Red Book

School of Psychology Mt Gravatt Griffith Health
Writing for Psychology

An introductory guide
APA 6
2011
Table of Contents
Writing for Psychology ....................................................................................................... 1
Psychology Research Reports ...................................................................................... 2

The Research Report........................................................................................................... 3 Title Page ............................................................................................................................ 3 Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 4 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 5 Method ................................................................................................................................ 6 Results................................................................................................................................. 7 Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 12 References......................................................................................................................... 13 Appendices........................................................................................................................ 13 Example Research Report..14
Essay Writing In Psychology ..................................................................................... 23

Essays for Psychology ...................................................................................................... 24 What Does This Essay Question Mean? ........................................................................... 27 Example Essay for Psychology..29
Referencing In Psychology ......................................................................................... 57

Referencing in Research Reports and Essays ................................................................... 58 Referencing Quotations Correctly .................................................................................... 61 General Reference List Principles .................................................................................... 62 Referencing in your Reference List .................................................................................. 63 An Example of a Reference List63 Basic Forms of Electronic Sources68 Basic Forms of Audiovisual Sources.72
Additional Points .......................................................................................................... 75

Appendices.76 Headings ........................................................................................................................... 77 Other APA Issues.............................................................................................................. 78 Marker's Shorthand ........................................................................................................... 80 More tips for Writing in Psychology ................................................................................ 82
Submitting your assignment ...................................................................................... 84
Submitting your assignment....85
Plagiarism ............................................................................................................ 92
Plagiarism ......................................................................................................................... 93 References Cited in This Guide ........................................................................................ 96 Other Useful Books for Writing in Psychology.96 Chapter-by-Chapter changes from APA 5 to APA 6 ........................................................ 97
Writing for Psychology

When writing for psychology you will need to be able to write in two different formats, research reports and essays, as well as use the American Psychological Association (APA) 6th edition referencing system. While many of you have experienced writing essays, it is unlikely that you will have composed a psychological research report before coming to university. In the following pages you will find information on how to write in both formats, and how to reference your work correctly. Please note that some of the terms may be unfamiliar to you; allow yourself time to grasp these new concepts as you progress through your program of study. When in doubt, check with your tutors and/or subject convenors. The information has been compiled from the experience of markers and subject convenors, and includes both the basics and likely problem areas. Some sections are based on another document prepared by staff in the School of Psychology (Gold Coast) and modified by Dr Mark Chappell. Credit is due to the many people who assisted the development of this manual, including academic staff, tutors, and students in particular, credit is due to Andrea Quinn and Maddy Phillips who originally composed this document. We extend our thanks as well to Claire Ryan who made the 2011 changes and to Tara Stokes and Kylee Forrest who made comments on the example lab report. This handbook is recommended for students studying the following courses: 1001PSY, 1002PSY, 1003PSY, 1004PSY, 1005PSY, 1007PSY, 1008PSY.
Psychology Research Reports
The Research Report

A research report in psychology follows a standard format, which includes the following sections and in the order listed: Title page Abstract Introduction Method Participants Design Materials Procedure Results Discussion References Appendix/ces A sample research report is attached at the end of this section.
Title Page
The title page consists of: The title of the report The name of the author Your student number The title of the course being completed Your tutors name Your tutorial time The date the report is due The date the report is submitted The word count (the number of words in your lab report, excluding the title page and reference list) Whether if you intend to collect your assignment or not
1 The Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Memory Recall
Name: Student No: Course: Tutor: Tutorial: Due Date: Date Submitted: Word Count: Collecting:
Karla Norris 1234567 1001PSY Tara Spokes Friday 2-4pm 9 May, 2011 9 May, 2011 1655 words Yes
The title provides your reader with initial cues regarding the content of the report. It needs to be succinct and specific. The title is centred at the top of the first page with the first letter of each major word in capitals.
Abstract
The purpose of an abstract is to provide a clear and succinct summary of the report, in less than 120 words. When writing your abstract you need to state the problem, briefly outline the method, provide the main findings and state your conclusions. The abstract is often one of the most difficult parts to write as it draws from each section of the report so it makes sense to write it last. You begin the abstract on the top of a new page with a centred heading. Use double spacing and note that there is no paragraph indent. The most common mistakes in abstract writing are making them too long or using redundant information. Sentences need to be precise and meaningful. An Example of an Abstract for a Research Report
Abstract The study sought to test Gales (1978) hypothesis that only under moderately arousing conditions will introverts be shown to differ from extraverts in EEG-defined arousal. Alpha activity was
recorded from 45 participants under each of six conditions, and extravert and introvert groups formed on the basis of
participants' scores on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. Contrary to the hypothesis, extraverts showed more alpha activity than introverts under all conditions except for the eyes opening and closing condition. A simple relationship between arousal and extraversion is argued to be more likely on the basis of these findings than the interactive relationship proposed by Gale.
Adapted from Extraversion and the EEG:II. A Test of Gales Hypothesis by J.G. OGorman and L.R. Mallise, 1984, Biological Psychology, 19, p.113. Copyright 1984 by Elsevier Science Publishers.
Introduction
The introduction begins on a new page, with the papers title at the top, but do not write introduction at the top. Begin with a clear statement of your research aims and a brief justification of the studys relevance and/or importance. The aims are followed by a review of theory relevant to the experiment/s and any related studies; this forms the literature review. As author, it is your task to outline the background to your experiment, and explain to the reader why the study was undertaken and what outcomes were expected. Typically a funnelling approach is used; essentially, this means that you begin broadly, and narrow your focus as you progress towards the hypothesis/es. Finally, the section ends with a statement of the hypothesis or hypotheses to be tested. Where appropriate, the direction of any expected association between variables will also be stated in the hypothesis/es, and expressed in the future tense. All other paragraphs in this section should be indented, with no spaces between paragraphs, and written in past tense or in present perfect tense and the active voice. An example of past tense, active voice, is Smith (2001) conducted the experiment or Smith (2001) showed that. A present perfect tense example is researchers have shown. As you develop the introduction, you build a picture for your reader, and provide the context for your study.
Common mistakes in writing an introduction include:

1. Not presenting the research aims and initial justification at the beginning of the introduction. 2. Not presenting a coherent review of relevant literature that links directly to the hypothesis/es. 3. Not stating clearly what the hypotheses are. You need to tell the reader what it is that you predict will happen, based on the research and theory you have reviewed. 4. Not stating the direction of association between the variables to be tested. For example, when a difference between groups is predicted, you need to state what differences you anticipate. For example, will the change in one variable have a positive or negative effect on another variable?
Method
The introduction is followed immediately by the method section. This section consists of a description of what was done in the experiment in enough detail for the reader to replicate your study. The heading Method is centred and bold and sub-headings (flush against the left-hand side, bold) guide the reader through the experiment. Paragraphs are indented. Method Participants The number of participants and any particulars (e.g., age, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation) relevant to the experiment need to be included here. For example, details such as how your participants were recruited (e.g., volunteers, first year university students), how they were assigned to each condition (e.g., random versus non-random allocation), and how they were rewarded for participation (e.g., credit points, chocolates, money) should be included here. Design In the design section you describe what type of research design was employed (e.g., independent groups, repeated measures, quasi-experimental, survey). You need to state the number of independent variables and how they were combined and the dependent variable. With each independent variable you will need to list its name, whether it was varied within or between participants, how many levels it had, and the label for each level. For example: The experiment involved a 2 x 3 independent groups design, with two types of cognitive reframing exercises (finding the silver lining, generating alternative explanations) given to each of three age groups (20 to 50 years, 51 to 70 years, 71 years and over). Materials Here you describe any equipment or measures used in sufficient detail to enable the reader to purchase or construct the same or similar, in order to repeat the experiment. If you have used a questionnaire you should provide its name and author/s, an example of the questions, and attach the complete questionnaire as an appendix (where you are permitted to do so under copyright law). Do not forget to cite your source in your reference list as well. You should also include the minimum and maximum scores achievable for your measures, and what such scores might indicate. For example, a maximum score of 10 indicates high job satisfaction. In addition, the psychometric properties of your chosen measures should also be cited, such as any data you have on reliability and validity. This ensures that your choice of measure can be quickly assessed as adequate for the task.
Procedure This section includes a description of what was done, in what order, and with what instructions, again in sufficient detail to allow the experiment to be repeated. If you have controlled for a potentially confounding variable you need to also mention this (e.g., use of randomisation, counterbalancing). You may also need to include issues such as the use of confederates/experimenters being blind to the hypothesis, use of control groups, deception used by experimenters and debriefing procedures. Do not start a fresh page for this section, or the results and discussion sections.
Results
The results section follows directly after the method section, and has a centred bold heading (no underline). It involves specifying what data were collected and the statistics used to analyse them. Presentation of the data is often in summary form to display essential findings for your reader. Begin with descriptive statistics (e.g., demographics, means and standard deviations) and then present inferential statistics (e.g., t tests, ANOVAS, correlations). The outcomes of statistical analyses may be presented in a table or a figure with a sentence or two in text describing the findings, for example, whether the finding was significant or not, the relevant statistic, degrees of freedom, and the significance level adopted. You may need to refer to statistics textbooks to ensure correct expression of statistical results according to the analysis used this will become increasingly important as you progress through your degree program. An example of an appropriate results section follows:
Results .A repeated measures t test was used to test the significance of the difference between mean depression scores of the therapy (M = 10) and control groups (M = 17.5). Results of the t test indicated the difference to be significant, t(10) = 4.61, p = 009, one-tailed, meaning that participants in the therapy group reported significantly less depression.
In the above example, a non-significant result would be presented as: t(10) = 0.72, ns, onetailed. It is important to note that limited interpretation of the data is offered at this stage. In addition, EITHER a table or figure may be used to display your results, but not both. Choose the one that best presents your findings. Please note, the above example did not report effect sizes and confidence intervals which is a requirement of APA6, but this is considered too complex for a first year standard and will be taught in your later years of study.
Tables
When presenting tables the table number is listed above the table title. The title itself is italicised with the first letter of each major word Capitalized, does NOT end with a full stop, and is placed ABOVE the table. Double line spacing is continued within tables and only horizontal lines are used to differentiate table sections. Make sure to refer to the table in text BEFORE it appears on the page. When labelling a table the title should be able to be understood on its own. Generally, in text you use Times New Roman 12 point font, but, when compiling a table you can use from 8 to 12 point font to ensure your work fits on the page. A note directly below the table is used to explain abbreviations or symbols listed in the table. General notes are denoted by writing the word Note in italics followed by a full stop (Note.). Below are examples of tables for different statistical analyses. If you would like further information about creating tables using APA format then see The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6thed, 2010). You can find this book in the GU library (BF76.7.P83 2010).
Examples An Example of a Table Presenting Descriptive Data
Table 1 Descriptive Data for Outcome Variables Outcome Variable N M SD Percentage in Clinical Range or At Risk
Depression Anxiety Stress Violent crimes Property crimes
124 127 128 131 131
8.66 5.09 11.80 2.13 1.50
9.33 6.23 9.53 7.58 8.84
27.95 24.34 31.65 19.12 12.55
An Example of a Table Presenting a Sample Correlation Matrix

Table 2 Intercorrelations Among Attitudes Held by GPs Towards Early Diagnosis of Dementia
1 1. Major benefits of early diagnosis 2. Appropriate services to access 3. Early diagnosis is important 4. Negative consequences from early diagnosis 5. Negative consequences from no early diagnosis .04 .72 -.28 .64
.19 .14 .19 -.13 .62 -.14 -
An Example of a Regression Table (Hierarchical Regression)

Table 4 Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Child Outcomes for Stepfamilies (N=50) ________________________________________________________________________________ Variable
SE
________________________________________________________________________________ Step 1 Parent Warmth Step 2 Stepparent Warmth Parent Control -3.21 0.47 1.7 1.9 .15 .44* -4.23 2.1 -.63*
________________________________________________________________________________ Note. R2 = .31 for Step 1; R2 change = .21 for Step 2 (p <.05). * p<.05
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An Example of an ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) Table

Table 3 Analysis of Variance for Classical Conditioning Experimental Condition ________________________________________________________________________________ Source df F p
________________________________________________________________________________ Between subjects Depression (D) Shock (S) DxS D within-group error 2 1 2 30 0.13 0.79 0.42 (16.48) .14 .08 .15 .32 .45 .56
________________________________________________________________________________ Within groups Blocks (B) BxD BxS BxDxS B x S within group error 4 8 2 8 128 3.16** 1.21 2.12* 0.78 (1.46) .62 .49 .35 .24 .01 .09 .04 .16
________________________________________________________________________________ Note. Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square errors. *p < .05. **p < .01.
Figures
Figures are numbered and the title is placed UNDER the figure. Unlike tables, the figure title is presented immediately after the figure number. Note that the figure number is italicized and the title is not. Unlike tables, you may use a Sans Serif font (Helvetica, Futura or Geneva) in the figure itself to enhance the readers understanding. Figures 1 and 2 provide examples of how to present a figure in APA style. If you would like further information about creating figures then see The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6thed, 2010). You can find this book in the GU library (BF76.7.P83 2010).
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An Example of a Figure Presenting a Causal Relationship Between the Variables
Child Factors
Relationship Outcomes
Child Behaviour Checklist Coopersmith Self Esteem Inventory
Dyadic Adjustment Score (individual) Couple together or not
Figure 1. Measures of child and couple factors in families (Phillips, 2002).
An Example of a Figure Presenting Descriptive Data (Means and Standard Errors)
16 14 Younger Adults Older Adults
Mean Resource Use
12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Physical Psychological
Social
Financial
Types of Coping Resources
Figure 2. Mean frequency of coping resource use (+SE) for younger (n = 96) and older (n = 106) adults.
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Discussion
This section follows on directly after the results section using a centred bold heading. In this section the results are considered in light of the background to the experiment that has already been outlined in your introduction. The discussion assists the reader to see: Whether or not the aim of the experiment was achieved and the fate of any hypotheses that were tested. The implications of the findings for theory, clinical or practical out comes in the area.
Any limitations of the experiment that need to be considered when evaluating the findings.
Directions for further research.
Common mistakes in writing the discussion include:

