Horsemanship: Classical to Modern

Laura Hannink Honors Thesis 12/8/2010

Horsemanship

Table of Contents Introduction . 2 Horsemanship .. 6 Classical 6 Forward 11 Iberian 14 19th Century to Present . 16 Modern Industry Modern practices .. 24 Poor Conditioning . 24 Schooling Methods .. 29 Overwork 35

Horsemanship

Application 36 Conclusion . 38 Appendix A . 43 References 44

Horsemanship

Horsemanship: Classical to Modern Introduction

After creating the heavens and the earth, the birds of the air and the fishes of the sea, God found it good to bestow on man a supreme mark of his favor: he created the horse. In the magnificent sequence of creation[,] the last phase, that of perfection, was reserved for this beautiful creature. The horse was swifter than anything on the face of the earth; he could outrun the deer, leap higher than the goat, [and] endure longer than the wolf. Man, encompassed by the elements which conspired to destroy him, by beasts faster and stronger than himself, would have been a slave, had not the horse made him king. In the Garden of Eden, the horse was of no service to man, but the [F]all of man revealed to the horse his noble mission (Chenevix-

Trench, 1970). Man and horse have had a relationship for centuries. From the time horses ran free on the plains of Europe and Asia, man has learned horsemanship and trained horses to help him survive and consequently develop civilization. Out of the ancient world, the dominant horse cultures developed three main styles of riding, one of the Greeks, one of the nomads, and one of the Syrian Arabs and Moors. These three styles, Classical, Forward, and Iberian developed because of the terrain and favored weaponry of the countries. At first, horses were hunted by people for food (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). They were driven ruthlessly by people over cliffs resulting in mass killing of herds of horses. Evidence of this hunting technique is found in

Horsemanship

France at the Rock of Soultre where bones of approximately 10,000 horses have been found (Whitaker & Whitelaw, 2007). However, foals and young horses were kept by tribes as pets. As these horses grew up, people kept them in herds and milked the mares for consumption. Eventually between 4000-3000 B.C., horses were tamed and people began driving and riding them (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). Driving probably preceded riding horses in war with the invention of the light wheel in the second millennium B.C. Tablets show horse drawn chariots in 1700 B.C. used by an Aryan people from the steppes bordering the Black and Caspian Seas. In open country, the chariot was considered an invincible weapon of war similar to the desert tank centuries later because there was no effective defense against it. Riding probably began with young boys bringing in the herds in the evenings by riding a few of the horses instead of walking several miles and proceeded from there to other uses like transportation and war (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). Cave drawings found in Ladakh on the Western end of the Tibetan plateau depicted men riding horses and shooting bows from their backs in about 1200 B.C. (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). Further references to people riding and hunting come from the Assyrians in 885 B.C. They hunted from horseback and also used horses in war. The first style, classical horsemanship, evolved in Ancient Greece. The Greeks developed a style of riding that reflects their terrain, technology, and weaponry. As a result, the Greeks emphasized collection and submission. Horses collect by bringing their hocks well under him (Chenevix-Trench, 1970, p. 42). Simon, the first known horseman of Ancient Greece, was a

Horsemanship

remarkable horseman unfortunately only a few fragments remain of his works. In fact, not much written by the Greeks about horsemanship exist today other than in the writings of General Xenophon. General Xenophon, born in Athens in 431 B.C., was a pupil of Socrates and a prodigious cavalry General of Athens and Sparta (The cavalry general). His Art of Horsemanship deals with everything important in choosing, caring, and training a war horse and refers to the essence of classical horsemanship. In addition, from him, the wisdom of Simon is known. Throughout Xenophons writings, he constantly defers to the wisdom of Simon which is consider equivalent to the law. It is not known exactly when Classical horsemanship spread across the sea to Italy where the Romans integrated it into their armies but the Roman style resembles Greek horsemanship more than that of the Gauls and other countries. Romans used the cavalry in their quest to conquer Western Europe (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). When the Romans withdrew from Europe, the traditions remained with the people there. Classical horsemanship flourished in Western Europe for centuries through the Middle Ages (800-1200 CE) with the Knights and jousting and into the enlightenment and the rise of scientific riding. However, Classical Horsemanship is only one style that developed from the ancient world, another is Forward Horsemanship. In contrast to Classical horsemanship, Forward horsemanship evolved from nomadic tribes on the Eurasian steppes. Nomadic horsemen rode forward and freely allowing horses to have freedom of movement with their head and neck. The forward style developed because of the terrain and

Horsemanship

weaponry of the people who used it (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). The terrain on the plains north of the Danube is flat and open which is conducive to galloping. In addition, they favored the short curved bow which requires two hands to use. The Scythians (Aryans), Assyrians, and later the Huns are the pioneers of forward horsemanship and dominated with it. There are no written accounts of scientific principles to their horsemanship practices. Facts have been gleaned from tombs and verbal accounts of people from other cultures who witnessed these people and their horsemanship practices. Their horses were highly trained to respond to the slightest pressure on the reins and be steered by their knees leaving their hands free to shoot arrows (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). Forward horsemanship migrated with the Huns into Eastern Europe in the thirteenth century. There it prospered for several centuries untouched by the changes going on in Western Europe. As these two styles were evolving in Europe and Asia, a third style developed on the Iberian Peninsula. In conjunction with Classical and Forward horsemanship, the Iberian Peninsula established a horse culture independently of Europe and Asia. This third style began in Northern Africa with the Syrian Arabs and Moors and moved to the Iberian Peninsula with the invasion of the moors (ChenevixTrench, 1970). The horse culture that evolved focused on training and developing horses to be light and responsive making them handier in close quarter fighting. Iberian horsemanship spread with the conquistadors across the Atlantic Ocean to the new world. In the new world, Iberian horsemanship

Horsemanship

flourished and is represented today in the Western culture of California and in the Gauchos of Argentina. In todays world, Man is no longer dependent upon horses for survival so the purpose of horses has changed. Horses used for recreation and sports have replaced cavalries and carriages of old and are now open to the public. Unfortunately, horse sports take the emphasis away from training horses and riders and place it on competition and winning. Now, as in the past, less time is taken to develop horses correctly and quick methods are on the rise. However, unlike seventy-five to hundred years ago and older, people do not die because their horses lack the training and discipline needed to survive on the battlefields. Competitions frequently see riders schooling their horses in all sorts of gadgets (Cronin, 2004). Gadgets are quick methods that put the horse in a certain frame. A frame is the shape of the horse while working. Gadgets include harsh bits, draw reins, side reins, chambons, and de gogues. Yet, when the gadgets are taken off, the horses are unruly and stiff. Gadgets were not originally designed to be destructive. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, gadgets were used heavily by the cavalries in Europe on remounts. Soldiers did not have much time to train these horses or correct problems so they employed gadgets which hastened their training. Used correctly gadgets are beneficial for training. Great horsemen understand how horses think and function. They use the horses natural instincts, physiology, and thought process to train them. Classical, Forward, and Iberian horsemanship have the same trend which essentially has been present throughout history. Western, hunter/jumpers, and dressage frequently have

Horsemanship

people that rely on quick methods to train their horses rather than learning and taking the time to train the horse correctly. This lack of horsemanship is still a common theme in every part of the horse industry today. Classical, Forward, and Iberian Horsemanship Classical Horsemanship To begin, one of the oldest styles of riding is referred to as Classical horsemanship. Classical horsemanship developed in ancient Greece and emphasizes collection and submission. Most of our understanding about Greek horsemanship comes from the writings of General Xenophon. As mentioned earlier, General Xenophon was a prodigious cavalry General of Athens and Sparta (The cavalry general). His Art of Horsemanship deals with everything important in choosing, caring, and training a war horse and form the essence of classical horsemanship. Horsemanship as a practice did not spring up overnight but took experimentation to discover what practices worked and which did not. By the time Xenophon was writing, Greek horsemanship especially pertaining to training and development of warhorses had already developed as a martial art. In ancient Greece, Classical horsemanship evolved due to the terrain, technology, and weaponry of the era. First of all, the terrain of ancient Greece played the most significant role in the development of classical horsemanship. The terrain of the Grecian mainland consisted of broken, rocky country with steep hills and narrow valleys threaded with water courses (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). Rocks are hard on a horses feet and limit performance especially since the Greeks did not

Horsemanship

10

shoe their horses. A horses hoof has a hard outer wall but a relatively soft sole underneath. The wall should keep the sole from impacting the ground but rocks are little and do not provide a continuous surface for the hoof to contact. As a result, the rocks have contact with the sole of the hoof and act as a deterrent for the horses forward movement. Shoes give the horses some protection for the soles of their hooves but shoes were rare in that era. Consequently, the rocks prevent horses from galloping so horses travel on a short stride or cover a small amount of ground with each footfall. Combine rocks with steep hills and narrow valleys and the principle of collection is implemented. With steep hills and narrow valleys, a horse fully extended or covering as much ground as possible would trip and fall which could injure or kill horse and rider. So, the opposite of extension is collection. Collection requires the horse to bring his hind feet well under his body (Podhajsky, 1965). In doing so, his pelvis tilts and his back arches which effectively shortens his body and therefore controlling the amount of ground he covers. Greeks collected horses from hind quarters to the forehand which easier than trying to collect horses from front to hind which characterized nineteenth century French riding. Moving in collection, horses can maintain their balance and thread their way up and down mountains and through valleys safely. With these conditions, the main principle of classical horsemanship, collection, developed. Other factors in the development of classical horsemanship, technology and weaponry, were derived from the use of horses in war.

