discussed and then in some detail the favored candidates.

2.1

Constraints on type Ia progenitors

As mentioned earlier SN Ia are dened by the absence of absorption lines of hydrogen near maximum light. Beside that, there also is a Si II absorption line with a rest wavelength of 6335 near maximum light. The rst requires that A the exploding star has no or at most 0.1 M of hydrogen in the atmosphere. The second implies that some nuclear processing takes place and that during the explosion products of nuclear burning are ejected. Mean velocities of the ejecta indicate fusing of about 1 M of carbon and oxygen into Fe group elements or intermediate-mass elements such as Si or Ca as can be seen in gure 1. The presence of UV ux, the width of the peak of the early light curve and radioactive-decay models tting the emission very well all point toward compact stars with radii of less than 10,000 km. The typical SN Ia spectrum changes from being dominated by the lines of intermediate-mass nuclei to being dominated by Fe II after about 2 weeks. This adds evidence to the interpretation that SN Ia are indeed thermonuclear explosions of compact star, as a Co III feature is only identied at later stages. This cancels out the cores of stars with main sequence masses near 6-8 M as potential candidates. The energetics of the explosions and the spectra seem to exclude He white dwarfs because such dwarfs would undergo violent detonations [2]. Most of the SN Ia show similarities in the peak luminosities, light curves and spectra. The dispersion in the peak blue and visual brightness is just of the order 0.2-0.3 mag. This indicates a homogeneous class of progenitors. This observational fact seems to single out Chandrasekhar-mass white dwarfs as good progenitors for SN Ia. However, there are also dierences among various SN Ia, this may indicate that this simple interpretation is not correct. Nevertheless, the observational ndings are consistent with the assumption that thermonuclear disruptions of white dwarfs, with C+O white dwarfs as the most favored model, cause a type Ia supernova. The history and nature of the white dwarf prior to the explosion and the physics of the thermonuclear burning during the event can explain the diversity among progenitors.

2.2

Binary systems

It is the understanding that progenitors of SN Ia are C+O white dwarfs in binary systems. The merger of two white dwarfs and the accretion of matter from one star to the other are the two most favored progenitor systems. The required homogeneity may be, beside the lack of observational evidence, an argument against two merging white dwarfs as progenitors. It is dicult to see how two dwarfs with dierent mass, composition and angular momentum, impact parameters etc, will always lead to the same burning conditions that a

SN Ia has. Beside that, investigations of white dwarfs seem to indicate that some mergers will cause a gravitational collapse rather than a thermonuclear disruption [13]. Concluding, mergers might account for some peculiar SNe Ia, but not for the bulk. Single-degenerate models are in general favored today. They are low-mass white dwarfs accreting matter from the companion star. Hydrogen owing from the companion star onto the surface of the electron-degenerate white dwarf burns to helium and adds to the mass of the white dwarf. The main problem of this track has always been that nearly all possible accretion rates can be ruled out by strong arguments. White dwarfs accreting hydrogen at a low rate lose more mass in the outburst than they have accreted prior to it and undergo nova eruptions [4]. At moderate accretion rates, a degenerate layer of helium is thought to form which might ash and could give rise to sub-Chandrasekhar explosions. Still higher accretion rates can lead to quiet hydrostatic burning of H and He, but these systems should be so bright that they can easily be detected. Very high accretion rates would form an extended H-rich red giant envelope around the white dwarf with debris not seen in the explosions. So it is uncertain if white dwarfs accreting hydrogen from a companion star can reach the Chandrasekhar-mass. Some of the mentioned arguments may be questioned, however. A class of binary systems has been discovered, Supersoft X-ray Sources, which can be interpreted best as white dwarfs accreting hydrogen-rich matter at such a high rate that H burns steadily. If these white dwarfs could retain the accreted gas, they might be candidate for SN Ia progenitors. Secondly, the minimum accretion rate at which hydrogen burns quietly without a nova outburst is uncertain. It also has been argued that the interaction of a wind from the white dwarf with the accretion ow from lobe-lling, low mass red giant may open a wider path to SN Ia. In the next part rst the explosion model for a single-degenerate white dwarf accreting mass will be discussed, then the model for a sub-Chandresekhar mass white dwarf and nally the model for merging white dwarfs.

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3.1

Chandresekhar Explosion models

Flame ignition

As the white dwarf grows close to MCHAN because of the accretion of matter from a companion star (Fig. 2, left side), the energy near the core is governed by plasmon neutrino losses and compressional heating. The loss of neutrino increases with growing central density until the density reaches approximately 2 109 g cm3 [5]. At this point electron screening of nuclear reactions enhances the energy reaction rate until it starts to exceed the neutrino losses. This is the beginning of the thermonuclear runaway. As result of the increasing core temperature, the thermonuclear burning timescale b drops rapidly. At T 7 108 K, b and the timescale for internally heated convection c become comparable. This indicates that convective plumes burn at the same rate as they circulate. At T 1.5109 K, b becomes extremely small compared with c . An equilibrium between energy generation and transport is found on small length scales where thermal conduction by degenerate electrons balances nuclear energy input. A ame is born.

