Outline: TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

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TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

Dr. Bernd-Peter Paris George Mason University Spring 2009
MS in Telecommunications
Outline
Commonly used transmission media and their properties. Noise: the fundamental limiting factor in all communication systems. Path loss models for different transmission media.
Link budgets and transmission range.
Distortion in transmission media.
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Context
Purpose of a digital communication system:
Replicate digital information available at the transmitters location at the receivers location.
Generally this implies connecting spatially separate locations. Same principle applies for communicating over time storage of information.
The communications channel models the link connecting transmitter and receiver.
Channel models the degradation that the transmitted signal experiences.
bits
Transmitter
signal
Channel
signal
Receiver
bits
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TRANSMISSION MEDIA
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Classification of Transmission Media

Transmission Media
Guided Media (wired)
Unguided Media (wireless)
Twisted-Pair
Coaxial
Fiber-Optic
Free-space
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Twisted Pair Cable

Two electrical conductors usually copper each covered with insulating plastic. Used for baseband signaling i.e., line codes.
Signal is represented as the voltage between the conductors. Usually, one conductor is grounded; The other carries the signal.
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Purpose of Twisting
On a pair of parallel wires, the currents flowing through the conductors interact with each other.
This can significantly reduce the flow of current, Especially at high frequencies.
By twisting the wires, the direction of the induced current changes with every twist.
The induced currents cancel each other.
2. Current creates a magnetic field surrounding conductor. 1. Current flows through conductors in opposite directions. 3. Magnetic field induces a current in the other conductor.
Shielded and Unshielded Twisted Pair
UTP is most widely used. STP provides additional protection against external electromagnetic interference. Expensive and rarely used.
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Example: Category-5 UTP

Standardized by ANSI/TIA/EIA-568A.
Includes four twisted pairs in a single cable jacket. Typically, three twists per inch. Wire thickness: 24 gauge (0.205 mm) Main use: 100Mb/s Ethernet.
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UTP Categories
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Connector
UTP cables are terminated by 8P8C (8 positions, 8 contacts) modular connectors.
Often (incorrectly) referred to as RJ-45.
Assignment of wires to pins is specified by TIA/EIA-568-B.
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Coaxial Cable
Coax cable is an electrical cable
with an inner conductor surrounded by a flexible, tubular insulating layer, surrounded by a tubular conducting shield.
Coax cables are relatively expensive. Replaced largely by UTP for data communications.
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Main benefit: the electromagnetic field carrying the signal exists only between the inner and outer conductors.
Creates no interference. Very resilient to interference.

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Fiber Optic Cables

An optical fiber is made up of
the core (carrying the light pulses), the cladding (reflecting the light pulses back into the core) and the buffer coating (protecting the core and cladding from moisture, damage etc.).
Main benefits:
supports very high data rates up to 100Gb/s.
With Wavelength division multiplexing, single fiber can carry up to 1600Gb/s.
Low losses for long range transmission.

Propagation Modes
Mode
Propagation of light relies on reflection of light towards the core of the fiber.
At boundary between cladding and fiber light is reflected as long as incident angle is not too steep. Snells law.
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Multimode
Single Mode
Step Index
Graded Index

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Propagation Modes
Requires a highly focused beam at the source.

Optical Transmitter and Receiver

Electrical Interface
Optical communications channels must interface with electrical equipment. Optical transmitter are LEDs or lasers.
They convert an electrical signal into light pulses.
Optical Interface
A photodiode converts optical signals to electrical signals.
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NOISE IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Noise
Noise is the term used to describe the random signal that is added to the transmitted signal on its way to the receiver. We distinguish noise from:
Interference either intentional or unintentional perturbation from another transmitted signal. Distortion the alteration the signal experiences generally due to multiple-propagation paths.
Noise is the fundamental limiting factor in any communication system.
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Thermal Noise
In most communication systems, thermal noise is the most important form of noise. Thermal noise is present in any conducting material and is due to the random movement of electrons in the conductor.
Thermal noise is random and is well modeled as following a Gaussian distribution. Thermal noise is well modeled as covering the entire spectrum uniformly.
White Noise
Even though we blame the channel for introducing the noise, the real culprit is the receiver.
The signal is weakest just when it enters the receiver. After the receiver amplifies the signal, noise is no longer a concern. First amplifier is the critical component for controlling noise.
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Noise Power
The noise power can be predicted from thermodynamic principles. It depends on Temperature (T measured in Kelvin), Bandwith (B in Hertz), and Boltzmans constant k = 1.38 1023 (J/K). Noise power equals: PN = kTB Noise power at room temperature (T=300K) per bandwidth B=1Hz: N0 = 4.14 1021 W/Hz
What is the Power of a signal?

