Introduction to Aircraft Design Airworthiness Requirements - T. G. A.

Simha

References
Excerpts from Structural Load Analysis for Commercial Transport Aircraft Theory and Practice Ted L. Lomax. The Elements of Aircraft Preliminary Design Roger D. Schaufele. FAR PART 25.

Contents:
Introduction to Airworthiness Requirements and Loads
Introduction Authority and Regulations Compliance FAR PART 25 Weights Aircraft Performance Structures Requirements Flight Loads Ground Loads Design and Construction Systems Requirement

Background
Pioneers built and flew airplanes. Growth in aircraft utilization. Accidents and lessons learnt. Evolution of Airworthiness Requirements.

Objective

To ensure safety when the aircraft is used as intended

The Authority
The Regulatory authority is a government body. Civil Airplanes Ministry of Aviation Military Airplanes Ministry of Defence

Civil Aviation: U.S. Federal Aviation Administration. INDIA Director General of Civil Aviation.

Regulations
U.S. FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS (FAR) FAR PART 23 FAR PART 25 FAR PART 33 FAR PART 35 FAR PART 36 FAR PART 91 FAR PART 121 FAR PART 123 FAR PART 135 FAR PART 137 Normal, Utility, Acrobatic, Commuter Transport Engines Propellers Noise General operating and flight rules Domestic and Flag commercial operators of large A/C Air Travel clubs Air Taxi Agricultural A/C

Regulations
EUROPE Joint Airworthiness Requirement (JAR)

MILITARY REQUIREMENTS U.S. MIL-A-8860 and a host of specification U.K. Def-Stan-970

FAR Part 23 Applicability

CATEGORY Normal Utility Acrobatic Commuter

No. of Pax Max T.O.W. Maneuvers

<=9 <12,500 lbs No 2.5?

<=9 <12,500 lbs LIMITED 3.4 -1

<=9 <12,500 lbs FULL 6 -3

<=19 <19,000 lbs Non Aerobatic -

nz max -1

Proof of Compliance (General)

Demonstrate requirements are met by Test ( Static and flight tests ) Approved Analysis methods Systematic Investigation

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Proof of Compliance (General)

Mandatory Requirements: E.g. Max load factor Emergency provisions etc. Optional: No. of Passengers No. of Engines A/C configuration etc. General Methodology for compliance: Define operating limits and envelops Demonstrate compliance at all critical points of the envelope Demonstrate that aircraft flies within the envelope E.g.

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FAR Part 25
Subpart Subpart Subpart Subpart Subpart Subpart Subpart A B C D E F G : : : : : : : GENERAL Flight Structure Design and Construction Power plant Equipment Operating Limitations and Information

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Weight and Center of Gravity Limits

Compliance must be demonstrated at all conditions within.
Maximum Weight Minimum Weight Extreme Center of Gravity limits

Weight definitions: MTW Maximum Taxi Gross Weight MTOW Maximum Take off Gross Weight MLW Maximum Landing Weight MZFW Maximum Zero Fuel Weight OEW Operating Empty Weight MEW Manufacture Empty Weight

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Weight and Center of Gravity - Envelope

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Relationship between Design Airspeeds and Operational Envelope

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Aircraft Performance - Definitions

Stall speed CLmax definition. Take off Smooth, wet, dry and hard runways. Head wind and tail wind. Take off speeds

Definitions.

Safe speed for take off. Take off speed with critical engine failed etc. Speed to provide adequate climb rate. Accelerate stop distance Runway condition. Brake conditions, friction parameters. Climb and take off path Climb in landing configuration. Climb with critical engine failure. Landing distance 50 ft. above to complete halt. head and tail winds, runway conditions etc.

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Summary of Air Speeds - Definitions

VS Stalling Speed. VA Maneuver speed or full control deflection speed. VB Design speed for max gust intensity. VFE Design flaps extended speed. VLE Design Landing gear extended speed. VLO Design Landing gear operating speed. VC Design cruise speed. VMD Max operating limit speed. VFC Maximum speed meeting flight characteristic requirements. VD Design dive speed greater than VC/0.8 or speed reached in 7.5 deg dive for 20sec followed by 1.5g recovery. VEF Speed at which critical engine is assumed to fail. VMC Speed at which it is possible to maintain control of Aircraft after the critical engine is made inoperative.

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Accelerate Stop Distance

Accelerate with full power from start to VEF. At VEF, assume critical engine fails. Accelerate to maximum reject take off speed. Come to a full stop. Conditions: - Dry Runway - Wet Runway - Specified brake friction

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Take Off Field Length

The take off field length is greater of The all engine take off multiplied by 1.15.. Take off distance with critical engine failed at most critical point. Accelerate to VEF where engine fails. Continue and take off and climb to 35 feet.