3.2

Possible Detonations

The nuclear burning during the explosion is conned to a microscopically thin layer that propagates conductively as subsonic deagration or by a shock compression as supersonic detonation. In the non-linear regime, the burning fronts are stabilized by forming a cellular structure or become fully turbulent. The total burning rate increases as a result of ame surface growth. A thin reaction zone forms at the interface between burned and unburned material, when the fuel exceeds a critical temperature Tc . This interface propagates into the surroundig fuel by either a deagration or a detonation. The heat of the burning products creates an overpressure. When this pressure

Figure 2: Accretion of matter from the companion star and the explosion [19].

is suciently high, a hydrodynamical shock wave forms that ignites the fuel by compressional heating. Now we have a detonation, a self-sustaining combustion front that propagates by shock heating. A detonation generally moves supersonically and therefore it does not allow the unburned medium to expand before it is burned. If the overpressure is too weak, the temperature gradient at the fuel-ashes interface steepens until an equilibrium between heat difussion and energy generation is reached. Now we have a combustion front that consists of a diusion zone that heats up the fuel to Tc . This front is followed by a reaction layer where the fuel is consumed and energy is generated. This is a deagration or ame and moves subsonically with respect to the unburned material. Flames may be, unlike detonations, strongly aected by turbulent velocity uctuations of the fuel. In the following dierent types of deagration and detonations will be discussed. 3.2.1 Prompt Detonation

First hydrodynamical simulations of an exploding MCHAN white dwarf assumed that the thermonuclear combustion commences as a detonation wave. As there is no time to expand prior to being burned, the C+O material in transformed almost completely into iron-peak nuclei and fails to produce signicant amount ofs of intermediate mass elements. This is in contradiction with the observations [6, 7] and therefore the prompt detonation is ruled out as a canditate for SN Ia explosion mechanism. Thus the constraints rule out a prompt detonation and therefore the ame has to start as a deagration. 3.2.2 Pure Turbulent Deagration

Once the ame is ignited, it becomes highly aected as a result of turbulence produced by ame instabilities. Until it transitions into a detonation or is quenched by expansion it continues to burn through the star. 1D simulations show very good agreement with observations, if the ame accelerates up to 30% of the soundspeed. Unfortunatelly, they also show an overproduction of neutron-rich iron-group isotopes. Improved models with all free parameters xed by independent simulations show better results, but short on intermediate mass elements. Assuming that the turbulent ame speed drives up to 30% of the soundspeed, 1D pure deagration models show promising results. 3.2.3 Delayed Detonation

In experiments turbulent deagrations sometimes can be observed to undergo spontaneous transitions to detonations (deagration-detonation transition, DDT). It was suggested that DDTs also occur in the late fase of a MCHAN explosion. This scenario could explain the initial slow burning required to preexpand the star, followed by a fast large combustion that provides the observed high-velocity intermediate-mass elements [8]. The transition works like the following. After ignition burning bubbles grow by ame propagation and rise toward the surface of the white dwarf during the deagration phase. Turbulence is generated at large bubbles and at the same

time the density is lowest at the outermost parts of the star making the ame broadest here. This is the place were the transition to detonation takes place (upper panel Fig. 3).

Figure 3: Initiation and propagation of detonation wave (white isosurface). The deagration wave is showed as blue isosurface, the extend of the star is indicated by the central plane [14]. In most models the detonation cannot cross ash region and therefore wraps around the deagration structure as it burns towards the center of the star. While the detonation wave is burning toward the center of the star, the star keeps expanding and the deagration continues in regions not reached by the detonation (center and lower panel Fig. 3). Therefore the density of the fuel ahead of the detonation wave drops quikly after passing the white dwarfs center [14]. In the model of gure 3 the burning stops shortly before the detonation reaches the far side of the deagration structure. 1D delayed detonation simulations have demonstrated excellent ts to SN Ia spectra and light curves and reasonable nucleosynthesis product with regard to solar abundances. In the best models, the initial ame phase has a velocity of approximately 1% of the sound speed and a transition to detonation takes place at a density of DDT 107 g cm3 [9]. The parameter that counts for the explosion strength is the nuclear energy DDT release in the deagration phase before the DDT, Enuc . It accounts for the density of the star and thus determines which fraction of fuel is available for the 7

Figure 4: Final distribution of elements in a DDT model as a function of velocity, after radioactive decay [15]. detonation. The kinetic energy is larger in models releasing less nuclear energy. Recent 3D simulations of delayed detonations show great prospects as it comes to the formation of high-velocity intermediate-mass elements. As can be seen in Fig. 4 high-velocity intermediate-mass elements, Fe, Ni, Si are formed by the explosion. The simulations arent satisfactionary yet though. The problems are low kinetic energy and large mass of unburned carbon and oxygen [15]. However, the delayed detonation models do show better results than the pure deagration ones and there are still many aspects of the model poorly known. Therefore, further research on delayed detonation models is recommended.