Not adequately linking your discussion to the hypotheses that you have tested. You need to make it clear whether the hypotheses are supported or not, and if not, why. If they are supported there still may be other explanations for why this occurred. Your discussion needs to link in with the points raised in your introduction and it needs to hang together correctly. Make sure to refer to these points in light of your findings. Incorrect use of the word significant when discussing findings. Only use significant if you have tested a difference between groups using statistics. Do not over claim about findings. It is better to understate your case by reporting exactly what the data indicate, no more and no less. Repeating the statistic numbers from the results section.
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References
Next in your report is the reference list. The reference section begins on a separate page with the title References centered but not bolded (unlike Method, Results and Discussion). How to reference your source documentation is a crucial part of your writing and will be explained in-depth in the section, Referencing in Psychology.
Appendices
In some lab reports you may wish to include an appendix to provide additional information that would be distracting to the reader (e.g., sample surveys, large tables) if it was placed in the body of the report. Information concerning how to cite appendices is provided in the section Appendices.
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Example First Year Research Report
Running head: MANIPULATION OF VISUAL PERCEPTION
The Manipulation of Visual Perception Through the Use of Language
Caitlin A. Bax
Student number: s Course: 1001PSY Tutorial time: Monday, 15:00- 16:20 Tutor: Alex Potter Due Date: May 10th, 2010 Date Submitted: May 10th, 2010 Word Count: 1552 Will you be picking up your assignment? Yes
Abstract The aim of this study was to test that false memories can be generated by manipulating the structure of questions in a questionnaire. Two groups of undergraduate psychology students (225 females and 88 males, of mean age 19.79) all watched a video of a car accident and answered questionnaires based on their observations. It was hypothesized that by stating the car as blue for group B and orange for group A, in one of the questions in a questionnaire, participants in those groups would then falsely recall the car as being that colour a week later. This hypothesis was supported, and so it was concluded that memory can be biased via suggestion.
The Abstract must include a sentence about each of the following; the aim of the study, the participants, the findings and some final statement about the area
Running head: MANIPULATION OF VISUAL PERCEPTION Define false memories
The Manipulation of Visual Perception Through the Use of Language The fabrication of false memories by suggestion is well documented, though the methods and levels of suggestion differentiate considerably (Loftus, 2004). Zaragoza and Mitchell (1996) examined the effect of repeated exposure to suggestion on false memories. They predicted that frequent exposure to suggestions based on a video of a burglary, where the false presence of items such as gloves and a gun were reinforced, would induce high incidences of participants recollecting the items actual presence. Their results supported their claim, and further showed that the more participants were exposed to misleading suggestions, the more descriptive and convoluted their recollections became. According to Loftus (2004), this notion of a false memory being real is attributed in some cases to the extent of the sensory detail involved. Zaragoza and Mitchell (1996) interpret these results further as being the product of participants integrating the suggestive elements with their own perception of events that transpired in the video.
Provide details about how they know this; who did what?
Lindsay, Hagan, Read, Wade and Garry (2004) further explored false memories by performing an experiment based on the manipulation of childhood memories via the inclusion of a photograph. Subjects were told three stories from their early childhood, two of which were factual, and a third which was not. Supplementing the suggestive information with the visual attribute of relative class photographs, was found to double the instances of participants false memories. Lindsay et al. credited their findings to peoples faith in the validity of pictorial evidence creating an authoritative influence on their confidence of the occurrence of events. Single exposure to suggestion is also indicated to create considerable false recollections (Zaragoza & Mitchell, 1996). This method of suggestion is demonstrated in the Loftus and
Link to Loftus concept
Palmer (1974) experiment in which participants perception of speed in response to the manipulation of verb use in a questionnaire, and the false recollection of the presence of broken glass after viewing a video of an accident was investigated. As predicted, the use of stronger verbs to depict the accident such as smashed and collided consequently caused the participants perceived speed of the vehicle to be higher. Moreover, participants were more likely to recall the presence of broken glass in the video, when stronger verbs were used, in comparison to the use of less forceful verbs such as bumped and contacted.
What did they conclude?
The present study was designed to expand on previous studies of false memories by testing the influence of specific word structure in questionnaires on the recall of observed events. In Loftus and Palmer (1974), verb use was varied, where as the present experiment altered the adjective used. It was hypothesized that a week after viewing a video of an automobile accident, participants would falsely recall the colour of a car as blue or orange, after being exposed to questions in a questionnaire in the previous week which either asked Was the young mans blue car parked nose in or nose out? or Was the young mans orange car parked nose in or nose out?.
Finish with a specific hypothesis that predicts who (or which condition) will be faster/slower, bigger/smaller, etc.
Method Participants Two-hundred and twenty-five female and 88 male undergraduate students at Griffith University, Mount Gravatt campus participated in this experiment during their 1001PSY Introduction to Cognitive and Biological Psychology tutorials. The mean age of participants was 19.79 years.
Design The experiment was a between subjects design, where each participant acted as their own control. The independent variable was the use of either the question Was the young mans orange car parked nose in or nose out?, or Was the young mans blue car parked nose in or nose out? The dependent variable was the participants recollection of the colour of the car. Materials
More detail
A You Tube video of an automobile accident was used in this experiment in addition to 2
separate sets of questionnaires, with specifically the key questions Was the blue (or alternatively orange) car parked nose in or nose out? and What colour was the young mans car? Procedure This experiment was a 2 week process in which tutorial classes were labeled either as Group A or Group B. In each group participants were asked to watch the You Tube video Stupid Old Man Wrecks Ferrari (Bagleboy550, 2007). This video was watch only once and participants were instructed to pay careful attention as they were to be asked questions on their observations afterwards. Once viewing was complete, participants were then given a questionnaire to fill in based on their perception of the incident. Participants of Group A were asked the critical question Was the young mans orange car parked nose in or nose out?, whilst the participants of Group B were asked Was the young mans blue car parked nose in or nose out? These answers were then collected by the experimenter. A week later, during the same tutorial class, at the same time of day, participants were presented with a set of different questions based on the video. The video was not re-watched. Participants of both groups were asked the question What colour was the young mans car?
Results Table 1 displays the results of false car colour recollections for both subject pools. These results indicate that stating the colour of the car as orange in the questionnaire in the first week increases the likelihood of participants of that subject pool to recall the car as actually being orange a week later; similarly for stating the car colour as blue.
Table 1 Distribution of Subjects Recollection of the Colour of the Car Group A B Orange 22 2
The first sentence states whether the hypothesis was/was not supported
Center the numbers in the table and the table should occupy the width of the page
Blue 18 50
Other 124 97
Discussion
The results of this experiment suggest that memory can be biased by suggestion. This therefore supports the hypothesis that utilising the question Was the young mans orange car parked nose in or nose out or alternatively substituting the adjective orange for blue, would lead to the creation of a significant number of false memories when prompted what colour was the young mans car?. This experiment also supports the findings of Loftus and Palmer (1974), where the manipulation of the language in a questionnaire resulted in the creation of false memories of videos previously viewed. Both experiments were also performed for the same duration of time, with similar numbers of participants. The findings of Lindsay, Hagan, Read, Wade and Garry
Lindsay et al. (2004)
Relate how your results were similar and different to previous research
(2004) are also supported by the findings of this experiment as both were performed over a two week period, and both incorporated visual stimuli to induce false memories. One methodological concern is that the experiment was conducted during a period of time when participants may have been switching tutorials and therefore there may have been an exchange between group participants. There was also no way to prevent participants from viewing the You Tube video again in their own time, outside of the experiment. However, due to the low probability of occurrence, the overall results of the experiment indicate that the hypothesis was not invalidated by this.
How could you fix this?
The results suggest that there is a certain degree of susceptibility of our minds to input information as witnessed truths when it is in fact not. This is particularly dangerous in judicial situations where eye-witness testimony is needed. According to Zaragoza and Mitchell (1996), frequent exposure to misinformation during the interrogation of eye-witnesses is not an uncommon occurrence. Faulty memories in this case could lead to innocent people being wrongfully convicted (Loftus, 2004), thus highlighting the importance of further understanding the creation of false memories.
No conclusion in lab reports
In conclusion, false memories can be produced by the manipulation of language in a
questionnaire, by altering our perceptions of objects and situations which are previously viewed. This as reflected by the results of the current experiment which shows a significant number of participants falsely recalling the car colour as either blue or orange. Further suggested study is a comparison between the susceptibility of the implantation of false memories of men in contrast to women.
Put methodology and limitations as second last paragraph; Followed by future directions Expand
References Bagleboy550. (Producer). (2007, September 23). Stupid old man wrecks Ferrari [You Tube video]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gQnxGFYThKI Lindsay, S. D., Hagen, L., Read, J. D., Wade, K. A., & Garry, M. (2004). True photographs and false memories. American Psychological Society. 15, 149-154. doi: 10.1111/j.09567976.2004.01503002.x Loftus, E. F. (2004). Memories of things unseen. American Psychological Society. 13, 145-147. doi: 10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00294.x Loftus, E. F., & Palmer, J. C. (1974). Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An example of the interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour. 13, 585-589. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(74)80011-3 Zaragoza, M. S., & Mitchell, K. J. (1996). Repeated exposure to suggestion and the creation of false memory. American Psychological Society. 7, 294-300. Retrieved from http://hy8fy9jj4b.scholar.serialssolutions.com/?sid=google&auinit=MS&aulast=Zaragoz a&atitle=Repeated+exposure+to+suggestion+and+the+creation+of+false+memories&id =doi:10.1111/j.14679280.1996.tb00377.x&title=Psychological+science&volume=7&iss ue=5&date=1996&spage=294
References are listed in ALPHABETICAL order by first Author. Note that the first line is hanging and the others are indented. Provide Author, Year, Title, Journal, Issue details as outlined
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Essay Writing In Psychology
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Essays for Psychology The basics

The following paragraphs offer some general information on how to write essays in psychology. Firstly, the presentation of your essay begins with a title page and an abstract; refer to the previous sections under Psychology Research Papers for information on these sections. Your essay also requires a structure that includes an introduction, body, and a conclusion (although headings are not used). In a good essay, each section flows logically from the section before, and links together to establish a coherent composition. Many authors advocate the use of topic sentences to introduce each new paragraph. The topic sentence is then followed by several related supporting statements, and a concluding statement that links to the next paragraph. For example, the first sentence of this section introduces the paragraph content that you have just read.
Introduction
The introduction provides the framework for your essay, and may consist of two to three paragraphs. In the introduction you orient your reader to the essay topic and provide a summary of what you will discuss. You need to tell the reader what you are going to argue, outline any limits to your approach to the topic, define any important words from the question, and tell the reader what general conclusions you will arrive at. Not surprisingly, this section can immediately influence a reader, and determine how well he or she grasps your argument later. As a result, the importance of this section should not be underestimated.
Body
The body of the essay is where you answer the question by developing your argument or analysis in a logical manner. You may choose to use relevant definitions, quotes, examples, theory, and research, to support your argument or analysis. Your choice of material will largely depend on the topic, and whether you are required to critically analyse the topic, or develop an argument these approaches are discussed in more detail below.
Conclusion
Your conclusion should refer back to your introduction and show that you have answered the question. Summarise your main points and indicate what the essay has succeeded in demonstrating. This will give the reader a sense of completeness or closure. Make sure not to introduce any new material at this stage, and do not include references in your conclusion. A sample essay is attached at the end of this section.
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What is critical analysis?

Critical analysis has very little to do with being critical in your writing. In fact, being critical can bring you completely undone! What you need to do for academic papers is read widely, compare theories with theories, and theorists with theorists. Different writers may and often do have quite different ways of looking at the same problem. The nature versus nurture debate is an excellent example. If one theorist proposed that biology was the only, or determining factor in human development, then a large part of the picture would be missing that is, environmental, or learned, influences. Your job, as a writer, is to identify the different theories pertinent to your question, and to evaluate these in light of research evidence. For example, there may be a number of prominent theorists who hold to a particular viewpoint. Their view may differ markedly from other theorists who have developed their own models to explain the question or concept under review. In addition, each side of the argument may be supported OR discounted by research evidence. You will need to explore the literature, and weigh up the research evidence, from which you draw informed conclusions. Essentially, the process is an objective assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of the theories and research findings involved (Germov, 1996, p. 33). While you come to terms with learning how to critically analyse your research material not simply describe it there are some questions worth asking as you proceed. Bear in mind that a theory is nothing more than one persons explanation of a particular phenomenon. Ask yourself: How much confidence do I have in the study I have just read? What aspects impressed me? What aspects bothered me? Do other studies come to different conclusions? How does the theory/study/concept fit with what I already know? (Germov, 1996)
If you can address these questions to yourself during the writing process, you will be well on the way to developing and, most importantly, demonstrating your skill at critical analysis.
Developing an argument
Your choice of words when constructing a sentence can add a great deal to how your work is presented. For example, if your task is to develop an argument, then you will be looking at two or more perspectives on your subject matter. Making the different elements of your argument clear (more difficult than it sounds) to your reader can be as simple as starting a topic sentence or a supporting sentence thus:
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In contrast On the other hand Joe Bloggs disagrees, stating that Notwithstanding the above
Building your essay further using connectives

If your task is to discuss or explain a particular topic (as sometimes occurs in an exam), you may feel unsure of exactly how to link meaningfully related supporting statements. One way to attack this is to use opening phrases like: Further to the above In addition, Nonetheless, it can be seen that Following from Bloggs ideas about blah blah,
Connectives are used to give logical order to your work. They are usually used at the beginning of a paragraph to help the flow of the report/essay.
Time
Then, next, after, while, since, at the same time, before, now, later Therefore, consequently, as a result, hence, accordingly, because, thus In addition, furthermore, similarly, moreover, also, next, firstly, secondly In summary, in conclusion, to sum up, finally
Cause-effect
Addition
Summarising
Illustration
For example, for instance, specifically, in particular
Contrast
Conversely, nevertheless, however, although, whereas, on the other hand, likewise, similarly, in comparison, in contrast, yet, while, equally
(Learning Centre, UNSW, 1994)
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What Does This Essay Question Mean?