Horsemanship

11

Next, the technology of the era contributed to the principles and practices of classical horsemanship in ancient Greece. During the era of Xenophon and for the next century, the equipment available for riding was limited. Neither the saddle nor the stirrup was invented until 477 CE so riders have to ride correctly or else they would fall off. People rode tall with long legs so thighs could firmly hold on to the horse (On horsemanship, p. 20). In this manner, the soldier would be able to hurl a javelin or to strike a blow from horseback (On horsemanship, p. 20). In addition, they kept their torsos (from hips up) as loose as possible so that they could follow the horses motion easily. They discovered that with a loose torso riders did not fall off as easily from sudden movements of the horse or shoving from opponents (On horsemanship). Saddles and stirrups give the rider support but bits give riders control. The Greeks did not use any type of curb bit in their horses. Curb bits give riders more control over their horses with relative ease. Curb bits have a piece of leather, chain, or wire that runs from one side of the bit to the other under the horses chin. These were prevalent with the Knights of the middle ages and even into today. Instead, the Greeks used snaffles and a harsher bit for strong mouthed horses in training. The technology available to the Greeks from lack of saddles and stirrups to bits gives an understanding how the position of the rider in classical horsemanship developed but a more complete understanding is derived from the horses use in war or the application of said position. Finally, war contributed to the development of Classical horsemanship. War emphasized the necessity of training to prepare horses for battle. Since

Horsemanship

12

saddles were not yet invented, soldiers had to physically create a mechanical advantage to use their weapons (On horsemanship). Their position on the horse, as mentioned above, helped give them a mechanical advantage according to their skill and strength. Still, the lack of saddles put soldiers in a precarious position when hurling javelins or shooting arrows. In response, the horse needed to help the soldier by responding instantly to changes in their balance, hence the need for obedience in their horses. The Greeks implemented many of the dressage techniques used today in the training of their warhorses (Whitaker & Whitelaw, 2007). Training starts from the moment the horse is born and continues throughout its life. Greeks began by breaking the horse to the rider and teaching it basic aids (On horsemanship). Aids are what the rider uses to communicate with the horse like legs, hands, seat, and voice. Once the basics are established, the horse is trained to handle everything it might possibly encounter in war (On horsemanship, p. 9). This phase of training involves riding across open country or terrain similar to battlefields. Riding in the open familiarizes the horses with changes in terrain which teaches them to maintain their footing. War does not take place in an arena with smooth stable footing. Obstacles like ditches, streams, and jumps may be faced on the battle field and the horse is required to negotiate them. Presenting the horse with these obstacles now helps build their confidence so when charging the enemy the horse boldly confronts anything. Their instant obedience could mean the difference between life and death for it is the horse that extricates the pair from problems (Beudant, 1931). A war horse without obedience is essentially

Horsemanship

13

a traitor like any human turncoat (On horsemanship).The Greeks worked prodigiously with their horses to familiarize them with everything. For war, the Greeks typically rode stallions very well-schooled to crowds, loud noises, banners, arrows, and blows (Chenevix-Trench, 1970, p. 73). Evidently, their training methods were successful since their cavalry succeeded in wars. Terrain, technology, and warfare were the main contributory factors to the development of classical equitation. Classical horsemanship started in ancient Greece but the Romans were responsible for spreading its principles into Europe. It is not known when or how horses reached Italy. The earliest record of Italian riding is a painting of the Etruscan army marching in the seventh century B.C. (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). However, the style of the Italians is very similar to the Greeks rather than the Gauls or others of the time period. However, Romans were not great horseman compared to the Greeks and Scythians. The cavalry was mostly used as an auxiliary unit in Western Europe and the influence of classical horsemanship took root there with the Romans retreat in the third and fourth centuries A.D. The next modification to classical horsemanship came with the invention of the stirrup by the Huns in 477 A.D. The stirrup was affixed to a crude wooden frame strapped to the horses back (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). The wooden frame had cushions attached for the comfort of the rider and was the blueprint for later saddles. The saddle was important but the stirrup had the greatest impact. With the stirrup, soldiers could put more weight behind their blows (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). So, the security of the stirrup increased the effectiveness of horses in

Horsemanship

14

war but did not change the principles of riding. Horseman still rode upright with long stirrups but now could wedge themselves into the saddle for leverage. This style continued in Western Europe through the middle ages with the knights. The middle ages saw the establishment of a permanent military class referred to as Knights. The image of Knights was established in 800 C.E. and lasted for the next seven hundred years (Whitaker & Whitelaw, 2007). Knights rode warhorses which were large with lots of strength to bear the weight of the armor and to resist the impact of the enemy. To control these large high spirited animals, they used large bits with curbs. Their horses travel flexed and heavy in their hands but the leverage of the bits allows them to be controlled by the knight. These horses ridden by the knights were not properly schooled but used cruel methods to dominate the horse (ChenevixTrench, 1970). Horsemanship of the middle ages exemplifies bad horsemanship. The principles of horsemanship along with many other arts and sciences had lost the traditions of old. Horsemanship was missing the humane principles of riding and training written by Xenophon. Big bits and large spurs gave the knights control but, their horses, in battle and competitions like Jousting, exhibited little grace. Simon says what a horse does under compulsion he does blindly; and his performance is no more beautiful than would be that of a ballet dancer taught by whip and goad. The performances of horse or man so treated would seem to be displays of clumsy gestures rather than grace a beauty (On horsemanship, p. 33).

Horsemanship

15

Riders of this era lost the art of riding and training horses, instead they rely on domination with bits and spurs to force horses to do as the rider asks. Fortunately, the end of the middle ages brought on a new era of enlightenment with the Renaissance. The Renaissance is responsible for a scientific re-examination of collection where the works of Xenophon were rediscovered and studied (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). As a result, the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries educated horsemanship based on collection and the training methods of Xenophon. Consequently, classical horsemanship based on collection dominated Western Europe for centuries even after the demise of cavalry units. It has been preserved to modern day in its purist form at the Spanish Riding School in Vienna, Austria (Podhajsky, 1965). However, Classical horsemanship was only one style of riding that was developed in ancient times. A second style, forward horsemanship, also developed. Forward Horsemanship In contrast to Classical horsemanship, Forward horsemanship developed in a vastly different environment. Forward horsemanship developed on the Eurasian steppes so a style conducive to the terrain and weaponry evolved. Where the Greeks lived in a mountainous and rock strewn area, their neighbors the Scythians lived with a vastly different terrain. They lived in an area of open, grassy plains with hard, dry ground (ChenevixTrench, 1970). Subsequently, they did not have a need for the confinement of collection. So, they rode open and allowed their horses to gallop freely with little interference from the riders. In doing so, they discovered that if they