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Climb Gradient Requirements

All engines operative Aircraft with landing gear and flaps extended. Climb gradient > 3.2 %. With one engine operative For 2 engine aircraft greater than or equal to 2.4 % For 3 engine aircraft greater than or equal to 2.7 % For 4 engine aircraft greater than or equal to 3.0 %

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Landing Distance
Distance necessary to come to a complete halt.
Airplane in landing configuration Speed VREF at 50ft above the ground Head wind and tail wind conditions

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Controllability and Maneuverability

Airplane must be safely controllable and maneuverable
During the entire flight take off - Landing Transition from one flight condition to another smoothly. Not to exceed limit load factor. One critical engine failed. Two engines failed for aircraft with 3 or more engines. Flaps and undercarriages are deployed.

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Pilot Forces
Force, in pounds, applied to the control wheel or rudder pedals
For short term application for pitch and roll controltwo hands available for control For short term application for pitch and roll controlone hand available for control For short term application for yaw control For long term application 10 5

Pitch
75 50

Roll
50 25

Yaw

150 20

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Maneuverability
Maneuver at constant speed without stall at most forward C.G. Configuration
Takeoff Takeoff En route Landing

Speed
V2 V2 + XX VFTO VREF

Maneuvering bank angle in a coordinated turn

30 40 40 40

Thrust power setting

Asymmetric WAT-Limited.
1 3

All-engines-operating climb. Asymmetric WAT-Limited.

1

Symmetric for 3 flight path angle.

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Longitudinal Control
To pitch aircraft nose down to accelerate to trim speed. Landing gear extended. Flaps retracted and extended. Power off and max power. Operating forces within limits with rapid deployment of flaps Extend and Retract.

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Directional and Lateral Control

Directional Control
Yaw into operative engine. Sudden change of yaw 150 direction of inoperative engine. Pedal force not to exceed 150 lbs. Most unfavorable C.G., a/c retracted, flaps extended. Possible to make 200 banked turn Towards and against inoperative engine. Critical engine inoperative and others on full power. Landing gear retracted and extended. Flaps deployed for climb position. To provide adequate roll rate with one engine inoperative.

Lateral Control

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Stability Requirements
Static stability Longitudinal Lateral and directional Dynamic Stability Short period oscillations Dutch roll-stability Conditions are specified for demonstration of stability

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Structures - Requirements
GENERAL: LIMIT LOAD Max load expected in service ULTIMATE LOAD (DESIGN LOAD) Limit load *Factor of safety Factor of safety 1.5 ( Special cases >1.5 ) Flexibility effects on loads Equilibrium Inertia forces Validation of load distribution

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Strength and Deformation

At Limit Load No detrimental permanent deformation (safe operation). At Ultimate Load Support ultimate load for 3 seconds. Effects of rate of loading Transient stresses. Vibration and buffeting Structural vibrations up to Vc due to malfunction of control system.

PROOF OF STRUCTURES Static or dynamic tests Analysis Similar structures-Proven methods

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Loads Specification
Loads are specified as: Flight loads Ground / Water loads

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Landing Case
Level Landing Tail down Landing One gear Landing Ground handling Taxi, Take Off, Landing roll Braked roll Turning Tails/nose wheel steering Pivoting Towing Jacking & Tie Down

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Ground Loads
Towing Loads
0.3W to 0.15 W (W = 30,000 lbs to 100,000 lbs) Load applied horizontally and swiveled 45 deg

Jacking
Vertical Load 1.33 W Horizontal Load 0.33V

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Emergency Landing Conditions

Ultimate Inertia forces acting independently
Upward 3.0g Forward 9.0g Side - 3.0g on the airframe and 4.0g on the seat Downward 6.0g Rearward 1.5g

Deformation should not impede subsequent evacuation Seat and safety belts to withstand above forces Passenger weight 170 lbs

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Emergency Landing Test Demonstration

30o downward, downward velocity change 35ft/sec, peak floor deceleration 14g Yawed 10o with change in vertical velocity of 44 ft/sec, peak floor deceleration 16g. Upper torso straps force not to exceed 1750 lbs. Max compressive load between pelvis and lumbar region 1500 lbs.

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Fatigue and Damage Tolerance

Damage may be due to fatigue, corrosion, manufacturing defect or accidental. Evaluation to demonstrate no catastrophic failure during operational life of the airplane
Typical spectra including temperature and humidity. Identify critical structural elements. Analysis based on service history. Establish Inspection requirements.

