CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1. Background and Objectives
1.1. Background

The term RADAR was coined in 1941 A.D. as an acronym for Radio Detection And Ranging. RADAR is powerful technique, which had main role in Second World War. It was developed in U.K. and after that American armies researched and used this technique to identify their own and other aircrafts for targeting enemies. In case of Nepal, Thai Airways crashed in Ghopte Bhir, as a result 20 Japanese died. After that Japanese government established the RADAR system in TIA in 1998 September 09 for the purpose of air traffic control and identification of many aircrafts. Frequency used in RADAR system is in the range of microwaves. Wireless communication technique of RADAR is keen interest to the student of communication. The project on RADAR was chosen with an objective to infer information about the remotely located object from reflections of deliberately generated electromagnetic waves at radio frequencies. Generally the targets position or the range, velocity etc. are found from the echo of the transmitted signal. The location is achieved by measuring the distance or range of an object from the RADAR.

1.2. Objective Nowadays, RADAR has been widely in use for civil applications such as marine and aerial navigation. There are however more fascinating uses of RADAR. It was used for detection of water in planet Mars and also for the detection of ice level thickness at the polar region. However our preliminary motivation and objectives behind this project are as follows:y Studying the RADAR system and gaining the theoretical knowledge about the practical RADAR system y Simulating the tracking phenomena of single and multiple targets with their different conditions(target on LOS and target off LOS) y y Analyzing and interpreting the results and knowing the ways of getting better results Learning the real time practical implementation and technological details of the RADAR system

1.3 System Overview RADAR system transmits electromagnetic energy into a specific volume in space to search targets. The EMW is echoed back by the target to the system if it is present within the maximum range tracking capability. The received signal from the target is processed by the system to extract the target's information like range, velocity, elevation etc.

Duplexer

Transmitter

Pulse Modulator

Antenna
Low noise RF amplifier Mixer IF amplifier Detector Video amplifier Display

LO

Figure1.1:-System Overview of the RADAR system

Transmitter and Modulator: The transmitter may be an oscillator like a magnetron which is turned on and off to form pulse by the modulator for generating repetitive train of pulses. The generated waveform is then passed to the antenna through the waveguide. Antenna: The waveform is radiated into space as pulses of radio waves with the help of antenna. For both transmitting and receiving operations, a single antenna is normally used for which a special transmit/receive switch or duplexer is introduced. Duplexer: It protects receiver from damage caused by the high power of the transmitter and also serves to channel the returned echo signals to the receiver when the transmitter output is off. Receiver: The receiver is superheterodyne type. To reduce the noise contribution of the mixer its first stage called the front end might be a low noise RF amplifier. The mixer and the local oscillator convert the RF signal to an intermediate frequency or IF. IF Amplifier: The IF Amplifier amplifies the mixer output at the intermediate frequency without producing appreciable distortion in the pulse waveform of the IF signal.

Detector: The envelope of the IF signals is extracted by an envelope detector. A diode detector may be used for the purpose. Video Amplifier: In this stage the detected echo signal is amplified to a level where it can be properly displayed on a cathode ray tube screen. Displays: The display unit may be a PPI or A-scope

1.4 Methodology The whole project will be divided into two phases. The first phase is for the target detection and the second phase is for the target tracking. Target tracking can be done in two ways: 1) Single target tracking 2) Multiple target tracking In single target tracking target angle can be measured by Sequential Lobing, Conical Scan, Amplitude Compression Monopulse and Phase Compression Monopulse. In each condition target on LOS and off the LOS will be studied and analyzed. Range tracking will be also done for single target. In multiple target tracking the targets are tracked by the Track While Scanning (TWS) RADAR. Besides we will also include survey and technical details regarding RADAR operation in the real time application.. Further the predicted data are smoothed out by comparing it with the difference between the predicted data and measured data.

