Sensors and Actuators B 98 (2004) 1827

Wheatstone-Bridge readout interface for ISFET/REFET applications

Arkadiy Morgenshtein a, , Liby Sudakov-Boreysha a , Uri Dinnar a , Claudio G. Jakobson a , Yael Nemirovsky b
a b

Biomedical Engineering Department, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel Electrical Engineering Department, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel Received 10 April 2003; received in revised form 20 July 2003; accepted 29 July 2003

Abstract The paper presents a novel readout conguration for ISFET sensors based on Wheatstone-Bridge connection. This design technique allows on-chip integration, temperature compensation and measurements from ISFET/REFET pairs. The circuit is capable of operating in differential mode, and can also perform common mode and combined measurements, while improving the immunity to noise and interferences. The Wheatstone-Bridge interface benets from enhanced operational exibility, due to the ability of relative sensitivity control of the output signal. Direct and indirect feedback congurations are presented with operational analysis, simulations and application options. Simulation results showing 9 V accuracy are presented. A 4 mm 4 mm test chip in 1.6 m CMOS technology was used for laboratory experiments using MOSFETs for emulation of ISFET/REFET sensors. 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: ISFET; Readout; Wheatstone-Bridge

1. Introduction The ISFET sensors integration in clinical applications for pH measurements requires features such as temperature compensation, body-effect elimination, REFET operation, noise inhibition and sensitivity control [1,2]. In CMOS-based integrations n-channel ISFETs are mostly used due to low drift and high mobility properties [7,8] and p-type substrate is globally and constantly grounded. The body effect in n-channel sensors is limiting the possibilities of source biasing in ISFET, which is a fundamental component in currently presented interfaces for monolithic ISFET integration [911]. Thus, the applicability of the existing interfaces in standard CMOS technology is problematic and development of new design techniques for ISFET readout is essential in order to provide a combination of all the mentioned above advantages. The Wheatstone-Bridge technique is widely used in numerous measurement applications [6], as resistance measurements, strain gauges, etc. due to its exclusive structure that allows reduced temperature sensitivity. The novel ISFET readout interface based on WheatstoneBridge conguration is presented in this study. Feedback

implementation and combination of ISFET and MOSFET devices in on-chip integrated structure allow high system accuracy, low temperature sensitivity and compatibility for CMOS-based applications, including REFET function. Operational analysis, simulation results and measurements of the 4 mm 4 mm test chip are presented.

2. Wheatstone-Bridge readout interface 2.1. Basic structure and operation The ISFET sensors operation [3,4] is based on the conversion of pH changes into a corresponding channel resistance. Thus, detection of uctuations in channel conductivity can lead directly to pH level sensing. Changes of channel resistance are caused by the threshold voltage VT , which is correlated with pH with a certain sensitivity factor (about 58 mV/pH in high-performance sensors). Wheatstone-Bridge conguration is a good candidate for implementation in this type of system, where temperature-compensated resistance detection is requested. Fig. 1 shows the structure of Wheatstone-Bridge readout interface. An ISFET sensor and three MOSFET devices are applied in place of standard resistors. In order to maintain a balanced bridge, the diagonal is connected to the operational amplier with feedback to the reference electrode of ISFET

Corresponding author. E-mail address: arkadiy@tx.technion.ac.il (A. Morgenshtein).

0925-4005/$ see front matter 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.snb.2003.07.017

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Note, that by replacing the M3 device (connected to V3) in the presented structure with a low-sensitive ISFET, a REFET measurement can be obtained. In this case the result will be proportional to the pH response ratio of ISFET and REFET. A practical implementation of ISFET/REFET conguration is stipulated by development of robust REFET device with electrical and thermal characteristics close to ISFET and MOSFET [2]. 2.2. Sensitivity analysis In the case of direct and indirect feedback, the fact that the voltages at the inputs to the operational amplier must be equal ensures that Vout tracks changes in VT , regardless of whether the transistors are in the linear or saturation region. The sensitivity analysis of the circuit can be best performed by examination of the inuence of the feedback voltage to the gate terminal and of the change in VT value of ISFET, on the channel current according to Shockley model [5]:
1 Id = 2 (Vgs VT )2 (1 + Vds )

(2)