Horsemanship

16

crouch over the horses shoulders they could move easier with the horse and with less interference (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). This style was also conducive to the weaponry they used in war. Surprisingly, later race riding did not copy this style until it was used by an American Jockey Todd Sloan. As a people, the Scythians were very formidable in war. For weapons, they used a bow highly curved and made out of horn as well as a short sword (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). The bow was their principal weapon and they could not control the horse with their hands and shoot the bow. Therefore, they developed a system of riding that allowed their hands to be free to shoot arrows. Allowing their horses to gallop full out with head and neck extended with little or no contact with the reins freed their hands to shoot arrows or fight with their swords. They controlled the horse by teaching it to respond to cues from knees and legs. This style of riding allowed them to gallop at speed descending quickly upon their enemies. In addition, the Scythians were not the only ones who used the Forward style. The Assyrians and Huns of the Eurasian steppes also used this style to great effect. In fact, the Huns are generally acknowledged as the inventor of the stirrup around 477 C.E (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). It is surprising that it took horseman 1,500 years to think up something as simple as the stirrup (Chenevix-Trench, 1970, p. 64). The Huns developed a saddle with a wooden tree (frame) to which they attached the stirrups. Even with stirrups, the nomads did not adopt the Greek style of long stirrups. The horseman of the Eurasian steppes still rode with short stirrups and perched themselves over their horses shoulders. They found that their horses gallop better when their

Horsemanship

17

riders rose off of their backs and standing in short stirrups gave them more strength to shoot their bows (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). With this style, the Genghis Khan conquered most of Asia in the thirteenth century (Whitaker & Whitelaw, 2007). In fact, no army in the history of the world has ever used horses as successfully as the Mongols or Huns. At the height of the Huns Empire, the empire encompassed China, northern India, Afghanistan, Turkey, Russia, Poland, and Hungary (Whitaker & Whitelaw, 2007). Their empire culminates in what is now Hungary, from which, they plagued the Eastern Roman Empire like they had once plagued the Empire of China (ChenevixTrench, 1970). As the Huns moved east, their stirrup was copied by the cultures they passed through and by their neighbors, the Germans and Russians (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). With these cultures adopting the stirrup, horses became integral to their way of life and more useful in war. For centuries, forward horsemanship flourished in Eastern Europe where its success was well documented. When France (Western Europe) fought the Russians in the late eighteenth century, they suffered a resounding defeat at the hands of the Cossacks (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). The Cossacks used the style of the Magyars (the Huns who had settled in Hungary) who rode short and extended in nomadic fashion. They slaughtered the French cavalry which focused on collection. The Cossacks pummeled the French with arrows from a distance and darted in and out of tight quarters continuously issuing blows with swords. Mostly, their success was due to the Cossacks horses being highly trained and maneuverable. Their horses respond to the slightest command from the riders making them handier. They

Horsemanship

18

could also leap from a halt to full gallop instantly or come from a full gallop to halt with a slight pressure on the reins. Nor did they use large curb bits like the French to achieve such control over their horses. The French commented that their horses second their skill and seem part of themselves; these men are always on the alert, they move with extraordinary rapidity (ChenevixTrench, 1970, p. 162). The Cossacks returned home with spoils leaving the battle fields littered with their enemies. However, even with their success against practitioners of classical equitation, no one west of Hungary thought of adopting their style of riding. Instead, Western Europe maintained their adherence to classical horsemanship. The Forward horsemanship remained mainly in Eastern Europe until nineteenth century. Separate from Europe and Asia, a third style developed. Iberian Horsemanship Until now, the focus has been on the two major schools of horsemanship that developed in Europe and Asia. However, Europe and Asia did not have the monopoly on horses. As these two styles were competing against each other, a third style was evolving in the deserts of Northern Africa. The two dominant horse cultures in Northern Africa were the Syrian Arab and the Moors. The North African horseman before the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries rode without bridles controlling their horses with light sticks (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). Later, they modified their traditions but kept the same principles. Instead of riding completely without bits, they only started their horses without a bit in a device called a hackamore. A hackamore acts on the horses nose instead of mouth. The hackamore

Horsemanship

19

teaches horses to respond to light pressure and balance themselves without relying on their mouths or the corresponding hands of the rider. Once the horses respond lightly and instantly to the riders aids, the horse graduates to a bit. Most Moors rode their horses in snaffles since most do not need more leverage but a few used a lethal curb bit (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). The curb bit, mentioned earlier, can have a variety of mouth pieces that vary in roughness but always have a piece of leather or chain that runs from one side of the bit to the other under the horses chin. This leather or chain is called the curb and gives riders a lot of leverage. Curb bits are still used today in hunters, jumpers, dressage, and Western. Usually, in conjunction with the curb bit, a cerreta was used. The cerreta was a noseband that had spiked teeth along the skin side of the band (ChenevixTrench, 1970). This device is cruel and if used inappropriately, can tear the horses skin so that it bleeds. This nose band is similar to modern day tack nose bands which are frequently used on tough nosed horses. Commonly, horses develop scar tissue over the nose which gives them a little protection from the sharp teeth of the cerreta. In addition, the Moors combined parts of the natural horsemanship of the Asian steppes and classical horsemanship. They rode short like the natural horseman but their horses remained collected on a light rein like classical horsemanship. They could ride collectedly with a light hand because of the careful and systematic training their horses receive from the beginning (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). The light collection allowed the horses to be handier for close quarters fighting and

Horsemanship

20

quick starts and stops. This style of riding made the Moors very successful in battle and led to their much of their success in Spain. This style moved from Northern Africa to Spain and the Iberian Peninsula with the invasion of the Moors. The Moors, greedy for power, invaded southern Spain and were well on their way to victory until they were stopped by Charles Martell, the hammer, in southern France by the Battle of Tours in 731 C.E. (Whitaker & Whitelaw, 2007). East met west when the Moors domination of the Iberian Peninsula was halted. The Moors as mentioned earlier rode with short stirrups on handy horses. On the other hand, Charles Martells cavalry was heavier and in the Greek style but more organized. Charles Martel was able to push the Moors out of Spain but their horsemanship remained (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). As Spain grew powerful with the Monarchs Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand, they sent expeditions across the ocean in the fifteenth through seventeenth centuries. These conquistadors brought horses with them and many of them were left behind in the new world (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). North America, for example, developed large herds of horses descended from the horses brought by the Spaniards. These horses were later ridden by the Indians. Centuries behind Europe, the Indians began to use horses and ride very similarly to the style of the Assyrians and Scythians. However, their methods of riding and training horses many times bordered on cruelty. They viewed horses as a tool easily discarded and replaced (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). In contrast, the Spanish horsemanship influenced the natives of Central and South America much more than their northern neighbors. The

Horsemanship

21

Spanish use of the horse helped them conquer the great civilizations in the New World like the Incas in Peru and the Aztecs in Mexico (Whitaker & Whitelaw, 2007). Consequently, the new world, modern day Central and South America, maintained the Spanish horsemanship which in many places exists in its pure form. The biggest pockets of Iberian horsemanship exist on the pampas of Argentina and in Mexico. The end of the eighteenth century showed three distinct schools of horsemanship, classical, forward, and Iberian. Western Europe taught classical horsemanship based in collection and obedience, Eastern Europe rode naturally like the nomads of the Eurasian steppes, and the Iberian Peninsula which emphasized training and rode using parts of Eastern and Western practices. Horsemanship: 19th Century to Present As the eighteenth century came to a close, horsemen in Western Europe focused on the mnage or high school of training. The mnage is based in classical horsemanship and derived from the battlefields of Europe. The mnage trains horses to perform what are commonly called airs above the ground. The airs include the capriole, ballotade, courbette, and levade (Appendix A) which were all supposed to be necessary against opponents during battle (Podhajsky, 1965). For example, the capriole can be used by a knight on his warhorse to leap over the heads of infantry. All of these movements are still performed at the Spanish Riding School in Vienna. Western Europe like France and Germany began the trend in classical horsemanship that eventually spread to Eastern Europe where forward horsemanship had previously dominated. As this movement swept through

Horsemanship

22

Europe, it produced schools like the French riding school at Samur and the Italian Cavalry School where people went to study scientific horsemanship. The effect of this wave varied according to the region and unlike the earlier centuries, the nineteenth and twentieth centuries produced many notable masters who greatly influenced the trends in the riding of their eras and into today (Chenevix-Trench, 1970 Outside of the cavalry, horse sports were prominent in Europe. First, fox hunting was extremely popular in England. English gentlemen rode slapdash and unscientifically at great speeds over their country estates jumping ditches and fences on the journey after the elusive fox (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). The style they developed was reminiscent of classical horsemanship but used the forward gallop of the nomads. They rode with long stirrups (classical style) but with the speed and freedom of movement of the nomads. The second sport to develop was flat racing. Early flat racing kept the upright style of classical equitation until an innovative American, Todd Sloan, pioneered the jockey crouch (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). With the crouch, horses could run faster so the races became more exciting to watch. Third, steeple chasing combined the excitement of jumping with the speed of flat racing. Steeple chasing was never as popular as flat racing but in the late nineteenth century rules and sanctions were established increasing the popularity of the sport. Fourth, Polo was brought to England from Persia (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). Polo requires a great deal of training for the horses to be competitive. Polo ponies must be handy, obedient, and well balanced with the ability to stop, turn, and accelerate. These sports are still