Before you start researching your essay you need to ask yourself what does this topic mean? It can be very useful to identify key words and clarify what is expected of you. Essay questions are generally made up of three important elements: 1. INSTRUCTIONAL word/s, that tell you what to do, 2. TOPIC word/s, that tell you about your subject, and 3. LIMITING word/s, that define the task boundaries.
(Germov, 1996)
For example, the following essay question Discuss the effects of colonisation on indigenous Australians since 1788. - can be understood (dissected) in the following manner. INSTRUCTIONAL WORD TOPIC WORD/S LIMITING WORD/S Discuss colonisation, indigenous Australians since 1788
Other instructional words

Analyse Compare Find the main ideas, how they are related and why they are important. To show the similarities or differences between two or more things, with particular emphasis on the similarities. To show the similarities or differences between two or more things, with particular emphasis on the differences. To give your judgement of something, showing its good and bad points. It is not necessary to attack it.
Contrast
Criticise
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Instructional words (continued)

Define Give the meaning of a term or word by distinguishing it from other related terms (may use examples to do this). To give a detailed account of a subject in a logical sequence. To investigate a subject by giving the details and explaining the positive and negative aspects of it. To give your opinion on a subject by showing the advantages and disadvantages. To explain by using concrete examples, comparisons or analogies. Give a statement of why you think something is so. Give reasons for your beliefs. To give a general summary by using main points and subheadings. To summarise a subject and critically analyse it as well. To give a concise account of the main ideas of a subject.
(Learning Centre, UNSW, 1994)
Describe Discuss
Evaluate
Illustrate Justify
Outline Review Summarise
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Example Essay for Psychology
Early Family Experience as a Risk Factor for Poor Parenting Behaviour
Name: Student No: Course: Tutor: Tutorial Time: Due Date: Word Count:
Andrea Quinn 1234567 1002PSY, Introductory Individual & Social Psychology Maddy Phillips Friday, 6 7pm 30/9/2002 1695 words
Date Submitted: 30/9/2002
Abstract The essay examines explanations for the transgenerational transfer of poor parenting behaviour. One explanation considered is in terms of faulty attachment style between infant and care-giver that affects the quality of later interpersonal relationships when the child becomes an adult. The other is in terms of poor internalized working models of interaction between infant and caregiver that the child carries forward into their later parenting role. Both explanations point to the importance of exposure to adequate parenting for subsequent effective parenting behaviour.
Early Family Experience as a Risk Factor for Poor Parenting Behaviour Early childhood experience is frequently proposed as a precursor for the development of poor parenting behaviours in adulthood (Peterson, 1989). Two principal explanations have been offered as a means of understanding the mechanisms of such a link, and have the potential to inform the search for solutions. As a result, the possibility for arresting transgenerational patterns of child abuse may be embedded in the underlying mechanisms that presently support its maintenance. In the following essay, theories of attachment are explored as a means of identifying links between early experience and enduring patterns of relationship behaviour. Second, the concept of internal working models is used to frame how people may re-enact early models of parenting behaviour. Finally, conclusions are drawn regarding the potential to transmit poor parenting behaviours across generations. To begin, however, an overview of the problem is offered, followed by a brief review of recent research. When a baby is born, he or she contains a core of uniqueness that has never existed before, and that may or may not find opportunity for expression. Guntrip (1973) maintained that it is not a parents responsibility to mould, shape, pattern, or condition their child, but to support them in such a way that the childs hidden uniqueness will have an opportunity to emerge. This notion is reflected in modern views on parent efficacy, where the language and behaviour parents use are considered pivotal to the developmental progression of each unique child (Gordon, 1975). For example, Gordon (1975) asserted genuine acceptance as the crucial element for fostering a relationship in which a child can grow. Acceptance is viewed as the fertile soil that permits a seed to grow into whatever it is capable of becoming; a ...child contains entirely within [their] organism the capacity to develop, ...acceptance...merely enables the child to actualise [their] potential (Gordon, 1975, p. 31). Notwithstanding the above, many parents rely on the language
of non-acceptance; they evaluate, judge, and admonish their children, believing that the best approach is to tell children what is not accepted. When such an approach is established, however, it often becomes the milieu for a childs entire early experience. It is acknowledged, too, that ones early family environment may re-emerge later as the origins of adverse parenting styles in later life. Just as family history may be a risk factor for medical illness, generational influences are thought to play a key role in determining adverse parenting behaviour in adults (Oliver, 1993; Simons, Whitebeck, Conger & Wu, 1991; Terr, 1991). This notion is consistently borne out in literature on child abuse, which is peppered with accounts of child victims who later perpetrate violence on their own offspring (Herman, 1994; Oliver, 1993; Terr, 1991). Terr (1988, 1991) and van der Kolk (1989), for example, reported behavioural re-enactments in later life that frequently manifest the residual memory of childhood experience, even in persons where no verbal memory exists. Further, child sexual and/or physical abuse and neglect are commonly reported as etiological factors in later psychopathology (Paris, Frank, Buonvino, & Bond, 1991; Terr, 1991). According to Terr (1991), ....psychic trauma leads to mental changes that eventually account for some adult character problems (p. 11). Not surprisingly, negative childhood experiences have been described as ubiquitous in the psychiatric disorders of adolescence and adulthood (Kernberg, 1996; Mullen, Martin, Anderson, Romans, & Herbison, 1993; Paris et al., 1991; Patrick, Hobson, Castle, Howard, & Maughan, 1994; Terr, 1991; Whisman & Kwon, 1992; Whitebeck et al., 1992). Although the path from childhood experience to later pathology is far from direct or certain, the link at least seems clear. This does not suggest, however, that the mechanism of transmission is known or understood.
When investigating specific mechanisms that may encourage a transition from child victim to problem parent, some researchers direct their attention to disruption in childhood attachment bonds (Bowlby, 1982; Bretherton & Waters, 1985; St Clair, 1986). Central to this view is the understanding that healthy psychological functioning is dependent on an infants experience of empathic and sensitive parental care (Bowlby, 1982). The quality of care during infancy, moreover, has been consistently reported as more important than its quantity (Ainsworth,1989; Schaffer & Emerson, as cited in Peterson, 1989; Sroufe, 1986). A sensitive caregiver is therefore imbued with the capacity to stimulate a childs attachment orientation within the interpersonal context. According to Bowlby (1982), the attachment style that emerges during infancy will persist in long-term attachment-related personality traits, and can influence psychological well-being through the life span. Like other developmental theorists, Bowlby argued that people cannot be characterised simply by a collection of static traits which are constant across time and situations (Sroufe, 1986). His articulation of attachment theory introduced an evolutionary-ethological approach, with the central proposition that infant attachment is determined by a clear, goal-corrected (Bowlby, 1982), behavioural system, aimed at maintaining proximity to primary caregivers (Strahan, 1991). Bowlbys expositions on attachment inspired a new way of interpreting basic phenomena in human maturation, but retained the psychoanalytic notion of developmental stages (Sroufe, 1986). The essence of the theory is that, while development and change clearly occur, the impact of early experience is not lost, especially ones experience of early relationships (Bowlby, 1982). Instead, individual adaptation is an ongoing process that occurs in the context of interpersonal relationships. Following from this, attachment theory has had profound
implications for paradigms of personality and social development, declaring that the emerging personality of the child has its genesis in the infant-caregiver relationship (Strahan, 1991). Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, and Wall (1978) extended the concept further, positing that particular attachment styles can be detected in attachment behaviours. According to Ainsworth et al. (1978), each style has the predictable outcome of keeping the child within the vicinity of significant caregivers. Three distinct styles of attachment interaction were identified: (a) secure, (b) anxious-ambivalent, and (c) anxious-avoidant, each of which was found to be related to differences in the caregivers behaviour (Ainsworth et al., 1978). The secure attachment style was found to be associated with caregiver responsiveness and availability, anxious-ambivalent attachment with inconsistent caregiving, and anxious-avoidant attachment with rejecting behaviours (Ainsworth et al., 1978; Strahan, 1991). According to Bowlby, the attachment orientation emerging in infancy also determines the quality and pattern of affectional bonds in later life (Strahan, 1991), a view which has since found considerable research support. Hazan and Shaver (1987), for example, consistently demonstrated the enduring influence of early attachment, through the development and testing of descriptive adult analogues to the three infant attachment styles. Their research found that individual differences in adult attachment styles were related to memories of child-parent interactions, and in particular to mental models of self and others (Hazan & Shaver, 1987). Since the early attachment bond is a product of the infant-caregiver relationship, it follows that this is the context in which the child develops an internalised representation of relationships with people in general (Bowlby, 1982). Bowlby proposed that these interactional patterns form the foundation from which human infants come to construct internal working models of self and other in relationships (Bretherton, 1990). Internal working models are
dynamic structures which function to interpret and anticipate anothers behaviour, in addition to guiding ones own behaviour within the context of a relationship (Bretherton, 1990). Thus, if the relationship with primary caregivers is dysfunctional, the infants working model of relationships with others will also be dysfunctional. For example, when a childs relationship with its primary caregiver has been such that they got attention only when they were quiet and passive, they will assume that adults will only like them when they are quiet or passive (Todd & Bohart, 1994). Bretherton (1990) noted that if an individual has experienced a rejecting relationship with a primary caregiver, the working model is likely to be one of a rejecting parent, complemented by a working model of self as unlovable. Because these working models function as a template for later social relationships, they shape the individuals behaviour through the influence of internalised working models (Sroufe, 1986). Bowlby (1982) conceived unconscious processes as being the key to the continued influence of early experiences, particularly where relationships function as a forum for reworking such experiences (Sroufe, 1986). Ones later experience is structured and interpreted through representations of self and other which have been formed from early experience; the individual responds to, and alters the interpersonal environment in terms of these inner working models (Ainsworth, 1989). Hence, the individuals behavioural system includes not only the external manifestation (behaviour), but an inner orgasation which serves as a guide for later responses to environmental cues (Ainsworth, 1989). The implications for parenting behaviour were investigated by Bretherton and Waters (1985), who found striking evidence for generational continuities in insensitive parenting. Bretherton and Waters (1985) claimed that a persons representations of their experiences, rather than the experiences themselves, seem to precipitate how they subsequently parent their own
offspring. They concluded that parent insensitivity to infant signals may result from the parents use of internal working models to frame parenting behaviour (Bretherton & Waters, 1985). They suggested, further, that lack of integration of parents own experiences and feelings may restrict attention and the flow of information with respect to attachment. Following from this, when the environment fails to support optimal psychological growth, the child is at risk of becoming fixated in their development (Rowe & MacIsaac, 1991). If personal resilience and/or supportive environmental influences do not intercede during later development, the individual has a strong chance of acting out internalised models of poor parenting behaviours (Cicchetti & Aber, 1980; Oliver, 1993). These internalised models then facilitate transmission of a familial diathesis for adverse parenting behaviour, which, in turn, may become self-sustaining across generations. Based on the above, it seems imperative that social policy makers consider the timing or interventions directed at reducing the risks for parental abuse of children. In summary, links between early childhood experience and the development of poor parenting behaviours have been consistently identified in the research literature. Theories of attachment offer one means of explicating potential links, as there is evidence that ones early attachment orientation may endure and find expression in parenting styles. In addition, the concept of internal working models offers another explanation of how people may re-enact their early models of parenting, without examining the current viability of such behaviour. As a result, it seems clear that the potential to transmit poor parenting behaviours across generations may be determined by experiences early in life, and points to the need to intervene as early as practicable when children are at risk of parental abuse.
References Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1989). Attachments beyond infancy. American Psychologist, 44, 709-716. Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Basic Books. Bretherton, I. (1990). Communication patterns, internal working models, and the intergenerational transmission of attachment relationships. Infant Mental Health Journal, 11, 237-252.
Insert doi if available for journal articles obtained online
Bretherton, I., & Waters, E. (1985). Growing points of attachment theory and research. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50 (209), 1-211. Cicchetti, D., & Aber, J. L. (1980). Abused children abusive parents: An overstated case? Harvard Educational Review, 50, 244-255. Gordon, T. (1975). P.E.T.: Parent effectiveness training. New York, NY: Penguin Books. Guntrip, H. (1973). Psychoanalytic theory, therapy, and the self. New York, NY: Basic Books. Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualised as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 511-524. Herman, J. L. (1994). Trauma and recovery. London, England: Pandora. Kernberg, O. F. (1996). Aggression and transference in severe personality disorders. Retrieved from http://www.mhsource.com/edu.psytimes/p950216.html Mullen, P. E., Martin, J. L., Anderson, J. C., Romans, S. E., & Herbison, G. P. (1993). Childhood sexual abuse and mental health in adult life. British Journal of
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Psychiatry, 163, 721-732. Oliver, J. E. (1993). Intergenerational transmission of child abuse: Rates, research, and clinical implications. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 13151324. Paris, J., Frank, H., Buonvino, M., & Bond, M. (1991). Recollections of parental behaviour and Axis II cluster diagnosis. Journal of Personality Disorders, 5, 102-106. Patrick, M., Hobson, P., Castle, D., Howard, R., & Maughan, B. (1994). Personality disorder and the mental representation of early social experience. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 375-388. Peterson, C. (1989). Looking forward through the life span (2nd ed.). Sydney: Prentice Hall. Rowe, C. E., & MacIsaac, D. S. (1991). Empathic attunement: The technique of psychoanalytic self psychology. Northvale, NJ: Jason-Aronson. Simons, R. L., Whitbeck, L. B., Conger, R. D., & Wu, C. (1991). Intergenerational transmission of harsh parenting. Developmental Psychology, 27 (1), 159-171. Sroufe, L. A. (1986). Appraisal: Bowlbys contribution to psychoanalytic theory and developmental psychology; attachment: separation: loss. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 27, 841-849. St. Clair, M. (1986). Object relations and self psychology: An introduction. Monterey, CA: Brooks Cole. Strahan, B. J. (1991). Attachment theory and family functioning: Expectations and congruencies. Australian Journal of Marriage and Family, 12 (1), 12-26. Terr, L. C. (1988). What happens to the memories of early childhood trauma? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 96-104.
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Terr, L. C. (1991). Childhood traumas: An outline and overview. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148 (1), 10-20. Todd, J., & Bohart, A. C. (1994). Foundations of clinical and counseling psychology. CA: Harper Collins. Van der Kolk, B. A. (1989). The compulsion to repeat the trauma, re-enactment, revictimisation, and masochism. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 12, 389-411. Whisman, M. A., & Kwon, P. (1992). Parental representations, cognitive distortions, and mild depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 16, 557-568. Whitebeck, L. B., Hoyt, D. R., Simons, R. L., Conger, R. D., Elder, G. H., & Lorenz, F.O. (1992). Intergenerational continuity of parental rejection and depressed affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 1036-1045.
Case-Scenario of Anne and Jude: A Practical Approach to Child-Care Placement
Name: Student Number: Course: Tutorial time: Tutor: Due Date: Date Submitted: Word Count: Collecting Assignment:
Paul Stanley s 3011PSY 8am 10am C. Podogrnik 6 May 2010 6 May 2010 2587 words Yes
Case-Scenario of Anne and Jude: A Practical Approach to Child-Care Placement The decision to consign ones child into a child-care (CC) facility is often a difficult and complicated stage affecting many parents (Gonzalez & Eyer, 1997). Simply put, whether CC is good or bad for a childs overall development is often confounded by a host of conflicting literature (Brooks-Gunn, Han & Waldfogel, 2002). When taken together such literature presents an array of interacting factors which may further complicate the decision making process (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). Therefore, the aim of this essay is to assess the particular challenges inherent in provided scenario (see Appendix) and suggest strategies for optimising the CC experience and developmental outcome of the child. Deliberation will be made in regards to Bronfenbrenners Ecological Systems Theory of Development (EST; Bronfenbrenner, 1994) and modern literature. In order to minimise ambivalence, several assumptions will be made in reference to the scenario: The child will be subsequently referred to as Jude; Anne and Jude are currently residing in the United States; both are of African American ethnicity and are categorised as low socioeconomic status (SES); high-quality CC is available in Annes area thereby eliminating the need to discuss the effects of low-quality CC in general; Anne is considering seeking full-time (over 30 hours per week) employment. The precise details of Annes working arrangements, relationship status or other potentially influential factors will not be assumed; no other assumptions regarding Anne or Judes biological or environmentally shaped characteristics will be made. All literature referred to will pertain to the United States unless otherwise stated. Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) is credited with establishing a complete theory of lifespan development due to its emphasis on diversity, completeness and contextual influences (Berk, 2010). EST portrays human development as evolving through bi-directional interactions