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Damage Tolerance
Single Load path structure. Multiple load path, failsafe structures. Assume an initial flaw. Residual strength - Structure must be capable of withstanding limit loads considered as ultimate for
-Flight loads -Ground loads

Fatigue Life - Where damage tolerance analysis is impractical,

- must show a crack free fatigue life with scatter factors.

Aircraft must successfully complete the flight

-when a 4lbs bird hits at Vc at sea level -when a 4lbs bird hits at 0.85*Vc at 8000ft.

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Design & Construction

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Design and Construction

Requirements for detail design and provision of various features are defined in this part.
General Materials, accessibility, special factors etc.
Control Surface and System Installation, Hinges, Stops, Operation Test etc. and System. Landing Gear shock absorption tests, wheels and brakes retracting mechanism etc. Personal and Cargo Pilot compartment, access doors, window, vision etc. Emergency Provisions Emergency Exits, markings, seat belts etc. Ventilation, Pressurization, Fire protection etc.

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Materials
Approved materials. (Aircraft specifications).
-Effect of temperature and humidity -A-Basis properties for critical structures (99% probability with 95% confidence) -B-Basis properties for multiple load path structures (90% probability with 95% confidence)

Fabrication Methods
-Approved methods. -Process monitoring and control.

Fasteners
-Two separate locking devices - critical fastener.

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Special Factors
Fitting Factor 1.15 applied to
-Fitting -Attachment -Bearing

Bearing Factors
-Large enough bearing factor to account for clearance fit, vibration and pounding.

Casting Factor
-Critical Castings 1.25 -100% inspection visual, radiographic etc. -3 castings to be tested

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Bird Strike Requirement

Bird strike requirement
Aircraft and Engine 4lbs bird at Vc Empennage 8lbs bird at Vc

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Emergency Exits
Type
A B C I II III IV

Size
42" X 72" 32" X 72" 30" X 48" 24" X 48" 20" X 44" 20" X 36" 19" X 26"

Max Passenger per Exit

110 75 55 45 40 35 9

Maximum Seats abreast An aisle to be provided for every 3 seats. Aisle width required 15 up to 25 from floor and 20 above that.

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Control System
Control System
Provision of Stops Limit Load Static Test Operational Tests, free from jamming, excessive friction etc. Shock absorption test
10fps drop test at MLW. 12 fps reserve energy drop test.

Landing Gear

Retracting mechanism: Emergency means for extending. Pilot seats Additional factor 1.33. Passenger seats Attendant seats Energy absorbing seats.

Seat, Seat belts

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Pressurized Cabins
Cabin altitude not greater than 8000 feet. Two pressure relief valves and reverse pressure differential valves. Strength test. Functional Test. Proof Pressure Test to 1.5 pressure. Burst Pressure Test to 2.0 pressure. Sudden Decompression effects.

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Support E: Power Plant

Engine Installation and associated requirements Fuel System and fuel tanks Oil System Engine induction and exhaust Engine Controls

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Power Plant
Engine must be approved corresponding category (Part 34) Propeller must be approved. Means for stopping rotation. Re-start capability. Propeller clearance - Minimum 7 inches. Engine thrust reversing system requirements. - Failure conditions critical.

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Fuel System
To provide required flow to the engine. Flame out or interruption not more than 20 seconds. Vent requirements as per part 34. Functional Test of Fuel System. Lightening Protection Fuel Tanks
Pressure test to 3.5psi Max pressure from inertial force. Vibration test Expansion space of 2% minimum.

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Support F: Equipment
Instruments Electrical System Lights Safety equipments Miscellaneous equipments
Vacuum Hydraulic Pressurization Oxygen Etc.

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Instruments
Arrangement and visibility requirements Warning caution and advisory lights Flight and navigation instruments Power plant instruments Miscellaneous

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Flight and Navigation Instruments

Common
Free air temperature indicator Clock Direction indicator (Magnetic compass) An air speed indicator Altimeter Rate of climb indicator Rate of turn indicator A bank and pitch indicator A Mach meter

At each pilot station

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Other Systems
Electrical Systems
Generating system requirements Installation
Interference with other systems. Cable routing to minimize hazard Proper installation of batteries (venting, sealing etc.)

Redundancy Requirement for instrument lights Position lights

Forward Left RED (Wing Tip) Forward Right GREEN (Wing Tip) Rear position White (Fin Tip)

Lights

Landing Light Anti-collision lights

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Miscellaneous Equipments
Miscellaneous Equipments
Ditching Equipment Public address system Vacuum systems Hydraulic System
Ultimate pressure = 3 x Operating pressure High Pressure accumulator and hoses 4 x Operating pressure

Oxygen System Cockpit voice recorder Flight recorders

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