Fig. 1. Direct (a) and indirect (b) Wheatstone-Bridge.

where is channel length modulation parameter and a parameter determined by physical properties of device: = Cox W L (3)

(direct feedback) or the gate of a corresponding MOSFET (indirect feedback). In a standard bridge (Fig. 2) with gage connected in diagonal, the following expression describes the relationship between the changes of four resistances and the diagonal voltage Vg : Vg = r (1 + r)2 R1 R2 R3 R4 + R1 R2 R3 R4 VS (1)

where is the mobility, Cox the gate insulator capacitance, W and L the width and length of the channel. This equal inuence of the Vgs and VT voltages on the channel current allows a simple expression for Vout in case of direct feedback conguration: Vout = Vg = VT (pH) (direct) (4)

where r is the ratio between the corresponding resistors. Two important properties can be derived from (1): (a) the changes in resistance due to temperature uctuations result in zero total contribution to Vg , assuming similar inuence of temperature on devices; and (b) changes in channel resistance of ISFET will contribute to Vg change. The operational amplier detects this change and feedback is applied to the reference electrode or the gate of MOSFET, to maintain the balance of the bridge, by adjusting the transconductance of the corresponding device.

The best way to perform the sensitivity analysis of indirect feedback is to inspect the behavior of the channel conductivity of the FET in saturation and linear regions: 1 Ids,sat 1 = = Rsat Vds K(Vgs VT )2 1 Rlinear = Ids,linear 1 = Vds K(Vgs VT ) (5) (6)

where K = /2 is device-specic parameter.In the indirect feedback conguration, the operation is based on the ratio of conductivities of the corresponding FETs. The change of VT due to pH uctuation in one FET causes a change in gate voltage of the correspondent one. Thus, the sensitivity factors derived from the ratio between two channel resistances R1 and R2 are: S= S= K 1 1 K 2 2 K1 K2 (saturation) (linear) (7)

Fig. 2. A standard Wheatstone-Bridge circuit.

(8)

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while the expression of the dependence of output voltage on threshold voltage uctuations due to pH in indirect feedback is given by: Vout = S VT (pH) (9)

Here, the amplication factor can be controlled by proper sizing the corresponding FETs.

3. Elimination of body effect in Wheatstone-Bridge circuit The threshold voltage of eld-effect transistor in CMOS technology is expressed as: VT = VFB QB + 2F Cox (10)

Fig. 3. A body-effect-free Wheatstone-Bridge circuit.

where VFB is the at-band voltage, QB the depletion charge in the silicon and F the Fermi potential [4]. The regular assumption for an ISFET is that VFB also contains terms, which reect the interfaces between the liquid and the gate oxide, and the liquid and the reference electrode; which makes VFB sensitive to the changes of pH. The terms QB , F and Cox are assumed to be constant and uninuenced by pH or operation point changes. However, even if not inuenced by pH, the threshold voltage VT is not constant with respect to the voltage difference VBS between the substrate and the source of the MOS transistor. When an on-chip implementation of ISFET together with related readout interfaces is considered, it is important to remember, that all devices comprising an MOS device are made on a common substrate. In a standard CMOS technology, it is a p-type substrate which is connected to a lowest circuit potential. In most of the existing readout techniques, the source of ISFET is not constantly biased, and is used as an internal node of the circuit, or a point of feedback application. When VBS is not 0, the expression for the threshold voltage is modied to incorporate VBS as follows: 2Si qNA (2B + |VBS |) VT = VFB + 2B + (11) Cox where B is the bulk potential. This expression is critical, because of the inuence of VBS on the value of VT in integrated implementations of ISFET. The term of VBS , if getting a non-zero value (which will happen in most of the on-chip realizations of known readout interfaces) causes a parasitic change in VT that is not due to the change of pH level. The error that occurs in the case of body effect is signicant, and depending on technology and operation point, the threshold shift can reach more than a half of the initial VT . Wheatstone-Bridge technique in congurations that were presented in Fig. 1 has an advantage common to differential