CHAPTER 2

TECHNOLOGY AND LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 RADAR A pulse modulated and transmitted in the form of electromagnetic energy for the radio detection of any interested object which is within the range is known as RADAR. Its frequency operation range lies under microwave (300MHz-300GHz). The maximum range that RADAR can operate is given by Rmax=((PtA2s)/(4
2

Pmin))1/4

Where, Pt is the transmitted power A is the capture area of the receiving antenna s is the RADAR cross-section area is the wavelength of the RADAR Pmin is the minimum detectable power RADAR can be considered in two main categories depending upon the type of waveform used in RADAR. These are a) Pulsed RADAR b) Continuous Wave (CW) RADAR

a) Pulsed RADAR:-It transmits a relatively short burst of electromagnetic energy, after which the receiver is turned on to listen for the echo. The echo not only indicates that a target is present, but the time that elapses between the transmission of the pulse and the receipt of the echo which is a measure of the distance to the target and relative frequency which is the measure of the Doppler information of the target.

b) Continuous Wave (CW) RADAR:-Continuous wave radar (CW radar) continually transmits energy in the direction of the target and receives back reflection of the continuous wave. It can provide velocity information by comparing the differences in the transmitted and received waves and making use of the Doppler Effect.

2.2 RADAR Losses In the RADAR system, the receiver SNR is inversely proportional to the RADAR losses. Hence any increase in RADAR losses causes the drop in the SNR, thus decreasing the probability of detection. The various types of RADAR losses are:y Transmit and receive losses y Antenna pattern loss and scan loss y Atmospheric loss y Collapsing loss y Processing loss 2.3 Target Tracking Tracking RADAR utilize pencil beam antenna patterns. It is for this reason that separates search RADAR is needed to facilitate target acquisition by the tracker. Tracking can be divided into y Angle tracking y Range/ velocity tracking 2.3.1 Angle tracking:-There are different ways to measure the target angle y y y y Sequential lobing Conical scan Amplitude compression monopulse Phase compression monopulse

These types of radar determine the azimuth angle, elevation angle and the range of a single target. Azimuth and elevation angles are determined by measuring the difference between echo signals from two different positions.

2.3.2 Range/ velocity tracking:-Target range is measured by estimating the round-trip delay of the transmitted pulses.

R= cTR/2
Where, c= 3x108 m/s

TR= Roundtrip-Time, sec

Since the range to a moving target is changing with time, the range tracker must be constantly adjusted to keep the target locked in range. This can be accomplished using a split gate system, where two range gates (early and late) are utilized.

2.4 Azimuth and Elevation Error: Azimuth plane: In radian coordinates(r,theta,phi), its the plane when phi is varying and theta equals to 90 Elevation plane: In radian coordinates(r,theta,phi), its the plane when phi is a contsant and theta is varying

Figure 2.1: Azimuth and elevation plane

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Understanding azimuth and elevation planes make azimuth and elevation errors easy to understand. Azimuth error means radar should move left or right Elevation error means radar should move up or down

2.5 GANTT CHART: Task Months Proposal Presentation Literature Survey Analysis Simulation and GUI Inferring Result Analysis Final Presentation and and Sept-Oct Nov-Dec Jan-Feb Mar-Apr May-June July-Aug

Work completed

Work remaining

Chapter 3

SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND EXPERIMENTS

3.1 Sequential lobing: It is one of the first radars used in tracking processes. It is referred often as lobe switching or sequential switching since radar move its beam from one position to other position by closing and opening switches. So, sequential lobing radar circuit is easy to implement. The accuracy of this type depends on the antenna beam width. y Concept of determining the angle by Sequential lobing:

There are two cases we can study: 1. When the target being on the LOS:

In this case the target on LOS, thats implies to symmetrical detection in position(A) and position(B), which means the difference between the echo signals voltage from (A) and (B) equal zero, also the error signal equal zero.