between the biological organism and the ecological environment, that is, the actual environments in which human beings live their lives (Bronfenbrenner, 1994). The ecological environment is represented as a set of interrelated rings including the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and chronosystem from the innermost level to the outermost respectively (Bronfenbrenner). The microsystem contains face to face activities and interpersonal relations in immediate settings (Bronfenbrenner, 1994). Bronfenbrenner referred to these interactions as proximal processes and considered them to be more influential than the environmental contexts in which they transpire. The mesosystem contains linkages between two or more microsystems containing the person, for example in relation to the child: The link between CC and the family (Bronfenbrenner). The exosystem is comprised of linkages between two or more settings in which at least one setting does not contain the developing person, for example in relation to the child: The home setting and the mothers workplace (Bronfenbrenner). The macrosystem can be viewed as a particular cultures blueprint for society and contains: Beliefs, material resources and laws (Bronfenbrenner). The chronosystem is the time in which development takes place including chronological development across the lifespan but also across historical time (Bronfenbrenner). Bronfenbrenner (1974) maintained that development should be examined within its ecological context, with the results of research directly influencing public policy. Due to the impracticability for Anne to alter Judes macrosystem, and the chronosystem simply being Judes current age at the present historical time, neither the macrosystem nor chronosystem will be discussed subsequently. Over the last 25 years the early experiences of young children have undergone a considerable transformation (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early
Child Care Research Network [NICHD ECCRN], 2006). The percentage of children that receive regular CC prior to formal schooling has now escalated from below 25% to above 80%; with a substantial portion of the later experiencing CC within their first two years of life (West, Denton, & Germino-Hausken, 2000). The increasing utilisation of CC can in part be attributed to a rise in numbers of working mothers in modern westernised society (Berk, 2010). Currently, over 60% of mothers with a child below age two are employed (Berk). Berk suggests that even though the use of CC for infants and toddlers has become common practise, many parents are unsure of the quality and standards of CC experiences. An abundance of literature has examined the links between the quality of CC and the cognitive, behavioural, language and socioemotional outcomes of childrens development (Brooks-Gunn et al., 2002; Field 1991; Geoffroy et al., 2007; NICHD ECCRN, 2006; Vermeer, van Ijzendoorn, De Kruif, Fukkink & Tavecchio, 2008). Typically early research highlighted poor carer ratios, large group size, inadequate carer training; and the associated negative outcomes in childrens immediate well-being (Belsky, 1990). In spite such findings, the NICHD ECCRN cautions that the validity of early research may be questionable due to a lack of control for confounds such as selection bias. The NICHD ECCRN suggests that differences in family genetics, education and income influence the home environment and CC decisions, which in turn are associated with CC outcomes. Consistent with this idea, Bronfenbrenners (1994) notion that an individuals genotype (genetic constitution), phenotype (observable constitution) and microsystem structures are all influential in childrens development, may indicate that the benefit or harm of CC is already partially determined before enrolment. To address this issue Brooks-Gunn et al. (2002) conducted a longitudinal study in which they examined the association between CC placement due to maternal employment within the
first 12 months and cognitive outcomes of children as measured within the first three years of a childs life. The researchers predicted that certain subgroups of the population would be particularly at risk for poorer outcomes and that any effects may be mediated by the type of home environment experiences. Using data from NICHD ECCRN (1999; 2000) the researchers measured the quality of the home environment with the Home Observation of the Measurement of the Environment Scale (HOME); and cognitive development with the Bracken School Readiness Scale. They found that negative effects observed in children with working mothers were pronounced in instances where mothers worked more than 30 hours per week. Moreover, children with mothers rated as low on maternal sensitivity by the NICHD ECCRN (2006) were categorised as being susceptible to negative outcomes. In support of this, Bradley and Vandell (2007) noted that in instances where longer working hours were associated with low maternal sensitivity, a reduction in positive engagement between mother and child was also observed. In light of previous research (Bradley & Vandell, 2007; Brooks-Gunn et al., 2002) on subgroup susceptibility, Bronfenbrenners (1994) emphasis on context and bi-directional proximal processes within the microsystem seems particularly relevant. Bronfenbrenners view of the ecological environment as an ever-changing and unique structure may be beneficial in accounting for subgroup susceptibilities to maternal employment. Papero (2005) endorses this viewpoint contending that one of the factors which substantially impacts on proximal processes between mother and child is maternal depression. Depressed mothers typically view their parenting style negatively; doubt their ability to have a positive impact on their childs development; and are reluctant to challenge their childs opposition (Radke-Yarrow, Cummings, Kuczynski & Chapman, 1985).
Although it could be argued that depression is a complex and multi-faceted phenomenon, Papero (2005) suggests that regardless of causal diagnosis, a mothers ability to maintain sensitive and responsive parenting is the most crucial aspect of a childs development and is compromised by all forms of depressive symptomology. In contrast to this, Field (1991) claims that the cause of maternal depression should not be discounted, and suggests that mothers under financial strain may desire to work, and as a result become depressed while waiting for CC openings. Moreover, financial pressure is often associated with maternal depression in instances where mothers feel forced into employment due to desire to provide full-time maternal care (Papero). Annes previous decision to leave work and provide full-time primary care for Jude indicates that she may believe full-time maternal care is important for Judes development. Therefore, Annes belief and financial position may place her at risk for maternal depression. In addition, upon securing employment, excess stress resulting from working and parenting could limit Annes ability to provide sensitive care (NICHD ECCRN, 2006). Consequently, it may be reasonable to assume that Anne could benefit from regular medical examinations. Bronfenbrenner and Morris (1998) maintain that multiple unstable characteristics of connected systems, such as maternal depression, low income, and irregular childcare can have a synergistic effect by reinforcing each other and producing cumulative effects that are likely to jeopardise a childs development. In such instances developmental benefits of regular CC may be observed, and in which case may be explained via the compensatory/protective hypothesis (Geoffroy et al., 2007). Geoffroy et al. elucidates that CC may act as a protective factor by compensating for limited resources in the home environment, particularly in low SES families. Consistent with this, Lamb and Ahnert (2006) assert that children from low SES families are frequently enrolled in community-based CC which has superior carer-child ratios and smaller
group sizes than the majority of CC centres attended by children from middle SES families. In this way, the opportunity to attend community-based CC afforded by Annes low SES status may inadvertently provide a positive impact on Judes development. Perhaps this may be interpreted as evidence that high quality CC can counter the reinforcing properties of synergestic effects proposed by Bronfenbrenner and Morris (1998). Burchinal et al. (2000) conducted a longitudinal study which examined the relationship between the quality of CC and the associated cognitive, language and communication development in children aged between 6 and 36 months. The researchers were particularly interested in children deemed to be vulnerable in relation to ethnicity, CC quantity and SES. For this reason they restricted recruitment to African American children attending at least 30 hours per week of community based CC in low SES environments. Developmental assessments were made using Bayley Scales of Infant Development (cognitive), Sequenced Inventory of Communication Development (language) and Communication and Symbolic Behaviour Scales (communication skills). The researchers found that when controlling for selection bias and family characteristics, higher quality CC was associated with increased cognitive, language and communication skills over time. In addition they determined that the quality of CC in infancy tended to be poor on average, and improve linearly towards the pre-school years. Therefore, in an effort to optimise Judes CC experience, it may be beneficial for Anne to utilise the three months before Judes possible enrolment to compare and contrast the particular age-specific care provided by CC centres in her area. Moreover, it may be beneficial to determine the specific characteristics of CC which contribute to its quality and hence, its developmental outcomes (NICHD ECCRN, 2006).
The NICHD ECCRN (2006) insists that when making predictions for a childs development that multiple characteristics of CC experience must be considered. The NICHD ECCRN examined developmental outcomes at ages 15, 24, 36 and 54 months in over 1300 children that had received prior regular CC. They observed that higher quality CC (as operationalised by cognitive and language stimulation as well as responsive and sensitive caregiving) was associated with almost all cognitive, language, preacademic and socioemotional developmental outcomes. In addition, they noted that children in high-quality CC were frequently rated by caregivers as displaying more prosocial behaviours. In consideration of the NICHD ECCRNs stance on the importance of CC quality, Annes search for optimal CC may be enhanced by comparing and contrasting the characteristics of CC quality as operationalised by the NICHD ECCRN. In this way she may be able to refine her choices by eliminating those CC centres that are indicative of providing lower quality experiences in regards to the operational dimensions. Annes choice of a CC centre may have direct implications for Jude according to Bronfenbrenners (2006) notion of the means by which ecological environments change. Bronfenbrenner reasons that whenever individuals add or change roles in their environment an ecological transition results: That is, a change in the breadth of ones microsystem. Consequently, Annes decision to expand Judes microsystem with the addition of a new structure (CC) would also inadvertently create an additional mesosystem (CC to family). In this way, the caregiver-parent relationship would become an important dimension of the ecology of children within CC (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Consistent with this notion, Shpancer (2002) indicates that CC outcomes are influenced by caregiver-parent relationships, which in turn are dependent on caregivers perceptions of parents.
Shpancer (2002) suggests that caregivers negative evaluations of parents may stem from their attitude towards working mothers. In support of this, Galinsky (1990) reported that 24% of caregivers participating in the National Child Care Staffing Study had negative attitudes towards maternal employment. Moreover, Galinsky (1990) advised that mothers are often unfavourably perceived due to their general lack of desire for extensive communication with the caregiver. This may partially explain Kontos and Dunns (1989) findings that mothers displaying a limited knowledge of CC services and a reluctance to interact, or request advice were valued less by caregivers. In consideration of previous research (Galinsky, 1990; Shpancer, 2002) on perceptions of caregivers, Annes status as a working mother may attract negative evaluations from CC staff. In attempting to counter such evaluations and ensure a beneficial mesosystem for Jude, Anne may have to display enthusiasm for communication and be available for interaction with caregivers (Kontos & Dunn, 1989). Berk (2010) suggests that the ability to maintain developmentally favourable mesosystems is partially dependant on the degree to which an individuals exosystem is conducive. Berk contends that adequate leave for parents with sick children and flexible working schedules can enhance childrens development. In support of this, results of the data analysis conducted by the NICHD ECCRN (2006) were directed towards the need for specific policy changes including: Extended welfare benefits, flexible working schedules and paid parental leave at any time within the first five years following child birth. Although directly changing exosystem policy may be an impractical objective for Anne; the work conducted by the NICHD ECCRN indicates that it may be beneficial for Anne to examine prospective workplace policies, specifically in regards to employer flexibility. In this way Anne may be able to negotiate a position within a company that is considerate of her status as a mother. Subsequently, extra
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flexibility in the workplace may assist Anne in retaining her position, which according to Brooks-Gunn et al. (2002) can impact positively on child development by ensuring adequate resources in the home environment. Another method for increasing home resources is highlighted by Brooks-Gunn (2004), who suggests that low SES families may have access to community or home based interventions; which provide health services, social support and parental education aimed at enhancing childrens development. In particular Anne could consider applying for the Early Head Start program, which ensures high-quality CC for children from low SES families (NICHD ECCRN). Overall, CC is a complex multidimensional phenomenon (Vandell, 2004). Developmental outcomes tend to be determined not only through multiple dimensions but also through the subtle and dynamic interactions of their underlying components (Shpancer, 2006). In light of this, it could be argued that the multiple systems incorporated within EST placed it in a unique position for analysing developmental outcomes specific to Anne and Judes situation. However, the multiple systems which comprise EST are often considered to be its greatest strength and its greatest downfall (Ungar, 2002). More specifically, EST has been criticised for neglecting to explain why connections exist and why situations occur (Ungar). Nevertheless, Bronfenbrenner (1994) asserts that the principal goal of EST is not to validate hypotheses or obtain answers. Bronfenbrenner maintains that the primary scientific aim of EST is to provide a theoretical framework that when applied, will lead to advances in discovery of the processes, and circumstances that shape the course of human development. Therefore, the main benefits of EST may be its suitability as a complementary theory to other developmental theories, or its usefulness in highlighting areas of importance for future developmental research.
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By using an EST framework, modern research has been utilised to highlight Anne and Judes probable challenges and formulate strategies for optimising Judes CC experience and developmental outcomes. It was determined that Annes ethnicity, low SES, and intention to work for 30 hours or more per week placed Jude at risk for poor developmental outcomes. This highlighted the importance of protecting Jude from negative outcomes by providing high-quality CC as measured by cognitive and language stimulation, and sensitive and responsive caregiving. In addition, strategies that Anne could employ to improve the parent-caregiver relationship and to secure flexible employment were discussed. In this way a practical or problem-solving approach has been implemented. As a result any ambivalence regarding whether or not CC placement is best for Anne and Jude has been reduced, and alternatively, the issue of how Anne and Jude can make the best of CC has been presented.
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References Belsky, J. (1990). Parental and nonparental child care and childrens socioemotional development: A decade in review. Journal of Marriage and Family, 54, 885-903. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.libraryproxy.griffith.edu.au/stable/353308 Berk, L. E. (2010) Development through the lifespan (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Bradley, R. H., & Vandell, D. L. (2007). Child care and the well-being of children. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 161, 669-676. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.161.7.669 Bronfenbrenner, U. (1974). Ecology of childhood. Child Development, 45, 15. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. In M. Gauvain, & M. Cole (Eds.), Readings on the development of children (3rd ed., pp. 3-8). New York: Freeman. Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (1998). The ecology of developmental processes. In W. Damon, & R. M. Learner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: (5th ed., pp. 9931028). New York: Wiley. Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (2006). The bio-ecological model of human development. In R.M. Learner (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (6th ed., pp. 297-342). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Brooks-Gunn, J. (2004). Intervention and policy as change agents for young children. In P.L. Chase Lansdale, K. Kiernan, & R.J. Friedman (Eds.), Human development across lives and generations: The potential for change (pp. 293-340). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
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Brooks-Gunn, J., Han, W. J., & Waldfogel, J. (2002). Maternal employment and child cognitive outcomes in the first three years of life: The NICHD ECCRN study of early child care. Child Development, 73, 1052-1072. doi: 10.1111/1467-8624.00457 Burchinal, M. R., Roberts, J. E., Riggins, R., Zeisel, S. A., Neebe, E., & Bryant, D. (2000). Relating quality of center-based child care to early cognitive and language development longitudinally. Child Development, 71, 339-357. doi: 10.1111/1467-8624.00149 Field, T. (1991). Quality infant day-care and grade school behaviour and performance. Child Development, 62, 863-870. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.libraryproxy.griffith. edu.au/stable/1131183 Galinsky, E. (1990). Why are some parent/teacher partnerships clouded with difficulties? Young Children, 45(1), 3839. Geoffroy, G., Cote, S. M., Borge, A. I. H, Larouche, F., Seguin, J. R., & Rutter, M. (2007). Association between nonmaternal care in the first year of life and childrens receptive language skills prior to school entry: The moderating role of socioeconomic status Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 490497. doi 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01704.x Gonzalez-Mena, J. & Eyer, D. W. (1997). Infants, toddlers and caregivers. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield. Kontos, S., & Dunn, L. (1989). Attitudes of caregivers, maternal experiences with day care, and childrens development. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 10 (1), 3751. doi:10.1016/0193-3973(89)90013-0 Lamb, M. E., & Ahnert, L. (2006). Nonparental child care: Context, concepts, correlates, and consequences. In K. A. Renninger, & I.E. Sigel (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (6th ed., pp. 700-778). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
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NICHD (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development) Early Child Care Research Network. (2006). Child-care effect sizes for the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. American Psychologist, 61, 99-116. doi: 10.1037/0003066X.63.3.146 Papero, A. L. (2005). Is early, high-quality daycare an asset for the children of low-income, depressed mothers? Developmental Review, 25(2), 181-211. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2004.10.001 Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. (2004). Character strengths and virtues. New York: Oxford University Press. Radke-Yarrow, M., Cummings, E. M., Kuczynski, L., & Chapman, M. (1985). Patterns of attachment in two- and three-year-olds in normal families and families with parental depression. Child Development, 56, 884893. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.libraryproxy.griffith.edu.au/stable/1130100 Shpancer, N. (2006). The effects of daycare: Persistent questions, elusive answers. Early childhood research quarterly, 21, 227-237. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2006.04.006 Ungar, M. (2002). A deeper, more social ecological social work practice. The Social Service Review, 76(3), 480-497. doi: 10.1086/341185 Vandell, D. L. (2004). Early child care: The known and the unknown. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 50, 387414. doi: 10.1353/mpq.2004.0027 Vermeer, H. J., van Izjendoorn, M. H., De Kruif, R. E. L., Fukkink, R. G., & Tavecchio, L. W. C. (2008). Child care in the Netherlands: Trends in quality over the years 1995-2005. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 169, 360-385. doi: 10.3200/GNTP.169.4.360-385 West, J., Denton, K., & Germino-Hausken, E. (2000). Americas kindergartens. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
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Appendix 1) Anne is the parent of a 9-month-old child. When her child was born, she decided to give up work to become a full-time parent and primary caregiver. Due to financial difficulties, however, she is now considering going back to work in 3 months time and placing her child in a day-care nursery. Discuss the pros and cons of doing this with reference to developmental research and theories.
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Referencing In Psychology
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Referencing in Research Reports and Essays