techniques, which allows elimination of body-effect inuence on measurement results. The body effect occurs in M1 (ISFET) and M2 when the bulks are connected to ground (as all the substrate of the chip) and not to sources, as shown in Fig. 1. However, this does not change the nal result of readout, due to an equal inuence of body effect on M1 and M2 (due to equal dimensions and VBS biases in the balanced bridge), causing equal changes in transistors conductivity. So, according to (1) same relationships will be obtained between the changes of four resistances and the diagonal voltage Vg , resulting in the same output voltage as without the body effect. Thus, the body-effect inuence is rejected here as a common mode signal. However, if needed, one can prevent the appearance of body effect in the ISFET by using p-type MOSFETs as components of the bridge, as shown in Fig. 3. These transistors have to be properly sized to match the resistance demands that were applied to n-type MOSFETs in a regular conguration. This ratio is between 2.3 and 4 and is dependant on technology parameters. An appropriate voltage has to be applied to the gates of the devices in order to maintain the same operation regime in all four transistors. This allows placing the n-type ISFET, so that its source and substrate will be constantly and equally biased. This conguration can be used for p-type ISFET as well, to obtain operation with identical devices.

4. Test results and implementations 4.1. Simulation results Test circuit was implemented in Cadence, using transistor models from the MOSIS fabrication process. Test simulations were performed using the SpectreS simulator, using 1.6 m technology models. An n-channel 300/30 m n-type ISFET sensor was emulated by MOSFET device of the same dimensions and was used in simulation with 400 mV sinusoidal voltage applied to its gate, to represent various pH levels (considering a typical ISFET sensitivity of 53 mV). The simulations were performed at 1500 Hz frequencies, in order to ensure operation in different conditions of pH uctuations. Three 300/30 m n-MOSFETs and

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Fig. 4. Transient simulation results of Wheatstone-Bridge interface.

a 5 Vpp amplier were connected to obtain the required conguration. A constant 2.3 V bias was applied to the reference electrode (in indirect conguration), or to the correspondent MOSFET gate (in direct feedback) to maintain operation in saturation region. A 1 V voltage was given to the opposite MOSFET pair; while an additional bias voltage was applied to the gate of M4 to compensate the built-in

offset voltage of the designed operational amplier. In the case of discrete applications, adjusting of the commercial amplier can perform the same compensation. The results of the simulation can be seen in Fig. 4. The input signal is represented by uctuations in threshold voltage and plotted together with the resulting output signal and the difference between two signals. A high accuracy with less

Fig. 5. Response of Wheatstone-Bridge to temperature uctuations.

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Fig. 6. A 1800 m 860 m layout of Wheatstone-Bridge circuit.

then 9 V error was observed for the maximal simulated pH levels. One of the most prominent advantages of WheatstoneBridge readout is the temperature compensation. The inuence of temperature is demonstrated in simulation in Fig. 5. The temperature was changed in range of 2040 C and the resulting changes in output voltage were measured. As can be seen, the Wheatstone-Bridge readout is practically insensitive to temperature uctuations. 4.2. Layout implementation In order to estimate the feasibility of CIMP implementation in miniaturized measurement equipment, a realistic layout of both feedback congurations was carried out. The layout implementations of Wheatstone-Bridge readout circuit in 1.6 m CMOS technology are presented in Fig. 6. The layout area of 1800 m 860 m makes the circuit suitable for implementation in a common catheter with 1mm diameter for clinical applications, as well as in any kind of miniaturized system. In this circuit, an operational amplier

was implemented on-chip together with ISFET and MOSFET devices. 4.3. Test results The verication of the Wheatstone-Bridge readout interface was performed using four MOSFET devices from the fabricated test chip. The circuit was implemented in the indirect conguration and an OP77 operational amplier was utilized for feedback application. The interface was tested under various operational conditions and signal forms, while the n-channel 300/30 m ISFET sensor was emulated by MOSFET device with similar properties. Some of the measurements of the output response to sinusoidal and triangle waveforms that were obtained, are presented in Figs. 7 and 8. A certain settling time can be observed in the response to high-slope transition in Fig. 8., after which the output is precisely following the changes in the threshold voltage. As can be seen from the measurements the response of the Wheatstone-Bridge readout interface is accurate for various signal forms and frequencies.

Fig. 7. Measured response of indirect feedback Wheatstone-Bridge to 400 mVpp sinus uctuations at 10 Hz.

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Fig. 8. Measured response of indirect feedback Wheatstone-Bridge to 500 mVpp triangle uctuations at 100 Hz.