Horsemanship

23

represented today with the addition of Dressage and show jumping. However, at this point in history, military riders were the only ones allowed to compete at International Horse shows for jumping and dressage. Later, these disciplines opened up to everyone. As these sports were on the rise in Europe, their former colony across the ocean was just beginning their development as a nation which required the use of horses. In contrast to Europe, America was a new world. The variety of people who settled there inevitably brought with them the horse culture of their country. As a result, the United States was unique to all of Europe because within its borders there existed and to some extent combined, four different horse cultures (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). Its eastern seaboard was populated by people who had emigrated there from Europe. They brought with them horses and the traditions of English gentlemen with their fox hunting and racing. For them, horses were integral to their way of life. Horses helped with farming, transportation, and communication. So, the settlers adapted their European traditions to the needs of the colonists and plantation owners (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). Many rode as the English gentlemen with long stirrups but an open forward style. However, most horses were uncomfortable to ride for long hours while overseeing the plantations. Therefore, Amercians developed gaited breeds like the Tennessee Walkers that could be ridden comfortably for hours (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). As America grew, the importance of horses was not diminished but strengthened. In the Wild West, horses were used by the U.S cavalry to fight the Indians. The Indians of course rode the descendants of the Spanish barb

Horsemanship

24

which flourished on the Great Plains west of the Mississippi River. They demonstrated the second horse culture of America that of the nomads of the Eurasian steppes. They rode fast and extended with little interference with the horse (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). Their mastery of the horse plagued American settlers as they ventured farther and farther west. The U.S. cavalry was posted to the west combatted the trouble of Indians. In the mid-1800s, the U.S. cavalry began rounding up the Indians which allowed people moved into Texas and established huge ranches of Long-horn cattle which thrived on the dry plains. Cattle ranches became the standard of the West and developed a riding style to meet their unique needs. With the huge ranches, a new style was developed. The riders kept the long stirrup coupled with the style and bit of the conquistadors but developed of a new saddle. This style became known as western riding and represents the third horse culture in America. The saddles were improved to distribute weight over the horses back so the horse could travel miles without the saddle pinching and making the horses backs sore (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). It also sported large blocks on the front of the saddle and a saddle horn. These additions provided more security to the rider as well as were useful for roping. This style became very popular for the ranching industry because people could ride comfortably for hours over the hostile country moving cattle. The rough country of the west also promoted a loose rein style that was disparaged by Europeans (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). Loose reins allow horses to pick their way over the uneven terrain preserving the health of horse and rider. Western style riding developed out of necessity for long

Horsemanship

25

distance riding, rough terrain, and working cattle. Eventually, people made it all the way across the country to California where they found another horse culture. On the other side of this vast country, another pocket of horsemanship was flourishing. The Mexicans preserved the ancient traditions of the Iberian Peninsula and brought it with them as the populated California (ChenevixTrench, 1970). California was long isolated from the rest of the country by the Sierra Nevada Mountains and the Rocky Mountains before them. There flourished a sophisticated horse culture of Spanish origin thus making the fourth horse culture. Spanish tradition begins by training horses in a hackamore. Hackamore, as mentioned earlier, is bit less bridle acting on nose pressure. It is wide and rounded over one end and narrows underneath the horses chin. At the point, there is a knot which is where the reins are attached. This knot is weighted so that the nose band does not put pressure on the sensitive tissue of the horses nose. The horse is worked for many months in this bridle before being replaced by a bosal and bit (ChenevixTrench, 1970). A bosal is similar to a hackamore but it hangs lower on the nose. The horses are trained to respond to light aids with the progression of bridles so that when the horse graduates to a bit it is light and balanced. Sometimes, horseman use large bits which put light pressure on the horses head encouraging it into the frame desired. Usually, the weight of the reins on the bit is enough to encourage a horse to drop its heads. These bits are not used harshly and only require a light touch to the reins for a response. High spirited horses respond well to this California method (Chenevix-Trench,

Horsemanship

26

1970). Even today, these traditions are used to start young horses in the western culture of California. However, these traditions are not as prevalent due to the highly competitive nature of the horse industry. The reining cow horse population has developed a competition schedule styled off of the Spanish tradition so all three year old horses, for example, go in a hackamore, four in bit and bosal, and etcetera. Today, this style has merged with the western style preserving much of the Spanish culture but adapted to the needs of the modern world. Even with all the horse cultures represented in America, it lacked the scientific horsemanship sweeping through Europe during the twentieth century. However, America was not left behind for long. In the 1920s and 30s, some of Europes most gifted horse masters came to the U.S. and started teaching a revolutionary style (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). They supplied the scientific education for horseman which had not been represented previously on the Eastern coast of America. The revolution of modern riding began with one man in the late 1800s to the early 1900s. Federico Caprilli was an Italian cavalry officer who taught his methods at the Italian Cavalry School (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). Caprilli taught that horses are perfectly capable of adjusting their center of gravity to carry the rider over various terrains without interference with the rider. He discards the concept of collection because the horse can collect himself when he needs it. Riders should tell a horse what to do and then allow them to do it without interference (Cronin, 2004). Furthermore, the horses natural energy or forward impulse should be encouraged so the riders position and hands should conform to the forward

Horsemanship

27

motion and not oppose it. Consequently, he developed a forward seat with relatively short irons reminiscent of the horseman of the steppes. His new method was proven unequivocally at International shows where his style won with ease especially in jumping competitions (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). Out of all of Europe, the Italian school made the biggest head way in America where it was taught by former members of the Russian cavalry and at the cavalry school at Fort Riley by Colonel Chamberlain who was influenced by James Fillis, an Englishman educated in the major teachings throughout Europe (Cronin, 2004). In America, the Italian school was being taught by Vladimir Littauer and Colonel Chamberlain. Vladimir Littauer immigrated to the United States from Russia were he had been trained by the Russian Imperial Army as a cavalry man. He believed that horses perform best when they are mentally and physically relaxed not forced to perform by whips, spurs, or bits (Littauer, 1976). His teachings follow Xenophon and all the best horsemen throughout history. Any strong rider can force a horse into a certain position and gain an adequate performance out of him but this feat is outside of the grasp of normal or ordinary riders. Results are achieved with less resistance when approached with gradually increasing requirements of the horse. Schooling the horse educates the horse and establishes a communication link between the horse and rider. Teaching the horse the meaning of the riders aids is the first step in developing the cooperation of the horse. Cooperation of the horse with the rider leads to a better performance. The best performance is obtained through a combination of schooling, control, and seat using the least

Horsemanship

28

physical and nervous energy on the part of the horse (Littauer, 1976). His principles are the basis for the modern system of riding called the American system of forward riding. It is taught across the country at all levels. In conjunction with Littauer, Colonel Chamberlain also taught people in forward riding. Chamberlains main influence was from James Fillis. Fillis is an Englishman who trained at Samur and then rode all over Europe including Germany and Russia where he was greatly respected by Prussian/Classical riders. He combined the major teachings of Europe and brought them to the U.S. where he wrote the U.S. Army Cavalry Manual at Fort Riley. Chamberlain was sent from Fort Riley to study at the Samur and the Italian school before returning to the U.S. where he instructed soldiers in the art of forward riding (Cronin, 2004). After studying in both France and Italy, he heartily approved of the Italian method and warned extensively of the dangers of collection. In an unskilled hand, collection is like a razor in the paw of a monkey (Chenevix-Trench, 1970, p. 257). Instead, he believes that a horses natural collection should be developed. He taught many young people to ride forward while jumping and cross-country riding. The Pony Club Organization (Appendix A) saw a marked change in riding of their members. They shortened their stirrups and developed a forward position to the jumps (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). The overall success of the teachings of Littauer and Chamberlain are exemplified in the success of Americans in international show jumping. The American nature embraces new ideas and readily adapts itself with success while it is the nature Europe to resolutely cling to tradition.