In-text referencing is the means by which you acknowledge the source documentation used in your written work. Like other academic disciplines, psychology requires you to apply a consistent style of referencing throughout your work.
One work by a single author

Erikson (1963) introduced a lifespan perspective to the developmental progression of human beings. OR The developmental progression of human beings is often viewed according to a lifespan perspective (Erikson, 1963).
One work by two authors

Too much parental control may lead to a childs inhibition of self-expression (Papalia & Olds, 1995). OR According to Papalia and Olds (1995), too much parental control may lead to a childs inhibition of self-expression.
One work by three to five authors

(you only need to cite the names of all the authors the first time you use them) In their seminal work on childhood attachment, Smith, Smith, and Bloggs (1997) asserted that (first citation) In a later study, Smith et al. (1997) replicated their original results with one major difference (second citation)
One work by six or more authors

(you only cite the name of the first author with et al. each time you cite the reference) According to Jones et al. (2000), emotional expression in the families of people with schizophrenia is (every citation) OR The research to date on marital happiness in stepfamilies is problematic because it is based on a comparison with the marital happiness of first marriage families (Gray et al., 1998).
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Authors with the same surname

Use the authors initials in all citations to avoid confusion. For example: S. Freud and A. Freud (1929) both averred the significance of early childhood experience.
Citing two or more sources for the same concept

1. List your sources in alphabetical order of authors names. Recent theorists have contributed substantially to our understanding of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder as a product of family dysfunction (Herman, 1994; Terr, 1995; Van Der Kolk, 1996). 2. If the publications are by the same author, order them according to year of publication. Later writers acknowledged the possibility that family dysfunction may affect the emergence of PTSD symptoms (Terr, 1993, 1994, 1995). 3. If the publications are by the same author AND are in the same year, add suffixes to your references to distinguish one from another. Terr acknowledged the possibility that family dysfunction may affect the emergence of PTSD symptoms in children (1994a, 1994b).
Citing an authors ideas that are listed in another persons book/article

First avoid using secondary sources; it is always better to seek out the original source. When you reference an authors idea that is listed in another persons book/article you need to include the name of the original author/s (e.g., Kohut) together with the author and date of the book/article from which you have cited the information/idea (e.g., as cited in Goldstein, 1990). For example: According to Kohut (as cited in Goldstein, 1990), broader insight, greater autonomy of ego functions, and increased control over impulsiveness may accompany these gains.
In the reference list you only include the details of the journal/book which you have read yourself (e.g., Goldstein, 1990).
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Citing electronic material in text

To cite a specific part of an electronic source, indicate the page, chapter, figure, table, or equations in text, as shown in the example below. (Cheek & Buss, 1981, p. 332) or (Shimamura, 1989, chap. 3) Note: For internet articles which do not provide page numbers, use the paragraph number, preceded by the paragraph symbol or the abbreviation para (e.g., Myers, 20000, 5). If neither paragraph nor page number are visible, cite the heading and the number of the paragraph following it to direct the reader to the location of the material (e.g., Beutler, 2000, Conclusion section, para. 1).
Referencing within a paragraph

Once you have referenced to a study in a paragraph, you do not need to include the year of the citation again (in subsequent references to the same study) as long as the study cannot be confused with other studies. In a recent study of reaction times, Walker (2000) described the method Walker also found
Personal communications
Personal communications including email messages, private conversations or interviews that you conducted with another person, should be cited in-text but because they do not contain recoverable data, do NOT cite them in your reference list. To cite a personal communication intext, provide initials and last name of the communicator, the personal communication, and an approximate date in your essay. For example: P. Smith also claimed that many of her students had difficulties with APA style (personal communication, November 3, 2002).
Lecture material
Similar to personal communications material presented during a lecture should be cited intext but NOT in your reference list, unless it is recoverable material (i.e., posted on a public website). An example of how to reference a lecture in-text is provided below: In an Introduction to Literature lecture at Capital Community College on April 14, 2004, Professor Charles Darling described William Carlos Williams poem as a barnyard snapshot (C. W. Darling, ENG 102 lecture, April 14, 2004).
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Referencing Quotations Correctly

Quotes should be used sparingly; it is better to show the reader that you understand the material by writing it in your own words. However, there are times when a succinct and clear quotation can enhance the readability of your essay. Quotes should be clearly indicated by double quotation marks if less than 40 words, and by indenting them five to seven spaces (or an inch) if 40 or more words. Quotes and other key items of information need to be appropriately referenced, indicating the author, date of publication and page number.
Examples of short quotes in text (less than 40 words)

Example 1: This is not to say that borderline personality organisation is transitory or fluctuating, but rather a stable pathological structure that becomes entrenched and fixed, and affects all later personality functioning (Goldstein, 1990, p. 19). Example 2: According to Goldstein, Kernberg hypothesises too much aggression as etiologic, [but] he does not say what causes this overabundance of aggression (1995, p. 330).
Example of a large quote (40 or more words)

According to Kernberg (1989) people with borderline personality disorder are: those who present serious difficulties in their interpersonal relationships and some alteration of their experience of reality but with essential preservation of reality testing. Such patients also present contradictory character traits, chaotic coexistence of defences against and direct expression of primitive id contents in consciousness (p. 130).
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Omission of words in a quote

If you have a long direct quote that has words which are redundant to your point you can omit a section. To do this you need to use three full stops () to highlight your omission.
General Reference List Principles Authors names

Invert authors names (i.e., give the surname first, then the initials). Separate surnames from initials with a comma. Separate initials with a full stop and a space. Separate different names with a comma. For two or more authors, separate the last name from the rest with a comma, then an ampersand (&). Do not use et al. in the reference list. Always give all the authors names. When referencing the editors of a book you need to list the authors initials first, followed by their surname. See the book chapter example on the previous page.
Date
Give the year of publication of the reference in brackets followed by a full stop. For books, this is the most recent copyright date, and is usually found on the page after the title page. For journals the year is the publication date of the journal. For translations, give the date of the translation, and add the date of the original work in parentheses after the end of the reference.
Title
Give the title of the reference exactly as it appears in the original, including the original spelling. Capitalise the first letter only of book, journal article, and book chapter titles and the first letter of a word appearing after a colon : in the title. Capitalise all major words in journal titles. Italicise book titles and journal titles.
Format
Use a hanging indent of five to seven spaces ( an inch) and double space each reference.
Order
References must be in alphabetical order of first authors surname. Do not number references. One-author references precede multiple-author references beginning with the same surname {e.g., Alleyne, R. L. (2001) precedes Alleyne, R. L., & Evans, A. J. (1999)} References with the same first author and different second or third authors are arranged alphabetically based on surname of the second or third author. (e.g., Gosling, J. R., & Jerald, K. (2000) precedes Gosling, J. R. & Telvin, D. F. (1996)}.
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References with the same author(s) in the same order are arranged by year of publication, the earliest first (e.g., Cabading, J. R., & Wright, K. (2000) precedes Cabading, J. R., & Wright, K. (2001)}. References with the same author(s) and year, are arranged alphabetically by the first word of the title, and distinguish references by single lower case letters immediately after the year (e.g., Smith, 1997a).
Referencing in your Reference List

The reference section begins on a new page with a centred heading (no bold or underline). The reference list is only to include those references you have cited in your assignment. Below are some examples of how to reference the more common items. (You may need to check the APA Publication Manual for those not covered here).
An Example of a Reference List Basic Forms for Sources in Print

Journal Article (print copy)
APA COMPONENTS Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title Italicized and Capitalised, volume number also italicized, (issue number if applicable, but not italicized), start page-finish page. Example: Lindsay, S. D., Hagen, L., Read, J. D., Wade, K. A., & Garry, M. (2004). True photographs and false memories. American Psychological Society. 15, 149-154.
Journal Article (electronic copy/ retrieved electronically)