Sub-Chandrasekhar Mass and Merging White Dwarfs Models

Although not as favored as Chandrasekhar-Mass models, simulations have been made for Sub-Chandrasekhar Mass models and Merging White Dwarfs too. Both of them will be discussed shortly.

4.1

Sub-Chandrasekhar Mass Models

C + O white dwarfs below the Chandrasekhar mass do not reach the critical density and temperature for explosive carbon burning by accretion. They need to have an external explosion trigger. The suggestion was made that detonations in the accreted He layer can drive a strong enough shock into the C + O core to initiate a carbon detonation [10]. 1D and 2D models show nucleosynthesis and light curves very consistent with SN Ia, especially the subluminous ones. These models however, appear to be challenged both spectroscopically and photometrically. Sub-Chandrasekhar progenitors are too blue at maximum brightness and their light curve rises and declines to steeply. Even worse, the models predict signatures of high-velocity Ni en He, rather than Si and Ca, which is in strong disagreement with observations [11]. Should further research conclude that spectra, colors and light curves are less dominated by Ni and He, then sub-Chandrasekhar mass models could be an attractive class of candidates for subluminous SN Ia.

4.2

Merging White Dwarfs

The strength of merging white dwarfs is the natural explanation it gives for the lack of hydrogen in SN Ia . Furthermore there is some evidence for the existence of double degenerate binary systems [12], although not much. Spherical symmetric models of merged detonating systems, parameterized as C + O white dwarfs with thick envelopes, give reasonable agreement with SN Ia light curves. Unfortunately 3D simulations show problems with accretion rates a few times larger than 106 M year1 . The outcome of these simulations is an inward propagating ame that converts the star into O + Ne + Mg. This star is gravitationally unstable and undergoes an accretion-induced collapse to form a neutron star [13]. Summarizing, if the merging white dwarf scenario can overcome the problem of avoiding an accretion-induced collapse, it can be considered a serious SN Ia candidate.

SN type Ib and Ic

As mentioned earlier SN I are dened by the lack of hydrogen absorption lines in their spectrum. The dierence between SN Ia and SN Ib/c is the presence of silicon lines in the spectrum of SN Ia. The dierence between SN Ib and Ic is the lack of helium in the spectrum of SN Ic. Lightcurves of SN Ib/c show a dip during the rst 4 days after explosion after which the SN steadily raises to maximum light (Fig. 5)[16]. Similar lines have been observed in SN II. For these it is thought that the dip corresponds to a phase of adiabatic cooling. The following brightening is due to the energy deposited by the radioactive decay of 56 N i 56 Co 56 F e. This similarity suggests that the progenitor of a SN Ib/c a massive progenitor is that undegoes core collapse. Simulations of SN Ib/c consisting a core collapse by Woosley et al. [17] show same results as observations, indicating that the core collapse is a good model for SN Ib/c. This is dierent from the SN Ia model that can be described by thermonuclear burning. The question remains where the hydrogen went. The most favored model consists of core collapse of massive stars that lose their outer H envelope before explosion. A good candidate for this model is a Wolf-Rayet star. These stars undergo strong stellar winds and lose their outer layers [18].

Figure 5: U B V R I z lightcurves of SN 1999ex [16].

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Conclusion

Signicant recent progress has made realistic models for the explosion/combustion of SN I. SN Ia explode due to thermonuclear burning. Models show that subChandrasekhar-mass and merging white dwarfs models seem to face problems as progenitors for SN Ia. Chandrasekhar-mass models on the other hand show good results. Deagration waves in Chandrasekhar-mass C + O white dwarfs, accreting matter from a companion red giant, can lead to explosions. A deagration to detonation transition seems likely, as it produces high-velocity intermediatemass elements. 3D models of delayed detonations arent perfect yet, but show great prospective. More research on these models therefore is recommended. SN Ib/c explode due to core collapse similar to SN II. Good candidates for SN Ib/c are Wolf-Rayet stars, losing their hydrogen before explosion due to strong stellar winds.

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