Horsemanship

29

With this revolution happening in America, Europe still clung to the old. German and Swedish horseman continued their tradition of riding based on collection and submission (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). Since horsemen from both of these countries have won numerous awards in the dressage ring, they do not see the need to change and they stress the importance of dressage as preparation for jumping. The Germans maintain that horses should be obedient and do as the rider commands when he commands it. As a result, German equitation is machine like and regarded as a science and not an art. In addition, the Spanish Riding School in Vienna continued to ride and school their horses as they had for the past centuries (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). Alois Podhajsky is one of the most revered riders of school. He was very successful in dressage and show jumping at international horse shows with his Lipizzaners. He wrote that the object of the schools teachings was to systematically work a riding horse that was quiet, supple, and obedient, pleasant in his movements and comfortable for his rider (Podhajsky, 1965, p. 29). Today, the Spanish Riding School is the same as it was during Podhajsky and all the head riders previously. Their adherence to pure classical horsemanship is strict but it works for them. Classical horsemanship in their hands does wonders with those horses that ordinary riders could never achieve. Still, the Americans continued to dominate the show jumping world and so Europe began to copy their methods and emulate their success. In conclusion, man has had a relationship with horses for centuries. Out of the plains of Europe and Asia, man learned horsemanship and trained horses for their purposes which contributed to mans survival and

Horsemanship

30

development of civilization. Two main styles of horsemanship developed, one of the nomads and one of the Greeks. These two styles evolved because of the terrain of the countries and the favored weapons of the culture. As horse culture spread, these styles were joined by one more ancient style from the Iberian Peninsula and Northern Africa. As the world modernized, the importance horses in society diminished. As a result, horses started being used primarily for sport so horsemanship techniques were adapted to fit modern needs. All three styles are represented in horse sports with slight modifications and combinations of the styles. Modern Industry Modern Practices Through the centuries, the purity of horsemanship has diminished especially since man is no longer dependent upon horses nor do they provide a mechanical advantage in warfare. Horses had to have extensive training in preparation for warfare. Training was essential because the riders life was dependent upon the horse obeying the riders commands. The horse, not the rider, extricates the pair from difficulties (Beudant, 1931). Without that threat, the need for training horses as rigorously has diminished. Today, horses are mostly used for sports. Hunter/Jumper and Dressage disciplines reflect the growing decline in training. The decline in quality of training is putting added strain on horses which is seen by the increase in physical and mental breakdowns in many performance horses. Proper methods like proper collection and riding horses from the hindquarters preserve horses and improve soundness. In the past, horses did not only have to be functional in

Horsemanship

31

battle but also had to travel to battle. The trend in the industry is similar to the pattern examined earlier in history where cavalries fail because of lack of training and a superior foe. So too, the industry is moving away from training horses and riders and focusing on competition. Todays industry frequently ruins talented and expensive horses from poor conditioning, schooling methods, and overwork. Poor Conditioning In the modern world, competitive riding has lost emphasis on training horse and rider and placed it on competition and winning. Time is no longer taken to develop horses correctly and quick methods are on the rise (Cronin, 2004). This theme is common through the hunter/jumper divisions and even into the dressage competitions. Horses like any other athlete need to be conditioned and trained in order to perform at the best of their abilities. Not only is proper conditioning essential for todays performance horse, physical conditioning has historical basis. The first known book on conditioning horses is the Kikkuli Text which appeared about 1345 B.C. This text was written by Kikkuli who was the horsemaster for the Hittite King Suppiluliuma (Whitaker & Whitelaw, 2007). The Kikkuli Text depicts a seven month training schedule designed to achieve the horses maximum fitness yet minimum injury. The text uses interval training which like in human athletes involves alternating short, fast bursts with slow, easy intensive training. Kikkuli also developed a care and feeding schedule for their overall health. This fitness method has been reproduced exactly as it was done in the 1300 B.C. by a doctoral student at the University of New England, Australia (Whitaker & Whitelaw,

Horsemanship

32

2007). The results showed a huge improvement in fitness from the beginning to the conclusion of the study. Kikkuli designed this program to get horses fit for war. It was essential for those horses to be as fit as possible yet without injury. Horse injuries effectively kill riders and possibly horses by stranding them in the path of an approaching army. Today, the need to flee an approaching army is extinct but the need for proper conditioning remains the same. Today as in past centuries, people use a combination of flat and jumping exercises referred to as gymnastics to physically train horses for performance. The goal of gymnastics is to develop horses whether hunters or jumpers or dressage horses to be fluid and athletic performers (Cronin, 2004). Exercises must be introduced slowly with repetition and timely reward to condition horses physically and mentally. Horses cannot be schooled like a machine and be expected to cooperate with the riders. This machine-like training approach is reminiscent of nineteenth century cavalries (Cronin, 2004). However, horses today are vastly different than the horses used in the nineteenth century. Those horses were less sensitive and possessed a different mentality. Selective breeding over the last century has developed horses that can produce spectacular gaits and movements without any effort (Heuschman, 2006). Breeders chose horses based on their conformation and submissiveness. Good conformation allows horses to perform effortlessly and with lots of athleticism. These horses usually have brilliant gaits that are desired in the competition ring. The recent World Equestrian Games held in Lexington, Kentucky demonstrated selective breeding of horses in all of the

Horsemanship

33

disciplines represented there. Edward Gal of the Netherlands and his incredible mount Totilas set a new world record in dressage with a phenomenal performance exhibiting the epitome of selective breeding. On the other hand, submissiveness leads to trainability. Many horses have incredible talent but are difficult to teach. Numerous horses today have a submissiveness and readiness to suffer that forceful training methods are tolerated until the horse breaks down without offering any major resistance (Heuschman, 2006). Few horses possessing conformation faults so they cannot perform as the rider asks or those horses possessing strong characters are the only ones who offer resistance. Modern methods have discovered that establishing a horses cooperation leads to better performances and happier horses. Even with these wonderful horses modern breeding has produced, physical conditioning is necessary during young horses initial training as well as maintenance for the seasoned sport horse. Initial training of horses should focus on strengthening skeletal muscles, developing forwardness, and building a positive relationship between horses and humans. For hunters and jumpers, forward riding is the system most frequently used in the industry and is aptly called the American system of forward riding. Forward riding uses the horses natural impulse to establish a dynamic balance with athletic ability under the weight of the rider (Cronin, 2004). Natural impulse is simply the horses willingness to go forward (Beudant, 1931). This natural impulse can be stymied by the rider or developed and encouraged. Forward riding begins training horses by developing mental and physical stability (Cronin,

Horsemanship

34

2004). Young horses are started with a soft contact which encourages forward movement while developing physical and mental stability under the weight of the rider. The rider uses a give and take hand teaching the horse to maintain a steady rhythm and follows the natural balancing gesture of the head and neck as the horse moves (Cronin, 2004). The work on the horse progresses by gradually increasing the requirements of the exercises. For example, changing gaits from trot to canter, canter to trot, and walk to canter along with circles and turns teaches horses to develop and maintain their balance while following the riders directions. The horse continues to develop their physical and mental stability until the horse reaches its full potential as an agile athlete. The finished horse should perform with a soft contact from the rider and reserve energy in the ring and in the hunt field. To the jumps, riders should apply the flatwork they established in the initial stages of the horses development to the fences. I have always thought of jumps as an elevated canter stride and have endeavored to apply that thought to my horses. Horses should have freedom of their head and neck on the approach as well as in the air. Horses use their head and necks to help balance themselves. On the approach, the less interference from the rider the more the horse learns to rate the jump correctly. Horses that judge the distance are easier and quieter to ride. They start to balance themselves for what is coming without signals from the rider. This natural balancing was essential for the warhorse since loss of balance or misjudging the distance could spell disaster from them both in the face of the enemy. I am often asked how do I tell the horse when to jump. Horses trained correctly are not