(For articles received from online publications that are exact duplicates of those in print versions see later section on Referencing Internet Periodicals for more information)
APA COMPONENTS Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title Italicized and Capitalised, volume number also italicized, (issue number if applicable, but not italicized), start page-finish page. doi: Example:
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Lindsay, S. D., Hagen, L., Read, J. D., Wade, K. A., & Garry, M. (2004). True photographs and false memories. American Psychological Society. 15, 149-154. doi: 10.1111/j.09567976.2004.01503002.x
Journal Article in Press (posted online in a pre-print archive)

APA COMPONENTS Author, A. A. (in press). Article title. Journal Title Italicized and Capitalised. Retrieved from URL Example: Briscoe, R. (in press). Egocentric spatial representation in action and perception. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. Retrieved from http://cogprints.org/5780/1/ECSRAP. F07.pdf
Books
APA COMPONENTS Author, A. A. (year). Book title italicized. Place of publication: Publisher. Example: Bacal, H. A., & Newman, K. M. (1990). Theories of object relations: Bridges to self psychology. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
E-Books (Electronic version of a print book)

APA COMPONENTS Author, A. A. (year). Book title italicized [Adobe Digital Editions version]. doi: Example: Schiraldi, G. R. (2001). The post-traumatic stress disorder sourcebook: A guide to healing, recovery, and growth [Adobe Digital Editions version]. doi:10.1036/00713937722
E-Books (where there is no print version)

APA COMPONENTS
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Author, A. A. (n.d.). Book title italicized. Retrieved from http Example: OKeefe, E. (n.d.). Egoism & the crisis in Western values. Retrieved from http://www. onlineoriginals.com/showitem.asp?itemID=135
Book Chapters
APA COMPONENTS Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (year). Chapter title. In A. Editor & B. Editor (Eds.), Book title italicized (pp. start page-finish page). Place of publication: Publisher. Example: Cooper, S. H. (1993). The self construct in psychoanalytic theory: A comparative view. In Z. V. Segal & S. J. Bladd (Eds.), The self in emotional distress: Cognitive and psychodynamic perspectives (pp. 41-67). New York, NY: Guilford.
A Book or Article with no Author Named

APA COMPONENTS Title of article or book italicized. (year). Place of publication: Publisher. Example: Merriam-Websters collegiate dictionary (10th ed.). (1993). Springfield, MA: MerriamWebster.
Newspaper Article
APA COMPONENTS Author, A. A. (year, month date). Article title. Newspaper Title Italicized and Capitalised, page number (p.) or page numbers (pp.). Example: Schwartz, J. (1993, September 30). Obesity affects economic, social status. The Washington Post, pp. A1, A4.
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Brochure
APA COMPONENTS Government or Corporate Agency. (year). Brochure title italicized [Brochure]. Place of Publication: Author. Example: Research and Training Centre on Independent Living. (1993). Guidelines for reporting and writing about people with disabilities (4th ed.) [Brochure]. Lawrence, KS:Author.
Reports from the Government and Other Organizations

APA COMPONENTS Government Agency, Group or Authors. (year). Report title italicized (report, contract or monograph number). Place of publication: Publisher. Example: National Institute of Mental Health. (1990). Clinical training in serious mental illness (DHHS Publication No. ADM 90-1679). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Published Doctoral Thesis

APA COMPONENTS Author, A. A. (year). Title of thesis (Doctoral thesis, Name of University, City, Country). Retrieved from http Example: Horrigan, L. M. (2006). A prardox-based approach to the study and practice of organizational change (Doctoral thesis, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia). Retrieved from
http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20061023.132401/ public/02Whole.pdf
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Published Conference Papers

APA COMPONENTS Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (year). Paper title. Proceedings of the Name of Conference, Place of conference, volume number italicized, start page-finish page. Example: Cynx, J., Williams, H., & Nottebohm, F. (1992). Hemispheric differences in avian song discrimination. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 89, 1372-1375.
Unpublished Conference Papers

APA COMPONENTS Chairperson, A. A. (Chair), Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (year, month). Title of talk itaclicized. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the Title of Organisation, Place of symposium. Example: Rosenthal, T. L. (Chair), Lichstein, K. L., Johnson, R. S., Womack, T. D., Dean, J. E., & Childers, C. K. (1990, June). Relaxation therapy for poly-pharmacy use in elderly insomniacs and noninsomniacs. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the First International Congress of Behavioral Medicine, Uppersala, Sweden.
Magazine Article (print copy)

APA COMPONENTS Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year, month date). Article title. Magazine title italicized, volume number also italicized, (issue number if applicable, but not italicized), start page-finish page. Example: Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in todays schools. Time, 135, 28-31.
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Journal Article with eight or more authors

For references with six or seven authors, list all the names in the reference. However, if there are more than seven authors then list the first six then insert ellipses and add the last authors name. APA COMPONENTS Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C., Author, D. D., Author, E. E., Author, F. F.,Author, Z. Z. (year). Article title. Journal title italicized, volume number also italicized, (issue number if applicable, but not italicized), start page-finish page. doi: Example: Spector, P. E., Allen, T. D., Poelmans, S. A. Y. Lapierre, L. M., Cooper, C. L., ODriscoll, M.,Widerszal-Bazyl, M. (2007). Cross national differences in relationships of work demands, job satisfaction, and turnover intentions with work-family conflict. Personnel Psychology, 60, 805-835. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.2007.00092.x
Basic Forms of Electronic Sources

There are two major guidelines for citing Internet sources: 1. Whenever possible reference specific documents rather than home or menu pages; 2. Provide addresses that work. The 6th edition of the APA guide recommends using DOI numbers over web addresses, because DOIs are designed to be more stable, whereas web addresses (URLs) quite often change. The minimum requirement for citing Internet references includes the document title or description, the date of publication AND/OR retrieval, and the Digital Object Identifiers (DOI), or failing that, an Internet address (the universal retrieval link referred to as the URL). Wherever possible, the author/s of the document should also be included. If the author/s is/are not identified, the document title may be used instead. Use (n.d.)., when a publication date is not available. It is crucial that the DOI or the URL is transcribed to your document as faithfully as possible, as the smallest error may render the DOI or the URL inaccessible. We suggest you copy and paste the DOI or URL so that the alphanumeric string is exact. Please provide the DOI if one has been assigned to the content. Publishers who follow best practice publish the DOI clearly on the first page of an article.
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Use this format in references: doi:xxxxxxxxx When a DOI is used, no additional retrieval information is required to identify or find the content. If no DOI has been assigned to the material, provide the URL (web address).
The components of a URL are as follows:
Protocol
Host Name
Path to Document
File name of specific document workplace.html
http:
//
www.apa.org
/ monitor/oct00 /
The protocols recognized by most browsers are hypertext transfer protocol (http), hypertext transfer protocol secure (https), and file transfer protocol (ftp). All protocols should be followed by a colon and two forward slashes (e.g., http://). The host name identifies the server on which the files reside, which is often the address for an organizations home page (e.g., http://www.apa.org is the address for APAs home page). Although many host names start with www not all do. The rest of the address indicates the directory path leading to the document. Ensure that you reproduce this part of the URL exactly as it appears (with uppercase and lowercase letters and all punctuation). Note also that Internet-only citations appearing in your reference list DO NOT end with a period or full-stop (.), because punctuation marks have a different meaning in the context of URLs.
Referencing Internet Periodicals

Journal Article (retrieved electronically over the internet based on a print source)
APA COMPONENTS Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title Italicized and Capitalised, volume number also italicized, (issue number if applicable, but not italicized), start page-finish page. doi: Example: Lindsay, S. D., Hagen, L., Read, J. D., Wade, K. A., & Garry, M. (2004). True photographs and false memories. American Psychological Society. 15, 149-154. doi: 10.1111/j.09567976.2004.01503002.x
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Article in an Internet-Only Journal

APA COMPONENTS Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of journal,volume number italicized. Retrieved from http://hostname/pathtodocument/filename Example: Fredrickson, B. L. (2000, March). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize health and well being. Prevention and Treatment, 3. Retrieved from http://journals.apa.org/ prevention/volume3/pre0030001a.html
Referencing Internet Non-periodicals

Stand-Alone Internet Document
APA COMPONENTS Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Document title italicized. Retrieved from http://hostname/pathtodocument/filename Example: Dewey, R. A. (2002). Psych web by Russ Dewey. Retrieved from http://www.psywww.com
Multi-page Internet Document by an Organization

APA COMPONENTS Name of Organization (Date of publication). Document title italicized. Retrieved from http://hostname/pathtodocument/filename Example: Greater New Milford (Ct) Area Healthy Community 2000, Task Force on Teen and Adolescent Issues. (2000). Who has time for a family meal? You do! Retrieved from http://www.familymealtime.org
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Section or Chapter of an Internet Document

APA COMPONENTS Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of chapter or section. In Title of book or larger document italicized (chapter or section number). Retrieved from http://hostname/pathtodocument/filename Example: The Foundation for a Better World. (2000). Pollution and banana cream pie. In Great chefs cook with chlorofluorocarbons and carbon monoxide (Chap. 3). Retrieved from http://www.bam.com/cream/pollution/bananas.html The above examples do not cover all the possibilities for referencing Internet sources. Therefore, it will be important to check the APA Publication Manual if your citation type is not included above. One of the problems often encountered by markers is that Internet sources cited by students are not considered sound for academic purposes. Try to avoid this by ensuring your references are appropriate scientific sources.
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Basic Forms of Audiovisual Sources

A Podcast
APA COMPONENTS Producer, P. P. (Producer). (Year posted, date posted). Title of podcast italicized [Audio podcast]. Retrieved from web address. Example: Chappell, M. (Producer). (2011, March 14). 14 Mar 2011 14:00 [Audio podcast]. Retrieved from https://learning.secure.griffith.edu.au/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab=courses&url =/bin/common/course.pl?course_id=_93665_1&frame=top
A You Tube video

APA COMPONENTS Producer, P. P. (Producer). (Year posted, date posted). Title of You Tube video italicized [You Tube video]. Retrieved from web address. Example: Bagleboy550. (Producer). (2007, September 23). Stupid old man wrecks Ferrari [You Tube video]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gQnxGFYThKI
A Motion Picture
APA COMPONENTS Producer, P. P. (Producer), & Director, D.D. (Director). (Date of publication). Title of motion picture italicized [Motion picture]. Country of origin: Studio or distributor. Example: Smith, J.D. (Producer), & Smithee, A.F. (Director). (2001). Really big disaster movie [Motion picture]. United States: Paramount Pictures.
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A Television Broadcast or Television Series

APA COMPONENTS Producer, P. P. (Producer). (Date of broadcast or copyright). Title of broadcast italicized [Television broadcast or Television series]. City of origin, State [or country if outside USA]: Studio or distributor. Example: Important, I.M. (Producer). (1990, November 1). The nightly news hour. [Television broadcast]. New York, NY: Central Broadcasting Service.
A Music Recording
APA COMPONENTS Songwriter, W. W. (Date of copyright). Title of song [Recorded by artist if different from song writer]. On Title of album italicized [Medium of recording: CD, record, cassette, etc.]. Location: Label. (Recording date if different from copyright date). Example: Taupin, B. (1975). Someone saved my life tonight [Recorded by Elton John]. On Captain fantastic and the brown dirt cowboy [CD]. London, England: Big Pig Music Limited.
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Referencing driving you nuts?

Check out the interactive referencing tool available from the library website you just click what components your reference has and it tells you what format you need very sweet for those experiential learners (i.e., those of us who hate to read manuals but prefer to jump right in) and also brilliant for double degree students who may need to use a different style for their other major. http://www.griffith.edu.au/library/workshops-training/self-help-resources/referencing
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Additional Points
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Appendices
Appendices can be used in both lab reports and essays, and are used to provide the reader with specific information that would be distracting if it was placed in the body of your work. Appendixes should be placed after your reference list.
Common Types of Appendices

Common types of appendices include (but are not limited to) the following: A sample of questionnaire items or other survey instruments used in the research; A figure or table of stimuli or other apparatus used during the research; Important information that you cannot fit within your essay due to the word count; Additional statistical tables or figures.
Labelling Appendices
If you only have one appendix in your paper, simply label it Appendix If you have two or more appendices, label each one with a capital letter (e.g., Appendix A, Appendix B etc.). Appendices MUST be labelled in the order in which they are mentioned in your paper. In your paper be sure to refer to each appendix by their labels, for example . as shown in Appendix A.
APA Format for Appendices

The APA guidelines concerning how to format your essay or lab report also apply to appendices. Headings When it comes to headings, treat your appendices as a separate document to the rest of your paper. For example, the body of your paper can have four levels of heading, but your appendix may only have two levels (therefore treat your appendix as a two-level heading paper).
Table and Figure Numbers Number each appendix table and figure as separate from the rest of your paper. Precede the number with the letter of the appendix it is included within. For example if you have two appendices with two tables in each you would label them Table A1, Table A2, Table B1, Table B2 etc. If you only have one appendix precede all table and figure numbers with an A to distinguish them from those in the main text.
Copyright Issues Be sure to determine whether permission is required from the copyright holder before including another authors test or questionnaire within an appendix.
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Headings Levels of headings

There are a number of levels of headings recommended by the APA. In most psychological reports, you will probably only use a few of these, and the same will be true of essays.
Level 1
Centred, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
Level 2 Flush Left Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading Level 3 Indented, boldface, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period. Level 4 Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period. Level 5 Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period.
When writing psychological laboratory reports, you will generally use Levels 1, 2 and 3 for your headings. Method Materials
Level 1
Level 2
Auditory stimuli
Level 3
The weird thing is, however, that Abstract and the title of your report (which appears in place of a title for the introduction) are centred just as a level 1 heading are, but they are not boldface just another of APAs quirks.
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Other APA Issues Abbreviations