Power is the average strength of the signal. Specifically, 1 T P ~ | s(t) |2 dt T 0 Units: Watts (W)
What is the Energy of a signal?

Specifically,
T
E~
| s(t) |
0
dt
Units: Joules (J)

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Noise Power in dBm

It is very inconvenient to work with very small numbers, like N0. Instead it is customary to measure powers in a communication system on a logarithmic scale.
The dB scale is used for this purpose.
Converting from linear scale to dB: XdB = 10 log10(X). Converting from dB to linear scale: X = 10(XdB/10) Minor problem: Only dimensionless quantities (i.e., with no units) can be converted.
Solution: divide by reference value before converting to dB. Example: for powers it is common to divide by 1W (to obtain dBW) or by 1mW (to obtain dBm). Illustration: We found N0 = 4.14 1021 W/Hz. Divide by reference value 1mW/Hz before conversion. Obtain -174dBm/Hz.
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Signal-to-Noise Ratio
If the channel can be modeled as an AWGN channel, then the performance of communication systems is determined by the ratio of signal power to noise power.
AWGN additive white Gaussian noise (models thermal noise)
SNR signal-to-noise ratio is the ratio of received signal power and noise power. SNR = Ps/(N0B).
Most digital communication systems operate with SNRs in the range of 0dB to 20dB.
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Channel Capacity
The important role of SNR is illustrated by Shannons famous channel capacity theorem:
Reliable communication is possible as long as the data rate is less than the channel capacity C, where C=B log2(1+Ps/(N0B)).
The theorem directly establishes a relationship between sustainable data rate R and SNR.
The theorem does not say how to do this.
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Channel Capacity
Bandwidth B=1MHz 10 8
Capacity (Mb/s)
0 10
10 SNR (dB)
20
30
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Exercise
What is the thermal noise power for a channel of bandwidth 10MHz. Give your answer in Watts and dBm. If the received signal power is -95dBm, what is the signal-to-noise ratio? What is the highest data rate that can be supported reliably under these circumstances?
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PATH LOSS
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Path loss
During propagation from transmitter to receiver, the signal becomes weaker. The loss in signal power is called path loss LP. The power of the received signal Pr is related to the power of the transmitted signal Pt and the path loss: Pr = Pt/LP. On a logarithmic scale we have the more convenient: Pr,dB = Pt,dB LP,dB.
Recall: log(ab) = log(a) + log(b) and log(a/b) = log(a) log(b).
Path loss depends mainly on the length of the link d but also on the frequency f of the signal. Path loss models allow for translating minimum SNR requirements into maximum distances that can be supported.
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Path Loss in Guided Media

In guided media, path loss increases exponentially with distance d.
On a logarithmic scale: fixed dB loss per unit distance (e.g., 10dB/km).
In addition, the path loss for electrical cables increases faster than linear with frequency.
This is the result of the electromagnetic interaction between wires discussed earlier.
Fiber-optic cables have by far the smallest path loss.

Therefore, they are well suited for long-haul links.
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Path Loss in UTP and Coax Cables

Path loss in dB per 100 meters of cable
Frequency (MHz) 1 10 20 50 100 3.94 Thin Coax 0.62 1.70 Thick Coax 1.41 4.26 6.00 9.54 13.70 22.0
Source: http://www.westernextralite.com/resources.asp?key=24
Category 5 UTP 2.0 6.5 9.3
Question: An Ethernet transmitter sends signals 100MHz wide signals with power 26dBm over Cat-5 UTP. If the receiver requires 20dB SNR, how long can the link be?
Path Loss in Optical Fibers

Optical fibers have much lower path loss than electrical cables.
This allows for the use of much longer links. Original fibers had losses of approximately 1000dB/km due to impurities in the glass.
Also, bandwidth and therefore data rates are much higher.
Source: NASA
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Constructing Very Long Links

The maximum tolerable path loss for a link is on the order of 100dB.
With higher path losses, the SNR becomes insufficient.
To cover distances longer than what a single link can support, links are connected via repeaters. A repeater contains both a receiver and a transmitter.
It retransmits a fresh copy of the signal it receives. Also called regenerators.
Repeaters are expensive to install and maintain. Thus, the spacing between receivers should be as far as possible.
Modern fiber-optic systems can work with repeater spacing of hundreds of kilometers.
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Path Loss in Wireless Links

Over wireless links, the path loss increases at least like the square of the distance, d2.
If the direct line-of-sight path is obstructed, path loss will increase even faster. In general, path loss depends strongly on terrain details and is not easily predicted. Wireless network operators spent a lot of effort on cell planning.
Identifying good location for base station to ensure good coverage over a wide terrain. Involves numerical prediction of path losses based on terrain maps.
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Example: Free-Space Path Loss

In free-space, a simple formula for path loss is known as Friiss formula.
Its a good model for line-of-sight wireless links.
Friis formula: LP = (4 d f/c)2.
c speed of light (3 108 m/s)
Friis formula in dB: Lp,dB = 20 log10(d/1m) + 20 log10(f/1Hz) 147.55 dB Question: What is the path loss of a 1Km wireless if the carrier frequency is 1GHz?
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Link Budget
Link budgets are used to determine if a given link will work or not.
Link budgets always work on a logarithmic scale so that only additions are required.
A very simple budget: SNRdB = Pt,dBm LP,dB N0,dBm/Hz BdBHz.