Horsemanship

35

necessarily told when to jump but judge where to leave the ground as they approach the jump with little support from the rider. Using a variety of gymnastic jumping exercises helps develop the horses natural athletic ability and to give the horse positive experiences in finding correct distances (Steincrecht, 1978). Gymnastic jumping exercises are set in combinations at varying distances between the jumps which teach horses to balance themselves and judge distances. In contrast, making horses jump by driving them off the ground is not fun for either the horse or the rider. Usually, if a rider has to make a horse jump, investigation should be conducted as to why the horse does not want to jump. There are a variety of causes from the lack of confidence on the part of the horse to rider interference or miscommunication to physical issues such as pain. Any of those factors will cause horses to question jumping especially if there is physical pain. Furthermore, riders should continue their soft rein from the approach across the jump into the landing. Soft hands allow horses to use their necks and backs in the air creating a nice jump. Physically, horses are conformed to use their necks and round their backs. Problems arise when horses are not allowed to perform as they are designed. For instance, tight hands restrict their necks which causes them to invert (raise their neck) and jump with hollow backs (backs sunken rather than round). This lack of release in the air leads to physical problems in the horse because they are not allowed to use themselves properly. Using themselves improperly leads to physical issues like pain. Pain not treated leads to physical breakdown of the horse. When forced to continue jumping, physical breakdown can be

Horsemanship

36

preceded by mental breakdown. Physical breakdown today is not as detrimental to horse and rider as it was in history. A warhorse needs to maintain soundness as they travel to and from the battlefields. Physical pain strands the horse and rider which could be bad if surrounded by enemies. However, correct flat work can eliminate weaknesses in the horses body. Horses should use their musculature properly while working which in turn conditions their muscles, tendons, and ligaments. Physical conditioning prepares horses for jumping and performance as well as keeps them healthier. Remember the caveat with Kikkuli? His job was to prepare those horses physically for their jobs so they could withstand the battering of war without physical breakdown. Horses that are properly prepared for their jobs will remain healthier longer even while competing at a high level. Jumping faults like the one involving inversion and hollowing should be corrected using flat work and applying the principles from the flat to the jumps. Most horses do not naturally jump incorrectly but faults are derived from improper riding or lack of discipline in the riding. The horse that jumps inverted and hollow is a rider created fault. A good rider can correct that fault using flatwork to establish the horses confidence and then applying the flat to the jumps. Some faults are created from lack of discipline. Horses can learn to drift left or right or land and run away from the jump. These tendencies are a lack of discipline in the rider. The rider should correct these tendencies as they occur so the horse does not establish them as a habit. Bad habits create in the horse a turncoat whether in war or in performance arena. A consistent system of riding and schooling prevents and solves training problems (Heuschman,

Horsemanship

37

2006). However, proper conditioning improves the health of the horse and prepares the horse for the schooling necessary to prepare for the performance arena. Schooling Methods Next, schooling methods can make or break a horse. Many talented horses are stymied each year because of their training methods. The forward system as mentioned in the section on conditioning establishes physical and mental stability before asking the horses for strenuous exercises. All horses whether hunters or jumpers or dressage horses perform the best when they are mentally and physically relaxed (Littauer, 1976). When relaxed, they move in a way that that is natural bringing out the best performance. To achieve this state in the arena, schooling is used. Simply, schooling is the education of the horses. One of the most significant points to remember in schooling horses is memory. The horses memory allows training to be accomplished (Wright, 1962). Without memory, the horse would never learn anything and therefore never change. As a result, memory needs to be taken into account while training. Every time a horse is schooled either trained or developing a habit, good or bad, can be formed. Bad habits in a warhorse are the same as having a traitor in the ranks. Correcting bad habits as they develop is essential to preventing disturbance in the ranks of cavalry as it is to problems in performances. Once the habits become established they are next to impossible to eliminate. Similarly, good habits should be rewarded so horses are encouraged to repeat them. Brusque or violent methods should be avoided both in riding and in handling because the horse remembers them

Horsemanship

38

engendering fear rather than change (Wright, 1962). On the other hand, sympathetic methods encourage horses to overcome natural apprehensions and work with people. Ultimately, horses learn by association of ideas. They understand new concepts easier if they are followed up by reward or punishment (Littauer, 1976). Good responses from the horse should be rewarded. Rewards stimulate horses desire to please, encourages correct behaviors, reassures frightened horses, and restores confidence and submissiveness in the horse. On the other hand, punishment is used to discourage a particular habit or behavior. Punishment needs to be given at the right times and to the right degree otherwise it does more damage than good (Wright, 1962). Punishment should be administered when the horses is voluntarily and knowingly disobedient. Either punishment or reward is only effective if given directly after behavior or else the horse does not associate the behavior with the punishment or reward. Be careful, usually faults committed by the horse are due to ignorance or lack of training or miscommunication between horse and rider and not willful disobedience (Wright, 1962). Riders should first look at what they are doing before proceeding with punishment. In addition, riders should not overlook the importance of rewards. A lot can be achieved by petting horses and reassuring them. A calm horse is more responsive to training than a tense, fearful horse. Consequently, schooling or training goes better when the riders establish the horses cooperation. Outstanding riders can force horses into a certain attitude and at the same time gain a better performance (Littauer,

Horsemanship

39

1976, p. 6). However, horses with this method are not happy horses and offer a lot resistance. Many times, the less a rider asks, the less resistance is encountered from the horse. Obtaining and using the horses cooperation is a shorter road to success than dependence on a strong seat and hand. When riders begin training, they should have a good understanding of their horses instincts and mentality. Communication between horse and rider has to be learned (Dorance, 1987, p. 6). To begin, horses have a natural selfpreservation instinct. This instinct comes straight from the Eurasian steppes as discovered earlier in the introduction (Heuschman, 2006). Horses resistance, tension, and physical problems come from improper handling from people. Their preservation instinct can inhibit training unless riders approach the horse in such a way that the horse realizes he can have his selfpreservation and still respond to the persons aids (Dorance, 1987). Horses will fight if they feel that their independence is being taken away. Harnessing his spirit will result in a happier and more cooperative horse. Plus, if riders listen to the horse, the horse most times will tell the rider what is going on inside of the horse. Horses have incredible sensitivity to a riders body language so they respond to the feel of the rider (Dorance, 1987). Horses can feel it when a rider feels anger, depression, boredom, or interest and react accordingly. Horses are more likely to respond in the desired way if the rider has the right attitude (Dorance, 1987).When riders lose control of their emotions to frustration, anger, or depression, it is wiser to take a break for a while and cool off. Nothing productive will be achieved with a rider who has lost control of their emotions. Furthermore, a horses spine is fragile and can

Horsemanship

40

be injured from just one rough, painful halt from the canter or jump or smashing into an arena wall or similar action (Heuschman, 2006). Injury to the spinal cord may not be instantly noticeable but will develop into training issues related to physical pain. Subsequently, many horses possess superior intelligence. They possess too much intelligence and strength of will to be a slave for man (Littauer, 1976, p. 23). These horses should be approached carefully because they remember everything and they easily find ways to circumvent a rider. They should not be approached by force. Instead, use their instincts against them. Horses naturally move away from their own pressure (Dorance, 1987). For example, one would prevent heaviness by presenting heaviness in such a way that puts pressure on the horse. They will lighten their carriage in response to their own pressure. They will accept this much more willingly than attacking it directly. In short, make the right thing easy and the wrong thing hard. In contrast, some riders attack resistance instead of establishing the horses confidence. They believe that riders should challenge a horses resistance until it breaks (Steincrecht, 1978). Be careful, challenging resistance may open up a gigantic can of worms similar to the fate of the sorcerers apprentice. The sorcerers apprentice copied his master and whispered the words summoning the evil spirits which he then was unable to banish (Steincrecht, 1978). Success is more easily gained when the rider uses the horses natural instincts to circumvent resistance and develop cooperation.