Abbreviations should be avoided. Do not use the following abbreviations in text instead write their meaning in full. For instance, instead of writing etc., use "et cetera" or and so forth; instead of vs., use versus; instead of i.e. use that is, and write for example instead of e.g.
Acronyms
Acronyms can be employed but only after the term is expressed fully the first time it is used, and then followed by the abbreviation in parentheses. For example: Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been described ...
Affect versus effect

Many people get these two words confused. Affect is usually used as a verb and effect can be a noun or verb. See the example below. The effect [result] of the medication was substantial. Parenting behaviours were found to affect [influence] the childs behaviour.
Bias in writing
The following are some guidelines for writing about participants with respect. 1. Avoid ambiguity in gender identity by choosing nouns or pronouns that describe your participants. For example, the word policemen suggests male police officers whereas the word police officers suggests male and female officers. Sexual orientation is a preferable to sexual preference. Preference suggests a level of voluntary choice that is not necessarily reported by lesbians and gay men. The terms lesbians and gay men are preferable to homosexuals when referring to specific groups. Avoid labeling people. When referring to someone who has a disability or illness then use the terminology person with a disability, person with HIV, person with a mental illness. When referring to the age of participants the following terminology is appropriate. For children up to high school age use boys and girls; for adolescents use young men and young women; for over 18s use men and women; and when referring to people who are older do not use the elderly but older person.
2.
3.
4.
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5.
Do not contrast one group of participants with another group called normal. Instead write we compared people with dementia to people without dementia. Problematic Example Preferred Example Sexual orientation
Sexual preference
The sample consisted of 200 adolescent The sample consisted of 100 gay male and homosexuals. 100 lesbian adolescents. Disabled person Person with a disability; person who is differently abled Mentally ill person Person with a mental illness or psychiatric disability Schizophrenics Epileptics Confined to a wheelchair Cripple Crazy, paranoid People who have schizophrenia Individuals with epilepsy Uses a wheelchair Person with a limp Person with symptoms of mental illness
Forming the plural

The plural of many words in English is formed simply by adding s. This simple rule should be applied when forming the plural of abbreviations and numerals. For example, GPs as the plural of GP, the 1960s to indicate the years of that decade. Do not use the apostrophe for this purpose. Note that some words of Latin origin form the plural in a different way. For example, datum, the singular, gives rise to the plural data; criterion, the singular, has criteria as the plural; phenomenon, the singular, has phenomena as the plural. For example: The data were analysed using the t test. The several phenomena are termed parameters of habituation. The criterion adopted was one trial without error. Other criteria have been used by researchers elsewhere.
Page numbering
The page numbers of your own work are always placed in the TOP RIGHT CORNER of your essay or assignment in the header.
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Punctuation
Punctuation is about where to pause (comma, semi-colon, and colon), stop (full stop and question mark) or take a detour (dashes, brackets). To read about how to use punctuation correctly please see page 78 in the APA Publication Manual (5th edition).
Use of and or & when referencing

Use an ampersand, &, when listing authors in your reference list and in-text citations. Use and when writing about an authors point in the body of your report or essay. See examples below: EXAMPLE 1 They have also been invaluable for understanding and treating clients that were previously thought to be untreatable (Westen & Cohen, 1993). EXAMPLE 2 Westen and Cohen (1993) pointed out that empirical evidence linking personality disorders with problems in the childs developmental stages is weak or unsupported.
Use of numbers
Generally, numbers less than and including ten are expressed as words (e.g. five participants), and numbers above ten are expressed as numerics (e.g., 100 participants).
Marking Criteria
Prior to starting your written work read through the marking criteria for your assessment item. Be clear about what you need to cover and see if there are any weightings on the sections. When you finish your work make sure to check through the criteria again ensuring you have addressed all major points. If you are uncertain at all about criteria please check with the convenor.
Markers Shorthand
When your work is marked by the tutors they will use marking abbreviations. These cover the most common errors made by students. A copy of the abbreviations is on the next page. When you receive your work back from tutors please make sure to check your tutors comments.
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MARKERS SHORTHAND
The following abbreviations have been used with respect to marking your work. AA APA CA CW DEF DS FE INQ GP IP LS MW NA NAL NP NS OT PL PN PR PS REF REP SP SS TLP TSP YB List references in alphabetical order (Barnes, 1992; Crocker & Smith, 1945) This is not APA style see APA handbook for correct format Good critical analysis Clear and concise writing You need to define specialist terms to the reader Double space your writing Further explanation is needed here. Indent quote if more than 40 words Good point raised Indent paragraph Long sentence and could be better rewritten as two or more short sentences Missing words Do not use contractions of words eg. dont write them in full do not Non-academic language e.g jargon, slang, dramatic language or colloquialism New paragraph Not a proper sentence Off topic in answering the question On the edge of plagiarism. Ensure adequate acknowledgement is made to sources. If it is not your words you need to reference it. Page number needed for direct quote Needs serious proof-reading Paragraph structure needs attention Reference needed to acknowledge the source of this information or idea Repetition of words / ideas Spelling mistake Sentence structure needs improvement Too long for a paragraph Too short for a paragraph. Need year of publication in brackets after this. ADDITIONAL LAB REPORT CODES DV IV What are your dependent variables? What are your independent variables? HYP OP Need to state specific hypothesis Need to operationalise your constructs
NGAP No gap between paragraphs
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More Tips for Writing in Psychology

Use 12 point Times New Roman font. Type double-spaced on one side only of A4 bond paper. Leave a uniform margin of 25mm all around. Fasten all pages firmly (e.g., staple) in the left-hand corner. Check spelling and punctuation before submission. Do not submit work in plastic covers. Do not use contractions, i.e., dont, cant, shouldnt write them in full, e.g., do not. When using the possessive form of its (e.g., the computer should be left on its desk) do not use an apostrophe. The apostrophe form of its is only used for the contraction of it is (which is not to be used in academic writing see above). Do not use cliches e.g., solid as a rock or colloquial expressions such as figured out or lab report. Do not use sexist language (he or she). To be safer use the plural form (they). If using the first person do not use the royal plural (we) when in fact you mean I. Generally, use of an active voice rather than a passive voice is preferred i.e., We conducted the survey in a controlled setting rather than The survey was conducted in a controlled setting. The exception here, however, is when you want the focus on the object or recipient of the action over the actor. For example, The camera was placed behind the one-way glass emphasises the placement of the camera, not who placed it there. Apostrophes should be used to show possession. For example, A participants score was All of the participants scores were Assume the reader knows little about the issues being discussed. Define all important terms. Avoid using jargon. For example, Like many clients with PDs, Mr S also has a comorbid Axis 1 problem. Be specific and clear, for example, While Mr Ss primary diagnosis is paranoid personality disorder, the evidence also suggests a comorbid mood disorder.
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Use short words and short sentences as they are easier to comprehend. Check your grammar. Make sure your sentences have verbs and that the verb agrees in number with the subject. For more information on using correct grammar, see page 31 in the APA Publication Manual (5th edition). Write a draft of your work and revise it several times before handing it in. Proof read your work to ensure that your grammar, spelling, structure, referencing, and logic are all in order. Read your work aloud to yourself. Try asking someone else to read it and give feedback on how to improve it. The effort taken to do this will pay off for you. Do not exceed the word or page limit. These have been set for a reason. In order not to be penalised make sure to remain within 10% over or under the word limit. For example, if it is a 2,000 word essay you need to write between 1,800 to 2,200 words. The word count does not include title page, anything written in brackets, or the reference list, but does include all other sections of the report or essay.
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Submitting your assignment
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Submitting your assignment

Assignments need to be submitted by the due date and time according to the course convener's instructions. Assignments received by fax or e-mail will NOT be accepted. Students must be able to produce a copy of all work submitted if so requested. Please, oh please DO NOT RELY UPON MERELY SAVING YOUR WORK ON A COMPUTER - HAVE A COPY ON DISK/USB, AS WELL AS A PRINTED OUT COPY OF YOUR WORK.
Hard copy submission

All written assignments should include a cover sheet (available from appropriate assignment submission locations, or from; https://intranet.secure.griffith.edu.au/student/examsassessment/submitting-assignments.) with the title of the assignment, student name, identification number, course code, tutor's name, and day and time of the student's usual tutorial class. Assignment submission information will be recorded in a database. Submission locations for the Mt Gravatt campus: A. The Lending Desk of the Library. A designated area has been set aside inside the Library for students to complete their assignment coversheets and place in the Assignment Submission Box provided, or hand to Library Lending Staff if they require an assignment receipt (highly recommended!). B. If the Library is closed, assignments can still be submitted at the 24 hour assignment box outside Student Administration. - Both the library submission box and the student administration submission boxes are cleared hourly between 9am and 5pm, Monday to Friday. - Assignments submitted after 5pm are date stamped 9am the subsequent working day. You are more than welcome to submit your assignment at any of the Griffith University submission points if this is easier for you personally (i.e., your closest campus is the Logan campus rather than Mt Gravatt). Please check your campus details for submission locations.
Electronic submission
Some courses (such as 1008PSY) enable you to submit your assignment electronically. When courses allow you to submit your assignment electronically then you can choose between submitting a hard copy or an electronic copy. For submission instructions, check out the Assignment section of the specific course on Learning@Griffith along with information about the essay, there will also be a link for submitting your assignment. HOWEVER, please dont get confused between submitting an electronic copy and submitting your assignment to Safe Assign these are two
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separate things. Please dont wait until the last hour to submit your assignment electronically just in case everyone else waits until the last hour and the system gets flooded with
Check out the Assessment section for electronic submission
*Remember*
For those courses like 1008PSY which allow for hard copy submission OR an electronic copy submission, there is always an AND for Safe Assign Submission. For courses which only accept hard copy submission (1001PSY and 1009PSY) you still need to submit your assignment to Safe Assign.
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Safe Assign
The following information is taken from Information Services handout on SafeAssign.
SafeAssign is a tool within Learning@Griffith that enables you to submit electronic versions of your assignments via the internet, and generate a text-matching report. Griffith University is introducing text-matching software into the assignment submission process in order to achieve the following: Allowing students to check their assignments to ensure correct referencing of quotes and ideas, and thus develop skills in correct academic writing; Allowing academic staff to better identify students who may need further assistance with their academic writing skills and in developing their own ideas in written assignments.
How SafeAssign works

SafeAssign takes the assignments you submit, and checks for text matches against the following sources: Internet ProQuest ABI/Inform database Institutional document archives containing all papers submitted to SafeAssign by staff and students at Griffith University Global Reference Database, a database shared across all the institutions that use SafeAssign who have chosen to give their students this option. Each student decides whether they wish to submit each assignment to the Global Reference Database a check box is available at final submission time. Choosing to submit a file to the Global Reference Database means your assignment is stored by SafeAssign and used to check for text matches in other assignments submitted by students at other universities and institutions around the world. After you submit your file, SafeAssign will return a report showing which, if any, text in the submitted document matches text from other documents. Please note that SafeAssign cannot tell you if text that you have quoted in your assignment is correctly cited, or if your reference list is correct. It will simply highlight those sections of text that have been found in other sources, and assign an overall percentage score. The average score will vary depending on the topic of the assignment; for example, in one course the average range might be 10%-30%, and in another course, 20%-40%. (You do not need to aim for a score of 0%.) You can learn about interpreting this report by referring to the tipsheet Accessing and Interpreting SafeAssign Reports For Students, which is available online from: http://intranet.griffith.edu.au/blended-learning-support
How to submit your assignment through Safe Assign

A link for each assignment will be set up in your Learning@Griffith course site. To submit your assignment, click this link, and follow the prompts to attach the file and submit. Tips on preventing technical issues are at the end of this tipsheet please refer to this
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information before you submit. You will also have access to a draft submission point: this allows you to submit your assignment as a draft and generate a text matching report before you submit your final assignment. Please note that draft submissions are stored in Learning@Griffith (but not in SafeAssign), and can be viewed by your course convenor. Please note that if you are submitting your file whilst on campus, or connected using Griffith@Home or VLink VPN, you must be logged into NetCheck to submit your assignment. Your file will need to be one of the following file types: Microsoft Word document: .doc* Rich Text Format: .rtf HTML: .htm or .html Text: .txt PDF: .pdf * Please note that if you are using Microsoft Office 2007, documents saved in .docx format cannot be submitted via SafeAssign. You need to open the document in Microsoft Word, choose 'Save As', then select Word 97-2003 Document in the' Save as type' dropdown list to save your file in a format that you can submit.
*Remember*
Please remember to include your title page at the front of your assignment (i.e., see Title Page section on page 3)
Important information about SafeAssign and Endnote

If you are using Endnote to manage citations in your essays, it is important to note that SafeAssign does not support Endnote. When you view or print a document in Word, the field codes for the Endnote citation are properly converted into the expected formatting because you have the Endnote plug-in installed. However, SafeAssign cannot interpret the field codes for the Endnote citation. So when the submitted Word paper is converted into text for processing by SafeAssign the Endnote citation field codes cannot be interpreted - they are treated as plain text. In plain text, the field codes look like {ADDIN EN.CITE ... } with all the citation information inside the curly brackets. Students using Endnote should save the final version of their assignment for submission without the field codes. To do this, go to the Tools menu and select Endnote X1-> Remove field codes. We recommend that you keep a backup copy of your file with the field codes included, as once you have removed the field codes, you cannot reconnect them.
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Submitting your Assignment

1. Log into Learning@Griffith using your student ID (s-number) and password. 2. Navigate to the course where you need to submit your assignment (e.g., the 1008PSY section). 3. Your course convenor or tutor will advise you where in the course the link to submit your assignments is located but typically it is under the Assignment section. Navigate to this location. If you cannot find the link, please contact your course convenor.
4. Click the View/Complete link which appears under the name of the assignment that you are submitting. Links to both draft and final submission points will be available.
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5. Use the Browse button to locate and attach the file you want to submit. 6. You may leave messages to your course convenor or tutor in the Comments section. 7. If you are submitting a final assignment, and also want to submit your assignment to the Global Reference Database, check the box at step 3. (See page 1 of this guide for more information on the Global Reference Database). 8. Click Submit.
9. You will see a confirmation message that your assignment has submitted successfully. Click the OK button.
You can then return to the assignment submission screen, and verify that your assignment was attached successfully. We recommend you open the file and look it over, and if you notice any problems, contact your course convenor. This is also where you will go to access your SafeAssign text matching report - this report can take anywhere from a few minutes to 24 hours to be generated.
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Tips on successful file submission