5. Wheatstone-Bridge operation in REFET and common mode 5.1. REFET operation The Wheatstone-Bridge interface is very suitable for applications of REFET measurements. The participation of four FETs in the bridge allows operation in differential mode without the need for any change in the circuit conguration. The concept of the differential operation can be seen from the following representation of (1): r Vg = (1 + r)2 R1 R2 + R1 R2
differential

R3 R4 VS R3 R4 (12)

differential

According to this expression, there are two options for obtaining differential ISFET/REFET operation in Wheatstone-Bridge: (1) using M1 and M2 transistors as sensors; and (2) using M3 and M4 transistors as sensors. Each of the pairs will produce the required differential response in the output. The measurements of readout operation in differential REFET mode are presented in Fig. 9. An additional feature of Wheatstone-Bridge interface can be observed from (12): in the case when two ISFET/REFET pairs are operating simultaneously, the resulting output response is a sum of responses of each differential pair. This feature can become an important advantage, if two identical pairs are considered: the summation of the output signals after in-pair differentiation might contribute to enhanced noise immunity of the output signal. Generally, the differentiation can supply certain immunity degree to changes in light

Fig. 9. Measurements of differential REFET operation in Wheatstone-Bridge.

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level and to drift, if the operational characteristics of the fabricated ISFETs and MOSFETs in the circuit are similar. Nevertheless, because of the non-uniformity of the devices in recent fabrication processes [2], additional efcient techniques should be considered: application of light-insensitive metal layers (as Pt) at the gate area of ISFET, or drift elimination by surface discharging [7]. 5.2. Common mode operation The summing operation of the bridge can be regarded as an operation in common mode. The expression in (12) can be rewritten to emphasize the common mode operation of the interface: common common r R1 R2 R3 R4 Vg = + VS + R1 R3 R2 R4 (1+r)2 (13) As can be seen from (13), the summation of signals can be obtained in two cases: (1) using M1 and M3 transistors as sensors; and (2) using M2 and M4 transistors as sensors. Each of the pairs will produce the required common mode response in the output. This operational concept was veried by measurements, resulting in waveforms presented in Fig. 10. The output response is a weighted summation of the two ISFET responses, while the weights are function of the absolute transconductances of the sensors (i.e. R1 and R3 ). If two pairs of sensors are considered: M1 and M3 transistors as ISFET sensors, and M2 and M4 transistors as REFET sensors; a combined operation will be obtained, resulting in separate summation of ISFET and REFET responses and differentiation of both pairs signals. As shown in Fig. 11, the common reference electrode is connected to the amplier output as in direct feedback and the ISFETs and REFETs

Fig. 11. Combined common and differential mode operation of two ISFET and REFET pairs.

experience a common mode solution bias. The differential input signal comes from the VT difference between ISFET and REFET pairs, which depends on pH. This double function produces enhanced noise immunity together with interference immunity obtained by REFET.

6. Controlled sensitivity of Wheatstone-Bridge Close inspection of the expression in (1) reveals an additional feature of the Wheatstone-Bridge readout: the ability to control the sensitivity of the sensors. It results from the fact that the uctuations in channel resistance of each FET are divided by the absolute values of channel resistance. Thus, the set-point resistances dene the gain factor for each FET in the bridge. The nal relative sensitivity of the output signal to the responses of each sensor can be controlled by adjusting the gate voltage of the FET, which is identical to adjusting its set-point channel resistance. The ability of relative sensitivity control is an important feature due to the operational exibility obtained in the

Fig. 10. Measurements of common mode operation in Wheatstone-Bridge.

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Fig. 12. Demonstration of relative sensitivity control in differential ISFET/REFET pair: (a) simulations; (b) measurements.

circuit, without need in any conguration change or hardware addition. Several sets of simulations and measurements were carried out in order to verify and demonstrate the concept of sensitivity control. One of the experiments is presented in Fig. 12, showing the responses of differential ISFET/REFET pair for various set-point voltages applied to the gates. In this case, the device representing the ISFET was responding to sinus uctuations in the in the gate, while the REFET was activated by square signals. The relative sensitivity was

controlled by adjusting the DC levels of the gate voltage of the FETs. Both devices in the experiment were n-type, thus increasing of the gate voltage of the device caused decreased resistance, and increased sensitivity of the output signal to the response of this device. Left waveforms in simulations and measurements demonstrate the case in which the ISFET was biased by higher gate voltage than REFET, which made its response dominant with slight uctuations caused by REFET. Right waveforms present the opposite case, where the REFET was dominant in the output sig-

Fig. 13. Demonstration of relative sensitivity control in common mode ISFET operation.