2. When the target being off the LOS:

From figure the target on the beam axis of position(A), so echo signal from position(A) will attenuate more than echo signal from position(B), which means there is a difference between echo signals voltage from (A) and (B). In this case radar will detect a target and moves the antenna to position(A).

Matlab Code:

Next code represents two echo signals (A and B) are detected by sequential lobing radar. Input: Code input (a,b), where a is the amplitude of signal A and b is the amplitude of signal B. Process: Difference between echo signals A and B

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Output: If the output of the difference process is positive thats mean radar will move to position(A) and angle will equal 0, else the angle will equal 180 and radar move to position(B).

Flowchart:

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Code:
function sequantial(a,b) %%%% input a and b which are the echo signals gains t=0:0.1:10; A= a*hardlim(t); %%%%echo signal A B= b*hardlim(t); %%%%echo signal B

figure(1) plot(t,A,'r') xlabel('time') ylabel('signal voltage A')

figure(2) plot(t,B,'y') xlabel('time') ylabel('signal voltage B') S= A-B; %%%%difference between echo signa A and echo signal B figure(3) plot(t,S) xlabel('time') ylabel('difference between signals A & B') S_average = mean(S) if (S_average < 0) theta = 180; else theta = 0; end theta %%%%%if theta=0 thats mean the antenna must move to means move to postion B

position A else

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Output and results:

1- When the amplitude of signal A (a=5) and the amplitude of signal B (b=6)
6 5.8 5.6 5.4 signal voltage A 5.2 5 4.8 4.6 4.4 4.2 4

5 t im e

10

Echo signal A

7 6.8 6.6 6.4 sig nal v oltage B 6.2 6 5.8 5.6 5.4 5.2 5

5 tim e

10

Echo signal B 13

0 -0 .2 -0 .4 diff ere nc e be tw e en s ign als A & B -0 .6 -0 .8 -1 -1 .2 -1 .4 -1 .6 -1 .8 -2

5 tim e

10

Difference between A and B, A>=B, theta = 0

3.2 Conical scan: Its an extension for the sequential lobbing but in this type the feed of antenna is rotating around the antenna axis, as shown in the below figure

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Where: ws is the beam scan frequency, in radians per second Phi is the squint angle which the angle between the beam and tracking axes

Concept of determining the angle by Conical scan:

1. When the target being on the LOS:

In this case radar will receive a constant amplitude level in position(A) and position(B). As shown in the below figure

Which means zero error and radar cant detect the target.
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2. When the target being off the LOS:

In this case target exist in position(B) so there will be a difference between voltage levels between (A) and (B). As shown in figure below

In this case radar will detect the target and will move the antenna to target direction.

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CHAPTER 4

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

4.1 Work Acccomplished : In this semester we have mainly focused on literature survey and few implementations with MATLAB. y We studied about the different blocks of radar system and how it works y We gained the knowledge about the overall radar display system of TIA. y We studied about different ways to measure the target angle. y We analyzed the results of the sequential lobing and conical scanning.

4.2 Work Remaining: y Analyzing the other different condition of target angle measurement. y Studying about the multiple target tracking and analyzing about. y Determining other parameter that could be simulated on the tracking system.

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CONCLUSION
RADAR is an important tool required by any country for various purposes. It is an inevitable system required by any country for security and most basic requirement in air traffic control. Nowadays air traffic is increasing at the faster rate. So the study of RADAR based system is very necessary. In the context of Nepal the condition of various RADAR based system is deteriorating. RADAR systems are also used for the military purposes, weather detection, vehicle control etc. On doing the project, we will gain knowledge about the RADAR systems and its real time applications such as tracking the range, velocity etc. As a whole, RADAR is a very good and sophisticated wireless communication system for study and analysis.

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REFERENCES
1. www.acfr.usyd.edu.au/ 2.www.ise.ncsu.edu/kay/msf/tracking.htm 3.www.radarguns.com/radar-types.htm 4.www.freepatentsonline.com 5.www.doseinfo-radar.com/RADAROver.html

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