If you are working on campus or using Griffith@Home or logged into Griffith via VPN (VLink), please confirm that you are logged into NetCheck. It is best to do this before you begin. If you encounter an error during submission that is related to the internet connection, open a new browser window and visit: http://www.griffith.edu.au/netcheck If the screen indicates that you are not logged in to NetCheck, login now. A file in the process of being submitted in another window should then be processed successfully.
To minimise the risk of problems with your file submission

Ensure that your file/s work correctly before you attempt to submit. Open your files and check everything looks OK before you begin. Make sure your computer is attaching the file extension to the filename, and that the file extension is correct (.doc, .pdf). SafeAssign does not support .docx files. If you are using Word 2007 make sure you save your file in .doc format. If you are using Endnote, save your file without the field codes. Consider whether your home internet connection is fast enough to submit the assignment for you. For example, if you have dialup Internet at home, and an assignment file larger than 1MB, you should try to use a computer with a faster Internet connection, to minimise issues with timeouts. Make sure you are using a supported browser. Internet Explorer, Netscape, Firefox and Safari are best. (If you are using a non-standard browser, we cannot guarantee that the assignment submission tool will function correctly.)
Help and Support

If you experience any technical difficulties: Notify your course convenor. Even if they are unable to assist they should be made aware of any issues that may affect the submission of your assignment. For urgent queries, you can contact InfoServices by phone: Brisbane +61 (07) 373 55 555. Please let the staff on the phone know that you are having trouble with assignment submission via SafeAssign in Learning@Griffith. InfoServices can escalate your query to appropriate higher level support if necessary.
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Plagiarism
Academic Integrity student tutorial available on Learning@Griffith
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Plagiarism
Deliberate plagiarism is knowingly presenting the work or property of another person as if it were one's own. It is the most serious offence that can be committed in the academic world. Examples of plagiarism include: a. Verbatim copying: word for word copying of sentences or paragraphs from one or more sources which are the work or data of other persons (including books, articles, thesis, unpublished works, working papers, seminar and conference papers, internal reports, lecture notes or tapes) without clearly identifying their origin by appropriate referencing; Incorrect/ inadequate acknowledgement: closely paraphrasing sentences or paragraphs from one or more sources without appropriate acknowledgment in the form of a reference to the original work or works. This is the most common form of unintentional plagiarism. Ghost writing: submitting work which has been produced by someone else on the student's behalf as if it were the work of the student; Collusion: submitting work which has been wholly or partially derived from another student's work with his/her knowledge. Purloinging or appropriation: his/her knowledge. Copying material from anothers assignment without
b.
c.
d.
e.
Why do some students plagiarise?

Kilsby and Alexander (nd, p.1) provide an enlightening summary of the different motivations behind plagiarism, please see their fact sheet (available on the GU website for more details): What motivates students to plagiarise? Academics indicate that they perceive the reasons for intentional plagiarism to include: laziness, greed for grades, deceitfulness, competitiveness, lack of time and apathy. However the list of reasons given by students themselves is more extensive and includes: helping a friend, extenuating circumstances, peer pressure, fear of failure, everybody does it, laziness and cost of education (Franklin-Stokes & Newstead, 1995). Further research by Park (2003) into this area suggests the following reasons for plagiarising, amongst Australian students: 1. Efficiency gain a better grade in less time; 2. Time management issues;
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3. Students personal values that may be influenced by social pressure its okay to plagiarise; 4. Defiance a deliberate sign of dissent and/or objection to assessment tasks; 5. Negative student attitudes towards teachers and/or assessment tasks; 6. Denial or neutralisation of plagiarism-related behaviour; 7. Temptation and opportunity via the digitisation of information; and 8. Lack of deterrence low chance of being caught/effectively punished. What influences unintentional plagiarism? In a DEST funded project (2002), James outlines factors that influenced unintentional plagiarism: Students lack of understanding of the concept of plagiarism and what it means in practice; Students lack of understanding of citation and referencing conventions; Students limited skill base in academic skills (such as critical analysis, constructing an argument and paraphrasing) and in learning skills (such as time, group, workload and stress management); and Student misunderstanding and ignorance about why and how they should avoid plagiarism. Cultural factors that may also influence either intentional or unintentional plagiarism include: A norm of learning by rote where it is acceptable not to acknowledge the source; Inadequate skills in paraphrasing because English is the students second language; Belonging to a culture of pleasing, so desiring to submit first class work to a respected teacher (Mathews, 2007); and Fear of bringing dishonour to ones family by failing.
University penalties for plagiarism

Penalties for plagiarism will be enforced. Please refer to the school website for further details. http://www.gu.edu.au/ua/aa/ppm/tal/content/Ac_misc_fs.html
Avoiding plagiarism
To avoid accusations of plagiarism: take notes carefully when conducting your background readings for assignments. Make sure to distinguish your direct quotes from paraphrases In your assignment work, try to avoid quoting more than needed
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Use direct quotations only when the authors statement adds to your argument and when their wording is difficult to replace Avoid giving your colleagues copies of your assignment drafts discuss your approach to your assignment in your study groups but try to get someone who is not studying the same subject as you to proof read your assignment.
Below is an example of what plagiarism looks like. It will help you see the difference between acceptable paraphrasing and plagiarism.
Original Text
If the existence of a signing ape was unsettling for linguists, it was also startling news for animal behaviourists (Davis, 1993; p. 26).
Plagiarised Text
a) If the existence of a signing ape was unsettling for linguists, it was also startling news for animal behaviourists.
Note: This is plagiarism as the writer has used exactly the same words and not acknowledged the source. To use this text word for word you have to acknowledge the source by placing in brackets the authors name, date of publication, and page number. You would also need to put it in double quotation marks ( ). If you listed the author and the date but failed to identify it as a quote this would still be plagiarism. b) The existence of a signing ape unsettled linguists and was also startling news for animal behaviourists (Davis, 1993; p. 26).
Note: Even though the writer has acknowledged the source and changed one or two words, they have not used quotation marks around the direct quotes the existence of a signing ape and was also startling news for animal behaviourists. Therefore it is still plagiarism.
No Plagiarism
a) According to Davis (1993), linguists and animal behaviourists were unprepared for the news that a chimp could communicate with its trainers through sign language. Note: This is paraphrasing of the original text. The words used are different to the original and the sentence structure is changed. No page number is needed in this case. If you do not want to be accused of plagiarism make sure to reference all quotations and paraphrases, any ideas that are not your own, and facts that are not general knowledge.
Other great resources: Academic integrity student tutorial available through Learning@Griffith under the students tab
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References Cited in this Guide

American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author. (Library reference: BF76.7 .P83 2010) Germov, J. (1996). Get great marks for your essays. St Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin. Kilsby, E. & Alexander H. (n.d.). Good practice on issues of academic integrity plagiarism. [Brochure] Brisbane, Australia: Griffith Institute for Higher Education. Retrieved from http://www.griffith.edu.au/gihe/teaching-learning-curriculum/resources/GPG-IAI.pdf Learning Centre (1994). Common terms used in essay questions. [Brochure]. Sydney, Australia: University of New South Wales.
Other Useful Books for Writing in Psychology

American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association. Washington, DC: Author. (Library reference: BF76.7 .P83 2010) Beech, J. (2009). How to write in psychology: A student guide. Malden, MA: Oxford: WileyBlackwell Publishing. (Library reference: BF76.8 .B425 2009) Perrin, R. (2009). Pocket guide to APA style. Boston, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. (Library reference: BF76.7 .P47 2009) Szuchman, L. T. (2011). Writing with style: APA style made easy. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. (Library reference: BF76.8 .S98 2011)
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Chapter-by-Chapter changes from APA 5 to APA 6

Taken from http://www.apastyle.org/manual/whats-new.aspx with additions added Chapter 1: Writing for the Behavioral and Social Sciences Ethics discussion significantly expanded: New section on data retention and sharing New section on self-plagiarism Expanded section on duplicate and piecemeal publication New discussion of determining authorship, focusing on student contributions Expanded section, Protecting Rights of Research Participants additional expanded guidance on assuring confidentiality Expanded guidance on conflict of interest New planning for compliance checklist Chapter 2: Manuscript Structure and Content New section on uniform standards for reporting research. Journal article reporting standards incorporated into new discussions of abstract, methods, statistical results, and discussion. Three modules added with standards for describing experimental manipulations. Flow chart added to describe how subjects move through study. New section on meta-analyses. New section on supplemental material. New sample papers featured that illustrate key new rules of APA style. Chapter 3: Writing Clearly and Concisely New heading structure established to simplify retrieval and ease reading comprehension. Fully revised guidelines on reducing bias in language. New section on historical and interpretive inaccuracies in language. Use of subjects vs. participants revisited, with subjects fully accepted for use. Genderguidelines for avoiding bias updated (e.g., question the use of such constructions as opposite sex). Definitions and preferred usage for terms transsexual and transgender updated. Raceavoid language that reifies race, avoid use of minority for non-White. New sentence added for those of Middle Eastern descent. Chapter 4: The Mechanics of Style Punctuationreturn to two spaces after the period at the end of the sentence recommended for ease of reading comprehension. Numbersrequirement to use numerals for numbers below 10 grouped with those above 10 has been dropped.
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Numerals vs. wordsexception has been added for using words when discussing approximations of days and months (about five days). Decimal fractionsnew guidelines for reporting of p values to two or three decimal places. (However, p values less than p<.001 should be reported as p<.001). Statistics in textnew guideline added to include not only statistics but also associated effect sizes and confidence intervals. Form for reporting confidence intervals delineated. Chapter 5: Displaying Results Expanded general guidance on determining the purpose of data displays and designing to achieve that purpose. New section on confidence intervals in tablesguidance on reporting results of statistical significance in tables. All new tables, focused on kinds of data being displayed. New table examples added (hierarchical multiple regression, multilevel model); ANOVA table removed. New section on principles of figure use and construction. New section on presenting electrophysiological, radiological, and biological data. New cautions about ethical ramifications of manipulating data in photographic images. Chapter 6: Crediting Sources Chapter now groups rules for quoting and guidance on getting permissions with standards for citation. Citationsnew passage added on what to cite and recommended level of citation. New guidance on in-text citations of material quoted from electronic sources with no page numbers. Reference list New discussion on citing the archival version or version of record. New expanded information on electronic sources and locator information, with an emphasis on the DOI. No retrieval date required. New guidance on what to include for publication information, with focus on electronic sources. Chapter 7: Reference Examples All new reference exampleselectronic formats incorporated with print formats for each form. Examples drawn from wider range of journals in social and behavioral sciences. New examples for new media, including data sets and software, internet message boards, archival documents and collections, wikis, and podcasts. When citing editions of work, use a small e (e.g., 2nd ed.) No longer can leave out the state/ country for famous publishing locations. Write the abbreviation for the state if US or write the country if outside of US (e.g., London, England)

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School of Psychology Mt Gravatt Griffith Health

Writing for Psychology

Writing for Psychology ....................................................................................................... 1

Psychology Research Reports ...................................................................................... 2

Essay Writing In Psychology ..................................................................................... 23

Referencing In Psychology ......................................................................................... 57

Additional Points .......................................................................................................... 75

Submitting your assignment ...................................................................................... 84

Submitting your assignment....85

Writing for Psychology

Psychology Research Reports

The Research Report

Common mistakes in writing an introduction include:

Examples An Example of a Table Presenting Descriptive Data

Depression Anxiety Stress Violent crimes Property crimes

124 127 128 131 131

8.66 5.09 11.80 2.13 1.50

9.33 6.23 9.53 7.58 8.84

27.95 24.34 31.65 19.12 12.55

An Example of a Table Presenting a Sample Correlation Matrix

.19 .14 .19 -.13 .62 -.14 -

An Example of a Regression Table (Hierarchical Regression)

An Example of an ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) Table

An Example of a Figure Presenting a Causal Relationship Between the Variables

Child Behaviour Checklist Coopersmith Self Esteem Inventory

Dyadic Adjustment Score (individual) Couple together or not

Figure 1. Measures of child and couple factors in families (Phillips, 2002).

An Example of a Figure Presenting Descriptive Data (Means and Standard Errors)

16 14 Younger Adults Older Adults

Mean Resource Use

Types of Coping Resources

Directions for further research.

Common mistakes in writing the discussion include:

Example First Year Research Report

Running head: MANIPULATION OF VISUAL PERCEPTION

The Manipulation of Visual Perception Through the Use of Language

Running head: MANIPULATION OF VISUAL PERCEPTION

Running head: MANIPULATION OF VISUAL PERCEPTION Define false memories

Running head: MANIPULATION OF VISUAL PERCEPTION

Running head: MANIPULATION OF VISUAL PERCEPTION

Running head: MANIPULATION OF VISUAL PERCEPTION

Running head: MANIPULATION OF VISUAL PERCEPTION

In conclusion, false memories can be produced by the manipulation of language in a

Running head: MANIPULATION OF VISUAL PERCEPTION

Essay Writing In Psychology

Essays for Psychology The basics

What is critical analysis?

Building your essay further using connectives

For example, for instance, specifically, in particular

What Does This Essay Question Mean?

Other instructional words

Instructional words (continued)

Outline Review Summarise

Example Essay for Psychology

Early Family Experience as a Risk Factor for Poor Parenting Behaviour

Date Submitted: 30/9/2002

Case-Scenario of Anne and Jude: A Practical Approach to Child-Care Placement

Referencing in Research Reports and Essays

One work by a single author

One work by two authors

One work by three to five authors

One work by six or more authors

Authors with the same surname