More sophisticated link budgets account for additional factors, including antenna gains, implementation losses, or cable losses.
SNRdB SNR at receiver, must be greater than required SNR Pt,dBm power of transmitted signal. N0,dBm/Hz Noise power per 1Hz of bandwidth. BdBHz Bandwidth of transmitted signal.
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Exercise
Compute the SNR at the receiver if
Transmitted power is 30dBm Free-space path loss with carrier frequency 1GHz Bandwidth 10MHz.
If the SNR required at the receiver is 20dB, what is the maximum allowable path loss? What is the link distance for this path loss?
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DISTORTION
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Distortion
Distortion causes the shape of the transmitted signal to be altered during transmission. Distortion can have different causes;
Non-linear distortion
Example: clipping of large amplitudes.
Amplitude distortion
Different parts of the spectrum of a signal experience different attenuation (see path loss tables for cables).
Delay distortion
Different parts of the spectrum of a signal experience different delays.
Multipath propagation
Multiple echoes of the signal are received (see multi-mode fibers) Can also be described as amplitude and delay distortion.
Illustration: Wireless Multipath

1300 1250 1200 1150 1100
y (m)
Transmitter
1050 1000 950 900 850 800 750 450 500 550 600 650 700 x (m) 750 800 850 900 950
Receiver
Propagation between transmitter and receiver will occur along many different paths.
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Multipath: Impulse Response

4 3 2 1 0 x 10
5
0.8
1.2 1.4 Delay (s)
1.6
1.8
4 2 0 2 4
Phase Shift/!
Different propagation paths are characterized by different delays, attenuations, and phase shifts.
Attenuation
0.8
1.2 1.4 Delay (s)
1.6
1.8
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Multipath: Frequency Response

78 80 82
|Frequency Response| (dB)
84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 5
1 0 1 Frequency (MHz)
The attenuation of the channel around the carrier frequency (1GHz) varies significantly with frequency. Different part of the signals spectrum will be attenuated differently.
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Wideband PAM Signal Transmission

2 Transmitted Real(Received) Imag(Received) 1.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
2 0
0.5
1.5
2 2.5 Time (s)
3.5
4.5
Transmitted signal has approximate bandwidth 6MHz. Over this bandwidth, channel varies significantly. Received signal is clearly distorted. Need an equalizer in the receiver.
Amplitude
Real = In-phase Imag = Quadrature

Wideband PAM Signal

75 80
85
Significant variation in attenuation over the band occupied by the signal.
90
95
100
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Narrowband PAM Signal

2 Transmitted Real(Received) Imag(Received)
75
1.5
80
1
0.5
Amplitude
85
90
0.5
95
1
1.5
100
2 0
50
100
150 Time (s)
200
250
300
Signal bandwidth approximately 60KHz. No distortion

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4/8/10

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

Distortion in transmission media.

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

Classification of Transmission Media

Guided Media (wired)

Unguided Media (wireless)

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

Twisted Pair Cable

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

Shielded and Unshielded Twisted Pair

Example: Category-5 UTP

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

Assignment of wires to pins is specified by TIA/EIA-568-B.

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

Fiber Optic Cables

Low losses for long range transmission.

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

Requires a highly focused beam at the source.

Optical Transmitter and Receiver

A photodiode converts optical signals to electrical signals.

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

NOISE IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Noise is the fundamental limiting factor in any communication system.

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

What is the Power of a signal?

What is the Energy of a signal?

Units: Joules (J)

20 Paris TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

Noise Power in dBm

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

Path Loss in Guided Media

Fiber-optic cables have by far the smallest path loss.

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

Path Loss in UTP and Coax Cables

Category 5 UTP 2.0 6.5 9.3

Path Loss in Optical Fibers

Also, bandwidth and therefore data rates are much higher.

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

Constructing Very Long Links

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

Path Loss in Wireless Links

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

Example: Free-Space Path Loss

Friis formula: LP = (4 d f/c)2.

c speed of light (3 108 m/s)

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

A very simple budget: SNRdB = Pt,dBm LP,dB N0,dBm/Hz BdBHz.

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

Illustration: Wireless Multipath

TCOM 500: Modern Telecommunications

Multipath: Impulse Response

1.2 1.4 Delay (s)