Anatomy and physiology Renal system

The excretory system consists of the kidneys, the ureters, the urinary bladder, and the urethra. The kidneys are the major excretory organs of the body. The skin, liver, lungs, and intestines eliminate some waste products, but if the kidneys fail to function, these other excretory organs cannot adequately compensate. The Urinary system eliminates waste, regulates blood volume, ion concentration and pH; and it is involve with red blood cell production.

Vascular system

The heart provides the major force that causes blood to circulate, and the peripheral circulation functions to carry blood, exchange nutrients, waste products, and gases, transport hormones, components of the immune system, molecules required for coagulation, enzymes, nutrients, gases, waste products, and other substances are transported in the blood to all areas of the body, regulate blood pressure, and direct blood flow. Blood flows from the heart through elastic arteries, muscular arteries, and arterioles to the capillaries. Blood returns to the heart from the capillaries through venules, small veins, and large vein. The amount of blood flowing through a blood vessel can be regulated by contraction or relaxation of the smooth muscle in the tunica media. A decrease in blood flow results from vasoconstriction, an increase in blood vessel diameter because of smooth muscle relaxation.

Fetal Circulation

In the fetal circulatory system, the umbilical vein transports blood rich in O2 and nutrients from the placenta to the fetal body. The umbilical vein enters the body through the umbilical ring and travels along the anterior abdominal wall to the liver. About 1/2 the blood it carries passes into the liver. The other 1/2 of the blood enters a vessel called the ductus venosus which bypasses the liver. The ductus venosus travels a short distance and joins the inferior vena cava. There, the oxygenated blood from the placenta is mixed with the deoxygenated blood from the lower parts of the body. This mixture continues through the vena cava to the right atrium. In the adult heart, blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle then through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs. In the fetus however, the lungs are nonfunctional and the blood largely bypasses them. As the blood from the inferior vena cava enters the right atrium, a large proportion of it is shunted directly into the left atrium through an opening called the foramen ovale. A small valve, septum primum is located on the left side of the atrial septum overlies the foramen ovale and helps prevent blood from moving in the reverse direction. The rest of the fetal blood entering the right atrium, including a large proportion of the deoxygenated blood entering from the superior vena cava passes into the right ventricle and out through the pulmonary trunk.

Only a small volume of blood enters the pulmonary circuit, because the lungs are collapsed, and their blood vessels have a high resistance to flow. Enough blood reaches the lung tissue to sustain them. Most of the blood in the pulmonary trunk bypasses the lungs by entering a fetal vessel called the ductus arteriosus which connects the pulmonary trunk to the descending portion of the aortic arch. As a result of this connection, the blood with a relatively low O 2 concentration which is returning to the heart through the superior vena cava, bypasses the lungs. At the same time, the blood is prevented from entering the portion of the aorta that provides branches leading to the brain. The more highly oxygenated blood that enters the left atrium through the foramen ovale is mixed with a small amount of deoxygenated blood returning from the pulmonary veins. This mixture moves into the left ventricle and is pumped into the aorta. Some of it reaches the myocardium through the coronary arteries and some reaches the brain through the carotid arteries. The blood carried by the descending aorta is partially oxygenated and partially deoxygenated. Some of it is carries into the branches of the aorta that lead to various parts of the lower regions of the body. The rest passes into the umbilical arteries, which branch from the internal iliac arteries and lead to the placenta. There the blood is reoxygenated.

Placenta

The placenta or afterbirth is a highly vascularized ephemeral organ present in placental vertebrates that connects the developing fetal tissues to the uterine wall. The placenta

supplies the fetus with maternal nutrients, and allows fetal waste to be disposed of via the maternal kidneys. In humans, the placenta averages 22 cm (9 in.) in length and 2-2.5 cm (0.8-1 in.) in thickness. It typically weighs approximately 500 grams (1 lb). It has a dark reddish/blue or maroon color. It connects to the fetus by an umbilical cord of approximately 55-60 cm (22-24 in.) in length that contains two arteries and one vein. The umbilical cord inserts into the chorionic plate. Vessels branch out over the surface of the placenta and further divide to form a network covered by a thin layer of cells. This results in the formation of villous tree structures. On the maternal side, these villous tree structures are grouped into lobules called cotelydons. In humans the placenta usually has a disc shape but different mammalian species have widely varying shapes..