Horsemanship

41

Unfortunately, some riders school horses mechanically. They approach training or riding the horse like a mechanic working on an engine. Mechanics put the parts of the engine together as the manual diagrams it and expect it to run. Horses have no manual and each one is special. Usually, mechanical riding inhibits natural talent and movement of the horse (Cronin, 2004). Riders focus on the mechanics of riding such as aids, position, and seat and fail to respond to the needs of the horse. It is imperative for riders to understand the mechanics of riding like application of the aids, however riders need to apply aids and such in response to the horses movement which changes constantly. Along with mechanical riding involves the use of mechanical contraptions to put horses in a correct frame. Frame is the shape of the horse while moving. Focus on the frame of the horse is becoming increasingly important rather than on the quality of the horses movements and use of their musculature. Mechanical contraptions or gadgets like side reins, chambons, and de gogues are the most commonly used (Cronin, 2004). Chambons and de gogues act mechanically because they set limits for the horse and cannot be adjusted once the rider is mounted. Used improperly, these gadgets teach horses to evade the riders aids. Unlike mechanical gadgets, draw reins are manual meaning their effectiveness is controlled by the rider. Used correctly, draw reins are a useful training tool that teaches horses to accept the riders hands and use their necks and backs properly. Draw reins especially have become the standard piece of equipment since the end of the last century. Good use of draw reins was implemented by Max von Weyrother of the Spanish Riding School in the early 1900s (de Nemethy,

Horsemanship

42

1988). He implemented them in the proper method to teach his horses and then took the draw reins off after his goal was accomplished. Before and since, many great riders have used draw reins to accomplish certain training goals with their horses. However, improperly used gadgets can be a disaster causing restriction of the back and neck (Cronin, 2004). They also tend to cramp the horses natural movement and can develop a bad mouth (Steincrecht, 1978). Currently, the majority of horses are hurried to the competition ring through the use of gadgets. Horses hurried through training usually develop stiff muscles or resistance like grinding of teeth, nerves, and anxiety. Many horses in the competition arena reflect the new trend for gadgets. These horses require extra hardware like large bits, martingales and other gadgets along with muscle and bracing to crudely control them in the hunt fields and sometimes in the ring (Cronin, 2004). This new trend goes against the purpose of schooling which is supposed to make horses quieter and more ridable in the hunt field and arena. In addition, people use gadgets to fake advanced flat work. Draw reins and side reins create a frame which gives the horse the appearance of being well trained. However, when the gadgets are taken off the horses are unruly and stiff and usually ignore the riders aids. Subsequently, gadgets can be used to skip steps. Unfortunately, training cannot afford to skip any steps or hurry through them (Steincrecht, 1978). Imagine the damage a warhorse hurried through education would evoke when confronted with a battle. Any gaps in education could prove fatal to the horse and rider. Each step in training should follow the preceding ones so

Horsemanship

43

each exercise sets the foundation for the succeeding steps. Training should be more than preparing horses for the ring; it should bring out the best in the horses ability. Training done correctly makes a horse softer and more precise than any gadget can ever generate (Beudant, 1931). This kind of training improves the overall performance of horses producing a brilliance sought after in the competition ring. The historical benefits of correct training are demonstrated by the Cossacks who control their horses with plain snaffles and can bring their horses to a stop with slight pressure on the reins. They prevailed over lesser trained cavalries due their skill and horses training. However, most people do not have the patience or the understanding needed to achieve this ideal instead, they use gadgets as a crutch to fake training. A third symptom of improper horse management techniques is overwork. Overwork Like any human athlete, overworking horses is one of the quickest ways to break a horse. Broken down horses are the victims of work contrary to the nature of the horse (Steinbrecht, 1978, p. 55). Human athletes frequently take at least one or two days off per week. Horses benefit from the same practice. For young horses, interval training generates stronger results. Interval training gives turnout breaks of one to two days between training sessions (Cronin, 2004). Usually, the breaks allow the horse to digest their lessons. Once lessons have been internalized, the horse will be more apt to perform those lessons correctly when asked for them later. Same principle is true with longer breaks at the end of a particularly successful schooling session. I have noticed a great benefit in young horses if I turn them out after

Horsemanship

44

an intense schooling period. One time I had a young horse who struggled with consistent lead changes. After a four week break, she did automatic lead changes on straight lines. A properly timed break allows horses to digest lessons and apply them when asked later. Schooling breaks should not be confused with the people who give mentally upset, stiff, and strong horses days off before a competition. They give the horse say five days off and then work them really hard the day before the show. Horse is then tired and muscle sore at the show instead of educated and obedient. That schedule usually leads to upset and unsound horses with too much hardware in their mouths like large, sharp bits. Historically, this treatment would not work for a warhorse where the soldier is dependent upon the horses obedience. Warhorse needed to be sound and obedient to the soldiers demands. Overall, horses are not motorcycles. They do not run indefinitely with a constant supply of fuel. Horses break down mentally and physically under a tough work schedule (Cronin, 2004). Symptoms of breakdown include horses becoming stiff and sour to work. Today, people pay a lot of money for horses and expect to be able to go to A rated shows or chase points without considering the health of the horses. Days off and regularly scheduled breaks help horses to maintain health. Unfortunately with the money in todays industry, most people do not care so much about the longevity of horses (Cronin, 2004). They simply buy a new one when theirs breaks down. Regrettably, many professionals encourage this tendency because they receive a commission from every horse that is bought or sold. Over work due to strenuous show schedules or chasing points

Horsemanship

45

without the necessary breaks puts a lot of physical strain on horses which in turn leads to injury. Injuries ruin the careers of talented performance horses and would be just as detrimental to a warhorse. Injuries to horses on the battlefield would mostly likely end the horses life and possibly the riders too. Good conditioning with proper schooling methods and well-timed breaks promote the health of the horse and lengthen the useful life of the horse. Application For some, the traditions of the cavalry remain. The trend in modern riding where horses lack proper conditioning, schooling methods, and suffer from overwork are really affecting the younger generations in the lower echelons of the industry. The older Grand Prix riders were taught to ride by the cavalry officers like Chamberlain and others from Fort Riley. They imparted the art of riding and the importance on training and conditioning horses. Up until just before World War II, international show jumping competitions were reserved mostly for military teams. Few were open to individuals but most were reserved for the military (ed. Steinkraus, 1976). After World War II in the 40s and 50s, international competitions were opened to the public. The United States Equestrian Team developed it first civilian team in 1950. Since then, civilians have been on every team the U.S. has sent to international competitions. One of the earliest riders on this team was William Steinkraus. Steinkraus was an incredible horseman who followed the traditions from the cavalry era. He was influenced by the teachings of Chamberlain and Littauer. He believed in taking the time to train horses (Steinkraus, 1969). He believes

Horsemanship

46

in schooling all horses at home in a snaffle. Schooling in large bits does nothing in the development of a good mouth in a horse with a bad mouth. Large bits should be reserved for the show ring where the added immediate control may be necessary (Steinkraus, 1969). Likewise, gadgets like draw reins and martingales should not live on horses. These are great training aids but riders should find that they can gradually dispense with them. Moreover, Steinkraus believes that horses are the best instructors and his performance will always reflect the appropriateness and correctness of the riders actions. Steinkrauss proficiency is seen in his successes internationally but also in the quality and consistency of his horses throughout the years. In 1954, probably the greatest influence on current American riding arrived on the scene. Bertalan de Nemethy, a Hungarian Cavalry officer who left Europe during the war, became the chef d equip of the American team. Being raised in the cavalry, he is also a strong proponent of training and developing horses. His experience has been that riders often resort to gadgets as the problems get worse rather than look to themselves (Rodenas, 1983, p. 7). He was critical of three main modern practices. First, he did not like how horses are rushed through training. Training should be done slowly, carefully, and systematically (Rodenas, 1983, p. 10). Second, he did not like using gadgets. He saw benefit in using draw reins occasionally for certain horses but overall he was not a proponent of gadgets. Finally, he believed riding and training was like flying. Riders like pilots should log lots of hours of practice. De Nemethy clearly shows how proper riding such as clear application of the aids and use of seat and proper training influence the

Horsemanship

47

horse. He combines classical horsemanship principles with the forward seat (Rodenas, 1983). Collection has advantages for a jumper because jumpers need to frequently adjust their strides. But, jumpers also need to be able to jump off of a forward gallop such as in a jump off (timed shortened course of jumps that settles ties between riders). His success as a rider and instructor is irrefutable. Many of the riders on de Nemethys teams have passed on the wisdom from their teacher to younger generations. Frank Chapot and his wife Mary Maris have continued to play a role in the horse industry. Frank Chapot does a lot coaching of top riders and acts as Chef d Equip for many of the U.S. international teams to Europe like Olympics and World Equestrian Games. He does a lot of ground work for riders like Greg Best who is also a Grand Prix Rider. Their daughter Laura Chapot is now a Grand Prix rider and trainer using the same principles. Another example is Linda Allen. Linda Allen hung up her boots as an international Grand Prix rider and since has been a top level course designer and clinician. George Morris is another influential horseman of today. Morris retired for the International Grand Prix ring and now acts as the chef d equip for a lot of international competitions. He also does a lot of groundwork for top Grand Prix riders as well as clinics for the all and sundry. More recently, McLain Wards correctness in his riding and training techniques has taken him to the top as a rider for the United States in many international competitions like the Olympics, World Cup competitions, and most recently the World Equestrian Games. He focuses on proper collection, schooling methods, and careful preparation to keep his horses at their best.