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Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Women Division/ATS MEP XXV Project.

References
[1] B. Palan, F.V. Santos, B. Courtois, M. Husak, Fundamental noise limits of ISFET-based microsystems, Eurosensors 8 (1999) 169172. [2] P. Bergveld, A. Sibbald, Analytical and biomedical applications of ion-selective eld effect transistors, Compr. Anal. Chem. 12 (1988). [3] P. Bergveld, Biosens. Biomed. Sens. (1999). [4] S. Casans, D. Ramirez, A.E. Navarro, Circuit provides constant current for ISFETs/MEMFETs, EDN Access Des. Ideas (2000). [5] P.E. Allen, D.R. Holberg, CMOS Analog Circuit Design, HRW, 1987, pp. 124127. [6] E.O. Doebelin, Measurement Systems, McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 1989. [7] P.A. Hammond, D. Ali, D.R.S. Cumming, A Single-chip pH sensor fabricated by a conventional CMOS process, Eurosensors 16 (2002). [8] C.G. Jakobson, M. Feinsod, U. Dinnar, Y. Nemirovsky, Ion sensitive eld effect transistors in standard CMOS fabricated by post-processing, IEEE Sens. J. 2 (4) (2002). [9] Y.L. Chin, J.C. Chou, T.P. Sun, W.Y. Chung, S.K. Hsiung, A novel pH sensitive ISFEFT with on chip sensing using CMOS standard process, Sens. Actuators B 76 (2001) 582593. [10] Y.L. Chin, J.C. Chou, T.P. Sun, H.K. Liao, W.Y. Chung, S.K. Hsiung, A novel SnO2 /Al discrete gate ISFET pH sensor with CMOS standard process, Sens. Actuators B 75 (2001) 3642. [11] B. Palan, F.V. Santos, J.M. Karam, B. Courtois, M. Husak, New ISFET sensor interface circuit for biomedical applications, Sens. Actuators B 57 (1999) 6368.

Fig. 14. Microphotograph of the 4 mm 4 mm test chip. ISFETs are designated for further post-processing in future experiments.

nal, while slightly inuenced by sinusoidal uctuations from ISFET response. Another experiment was performed for pair of ISFETs operating in common mode. One of the ISFETs was responding to triangle uctuations, while the other was responding to sinusoidal signals. The results of sensitivity control of the output signal can be seen in the measurements in Figs. 13 and 14. Here the resulting sensitivity of the output signal was also controlled by relative adjustment of gate voltages of the devices. In each case, another device has a dominant inuence on the output, while the total response is the sum of the response of the dominant and the inhibited devices.

7. Conclusions The novel readout technique for ISFET-based applications based on Wheatstone-Bridge circuit was presented, allowing temperature-compensated pH measurement without body effect, by determination of the channel resistance changes in ISFET sensor. Simulation results were presented, showing 2.4 V/pH accuracy for 58 mV/pH sensitivity. A 4 mm 4 mm test chip in 1.6 m CMOS technology was used for laboratory experiments. The measurements of the interface showed an accurate response for a wide range of forms and frequencies of pH uctuations. The circuit is capable of operating in REFET mode, and can also perform common mode and combined measurements, while improving the immunity to noise and interferences. The Wheatstone-Bridge interface benets from enhanced operational exibility, due to the ability of relative sensitivity control of the output signal. This feature is determined from the operational concept of the circuit, and does not demand any conguration changes or hardware additions. Wheatstone-Bridge readout interface proves to be a robust alternative for ISFET integration in system-on-chip implementations in CMOS process.

Biographies
Arkadiy Morgenshtein was born in Cishinev, Moldova in 1977. He received his BSc degree in electrical engineering from Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel, in 1999. He is currently working on his MSc degree in biomedical engineering at Technion. He has been a teaching and research assistant at Electrical Engineering Department, Technion since 1999. His research interests include low-power design techniques for digital circuits, biosensor microsystems for biotelemetry, and digital cameras design in CMOS technology. Liby Sudakov-Boreysha received her BSc degree in electrical engineering from Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel, in 2001. She is currently working on her MSc degree in biomedical engineering at Technion. She is a teaching and research assistant at Electrical Engineering Department, Technion. She works at IBM Haifa Research Labs as a staff member since 2000. Her research interests include analog and mixed signals circuits, biosensor microsystems for brain monitoring, and wide-band linear ampliers. Claudio G. Jakobson was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina in 1966. He received his PhD degree from the Technion, Israel Institute of Technology in 2001, MSc degree in electrical engineering from the Technion, Israel Institute of Technology in 1995, and Electronic Engineer degree from the University of Buenos Aires, Argentina, in 1992. His PhD research focused on CMOS compatible ISFET microsystems, noise and drift in ISFETs, as well as the application of ISFETs for brain monitoring at the cerebro-spinal uid. The research was granted the Eshkol scholarship from the Israeli Ministry of Science and the support of the Women

A. Morgenshtein et al. / Sensors and Actuators B 98 (2004) 1827 Division/ATS MEP XXV Project. His MSc thesis was on low noise CMOS analog channels for X-ray detection. His research contributed to the space X-ray detection experiment at the Technion satellite TECHSAT, including VLSI electronics that successfully operated on space. In 2001, he joined Bluebird Optical MEMS Ltd. and is now working on the development of micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) and microsystems. Other elds of research and expertise are VLSI analog electronics, MEMS, readout interfaces for CMOS compatible sensors, and noise phenomena in MOSFETs. Yael Nemirovsky (IEEE Fellow, IEE Fellow 99) received her BSc degree in 1966 and DSc degree in 1971 from the Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa. She joined the Department of Electrical Engineering in Technion in 1980. Prior to that she was a research scientist specializing in microelectronics in Rafael, a National R&D Organization. She graduated from Technion in chemistry and her DSc thesis was in electrochemistry. For over 20 years, she has been active in electro-optical devices in IIVI compound semiconductors and additional advanced semiconductor materials as well as infrared focal plane arrays. She has been involved in growth, processing, device design and modeling of detectors as well as VLSI circuits. She has a well-equipped MOCVD laboratory for growth of heterostructures, extensive facilities for device and interfaces processing and characterization. She has been a principal investigator in large funded research programs that ended in prototype infrared detectors and systems that were transferred to industry. Twice she was the Head of the Microelectronics Research Center of the Department of Electrical Engineering at Technion. Currently, her research focuses on micro-opto-electro-mechanical systems (MOEMS), CMOS compatible micromachining and microsystems implemented in CMOS technology and integrated with silicon devices. She has published over

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130 papers in the open literature, has led several patents and a large number of classied reports. She has collaborated with the microelectronics industry as a consultant in sensors and VLSI technology and has been quite active in national and international conferences. She has supervised over 40 graduate students for MSc and DSc. She is an IEEE Fellow, an IEE Fellow and has been the Chairperson of the Israeli Association for Crystal Growth. Currently, she is the Chairperson of the Microelectronics and Photonics Section of URSI. In the past, she received awards as a Best Teacher at Technion, a national award of high esteem The Award for the Security of Israel and a Technion award for Novel Applied Research. She has received The Kidron Foundation award for Innovative Applied Research (a US$ 100,000 grant for research program). She is a distinguished lecturer of the electron device society of IEEE. Uri Dinnar was born in Israel in 1939. He received his BSc degree in medical engineering from the Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, in 1964 and MSc and PhD degrees in engineering and applied physics from Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, in 1967 and 1969, respectively. He is currently Head of the Department of Biomedical Engineering at the Technion, where he is also the Director of the Laboratory of Biological Fluid Dynamics and holds the Henry Goldberg Chair of Biomedical Engineering. He joined the Technion in 1969 and was appointed full professor with the Department of Biomedical Engineering in 1990. He held visiting appointments at the College of Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, from 1976 to 1978, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, in 1983, University of Houston, Houston, TX, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, in 1991, and the City College of New Your in 1999. His research interests are in cardiovascular uid dynamics, blood ow in bones, and micro-devices for physiological monitoring.