Horsemanship

48

Conclusion Many factors play a role in the development of todays industry. To begin, history establishes patterns and shows the migration of horsemanship throughout the world. Historical patterns display the effects of social, economic, and geographic effects on horsemanship. Ancient styles of horsemanship develop due to the peoples geographic location such as terrain, social factors like transportation and food, and varying economic pressures like technology and weaponry (Chenevix-Trench, 1970). History also shows the migration of horsemanship. Dominant horse cultures in southern Europe and Asia began the dependence on horsemanship which then spread into Western and Eastern Europe and into the new world. The three primary styles flourished for centuries in their own pockets separated from each other by geographical features. These pockets demonstrate residual influence which explains the practices of people in those areas. Western Europe like Germany and France tend to be very mechanical and emphasize flat work and precision. Their horses are highly collected and contained. However, England had more influence from fox hunting rather than classical equitation so their style is more open and lackadaisical. America has influence from classical, forward, and Iberian horsemanship from the myriad of immigrants from Europe. The New England part of the east coast had less plantation farming and more industry so they have retained more of a classical mindset as opposed to the South which is influenced by the plantation farming where they ride softer and more open which is more comfortable while minding the farm. In comparison, California was influenced

Horsemanship

49

more from Iberian horsemanship which combines parts from both forward horsemanship and classical horsemanship. Throughout the centuries, horsemanship has adapted to the needs of the people who used it. Having an understanding of where riding was to where it is today helps people understand the history for certain practices and the need for change to adapt to modern times. Todays industry is very different from the use of horses in the past. In history, the horse had a purpose in helping man conquer the elements. Now, horses are used primarily for sports or recreation. Where training and establishing precise control over horses was necessary for the survival of man in war, sports have diminished the need for as rigorous training. With this decline in training, the younger generations lack understanding of the basic principles of riding and training. At almost any competition, people can observe riders preparing their horses for competition with lots of jerking, pulling, and kicking (Heuschman, 2006). They use coercion to achieve a performance from their horses. Horses are the ones who suffer from this kind of treatment. Many times, horses do not receive the proper conditioning to withstand the types of exercises they are asked to do (Cronin, 2004). Physical conditioning helps maintain sounder and healthier horses. Subsequently, schooling methods used on horses should train horses for what they are going to do in the arena (Heuschman, 2006). However, incorrect schooling methods and increases in the wrong use of gadgets have developed many health problems in horses. Their backs and legs suffer from riders jerking and pulling and interfering with their use of their body. Incorrect training or training with

Horsemanship

50

force puts added physical strain besides the pounding they receive from jumping and competing. These practices would have caused many problems for the warhorses of old. Horse and rider both depended on proper conditioning and training to prepare for war. The increase in equine veterinarians is a tribute to the increase in horse health issues (Heuschman, 2006). Vets are becoming an essential member of any show team. The vets provide drugs to mask soundness, induce calmness, and relaxation for better performances. With veterinary help, people can disguise problems until the horse completely breaks down (Cronin, 2004). Riders present only one part of the decline in training. In addition, judging and breeding have also played their role in the decline of horsemanship. Judging plays a large part in the decline of educated horsemen in the industry. Judges placement of riders in classes set the standard for what is considered the ideal. Riders who win but lack good horsemanship skills are examples of the decline in judges prestige. When these riders win in the competition ring, it sends a signal to others that their method must work because they won. Human nature copies those methods that appear successful. The industry should take another look at the qualifications and quality of judging (Heuschman, 2006). Judges should be discerning enough to differentiate between quality and showy. Quality of horse and rider should be rewarded over showy but technically incorrect. Regrettably, this tendency of human nature to copy success sets a standard that does not promote educated riding. Improvements in judging will help encourage better riding and schooling habits. Still, the specialize breeding of

Horsemanship

51

sport horses contributes to the lack of necessary education. Modern breeding has produced horses that can produce brilliant gaits almost without effort (Heuschman, 2006, p. 25). These horses allow people to get away with substandard riding and training. They have such good conformation and submissiveness that they suffer forceful training until they break down. A few horses with conformation faults make compliance difficult or those with a strong character resist riders forceful demands (Heuschman, 2006). Fortunately, true horsemen have noticed the decline in overall horsemanship in the younger generation. The USEF organization has initiated programs that are designed to help people who lack the resources in order to combat the decline. The Emerging Athletes program is one such program. EAP chooses riders from the local level and gives them the chance to be chosen for the nationwide finale. Riders from each zone get together at the finals and are lectured in equine science and horse management. The goal is to further their understanding of horses so that when they become equine professionals they have the skills and knowledge to avoid animal abuse. Other organizations at the local level are working on seminars to improve the skills of professionals already in the industry. Continuing education programs are an example of ways to improve professionals. In addition, certified instructor programs are on the rise in the hopes of creating more qualified instructors. Qualified instructors should improve the education of burgeoning horseman that will carry throughout their careers. Overall, education of people when they start riding and throughout their riding career will help

Horsemanship

52

increase the quality of horsemanship nationwide and hopefully will lower the number of talented horses that get ruined yearly. Nothing new has been discovered in the riding and training of horses that cannot be found in the annals of great horsemen. Great horsemen understand how horses think and function. They use the horses natural instincts, physiology, and thought process to train them. Classical, Forward, and Iberian horsemanship reflect a knowledge and understanding of horses though each manifests in a different style. Modern Industry has veered off this track but is endeavoring to expand the education of riders in all levels to get back on track.

Horsemanship

53

Appendix A Levade- regarded as transitional movement between ground work and airs above the ground. It requires horses to balance on its haunches at a 45 degree angle while holding its forelegs in a bent position. Courbette-follows the Levade, involves the horse on its hind legs while maintaining the levade position with its front legs. Ballotade-follows the courbette, but the horse springs off the ground while maintaining the position of the courbette. Capriole- most impressive, horse leaps clear of the ground and kicks out with its hind legs while appearing to float momentarily in mid-air. Pony Club Organization-a National organization that combines riding and horse management skills to help kids learn about horses and become better riders and horsemen.
Courbette

Horsemanship

54

References Beudant, E. (1931). Horse training out-door and high school. London: Charles Scribner's Sons. Chenevix-Trench, C. (1970). A history of horsemanship. Garden City: Doubleday & Company, Inc. Cronin, P. (2004). Schooling and riding the sport horse. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. de Nemethy, B. (1988). The de Nemethy method; modern techniques for training the show jumper and its rider. Garden City: Doubleday . Dorance, T. (1987). True unity: Willing communication between horse and rider. Tuscarora: Give-It-A-Go Enterprises. ed. Steinkraus, W. (1976). The U.S. equestrian team book of riding. New York: Simon and Schuster. Heuschman, G. (2006). Tug of war: Classical versus "modern" dressage. North Pomfret: Trafalgar Square Publishing. Littauer, V. S. (1976). Commonsense horsemanship. New York: Arco Publishing Press. Podhajsky, A. (1965). The complete training of horse and rider in the priniciples of classical horsemanship. Chatsworth: Wilshire Book Company. Rodenas, P. (1983). The deNemethy years; One man's influence on American riding. New York: Arco publishing, inc.

Horsemanship

55

Steincrecht, G. (1978). The gymnasium of the horse. Cleveland Heights: Xenophon press. Steinkraus, W. (1969). Riding and jumping. Garden City: Doubleday & company, inc. Whitaker, J., & Whitelaw, I. (2007). The horse; A miscellany of equine knowledge. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, St. Martin's Press. Wright, G. (1962). The cavalry manual of horsemanship & horsemastership. Garden City: Doubleday & Company, Inc. Xenophon. (n.d.). The cavalry general. Retrieved April 4, 2010, from Textkit: http://www.textkit.com/files/cavalry%20general.pdf Xenphon. (n.d.). On horsemanship. Retrieved April 4, 2010, from Textkit: http://www.textkit.com/files/horsemanship.pdf