Organization Development Introduction

Organizational Development or OD is a planned effort initiated by process specialists to help an organization develop its diagnostic skills, coping capabilities, linkage strategies (in the form of temporary and semi-permanent systems) and a culture of mutuality.

A planned effort thinking and planning initiated by process specialists Diagnostic skills- data collection-overtime Coping capabilities-problem-solving, confront and cope Linking strategies-Industrial & Organizational Goals Culture of Mutuality- fostering of certain values and open and proactive systems viz. openness, confrontation, trust, authenticity, pro-activeness, autonomy, collaboration and experimentation.

It is a long-term effort, led and supported by top management, to improve an organization's visioning, empowerment, learning, and problem-solving processes, through an ongoing, collaborative management of organizations culture with special emphasis on the culture of intact work teams and other team configurations utilizing the consultant facilitator role and the theory and technology of applied behavioral science, including action research. History of OD In a little over 50 years, OD has evolved a complex and diverse body of knowledge and practice. Because this expertise derives mainly from helping organizations change and improve themselves, the history of OD can be understood in terms of the kinds of changes that organizations have implemented over this time period. These include changes aimed at: Social processes Work designs Human resources Organization structures Although these changes are interrelated, each represents a distinct background in the growth of OD. a) Social Process The earliest applications of OD involved helping organizations improve social processes including relationships among members, communication, group decision-making, and leadership. These process changes started in the early 1950s and were largely in response to emerging social problems that organizations experienced as they became larger and more bureaucratic. During the first half of the twentieth century, organizations grew increasingly large with numerous departments, levels of management, and rules and

procedures. Management was largely responsible for commanding and controlling the enterprise typically in an authoritarian or paternalistic manner. Over time, these organizational conditions generated a host of unintended social problems as members found it increasingly difficult to communicate both laterally and vertically, to resolve problems within and across groups, and to respond energetically to managerial directives. b) Work Designs This branch of OD history involves designing work to make it more motivating and fulfilling. Traditionally, work was designed to promote technical rationality, resulting in jobs that were highly specified, fragmented, and repetitive. In the 1960s, the benefits of such work designs came more and more under question. Employees complained that work was boring and meaningless; they felt alienated from their jobs and the organizations that employed them. Organizations experienced growing problems with absenteeism, turnover, quality, and productivity. These problems spawned widespread calls for government, labor, and business to work jointly to improve the quality of the work life of the employees. OD sought remedies for these problems in new work designs that were more geared to employee needs and aspirations than to traditional designs.
c) Human Resources

This background of OD involves integrating people into organizations so they join, remain, and produce at high levels. Concern for human resources has traditionally been associated with the personnel function in organizations. Starting in the 1970s, however, ODs interest in human resource practices grew rapidly. Many organizations faced serious global competition for the first time. They needed to produce at higher levels at lower costs. This placed heavy demands on human resources to achieve exceptional performance; however, organizations increasingly questioned whether their traditional human resource practices were up to the task. Answers to this question showed that many practices history of organization development were not performance driven, particularly the way organizations rewarded employees. Because people generally do those things for which they are rewarded, rewards can play a powerful role in promoting performance. Unfortunately, many of the reward systems in use at the time were not linked closely to performance; employees were typically paid for a particular job level, time at work, or seniority. d) Organization structures The most recent applications of OD involve structuring organizations so they are better aligned with their strategy and environment. OD has created interventions for assessing an organizations competitive situation and making relevant changes in strategy if necessary. This typically includes a so-called SWOT analysis where the organizations strengths and weakness are compared to opportunities and threats in its competitive environment. Then, a strategy is created to build on the strengths and to take advantage of the opportunities, while accounting for the weaknesses and threats. OD has also

generated applications for designing the various features of an organization so they promote and reinforce strategy. Psychological Foundations of OD OD is an evolving field that draws on a diversity of theories. Its focus has expanded beyond social processes that occur mainly among individuals and within groups to include strategies and design components for the total organization. This evolution has added theoretical complexity to OD and made it increasingly difficult to define its conceptual boundaries and to develop a unified theory of changing and developing organizations. Despite this proliferation of knowledge, OD rests on a core set of psychological concepts that guide how it is conceptualized and applied. These psychological foundations have to do with: (1) The nature of human beings in organizations (2) Motivation that drives their behavior (3) Resistance of such behavior to change (4) Groups as the focus of organization change. Characteristics of OD Focuses on culture and processes Encourages collaboration between organizational leaders and members in managing culture and processes Teams of all kinds are particularly important for task accomplishments Focuses primarily on the human and social side of the organization. Participation and involvement in problem solving and decision making by all levels of organization Focus on systemic change; views organizations as complex social systems OD practitioners are facilitators, collaborators, and co-learners with the client system - focus on imparting of problem-solving skills and knowledge of continuous learning through selfanalytical methods to client to enable it to solve its problems on its own. Reliance on action research model with extensive participation by client system members Development view seeking betterment of both individuals and organization. Features of OD A planned process of change. Applies behavioral science knowledge. Aims at the change of organization culture. Aims at reinforcement of organization strategies, structures and processes for improving organizations effectiveness and health. Applies to an entire system of an organization, department or group as opposed to an aspect of a system. Targets long term institutionalization of new activities such as operation of self managed or autonomous work teams and other problem solving capabilities. Encompasses strategy, structure and process changes. A process managed from the top.

Values of OD Increasing effectiveness and efficiency Creating openness in communication Empowering employees to act Enhancing productivity Promoting organizational participation The individual should be treated with respect and dignity. The organization climate should be characterized by trust, openness and support. Hierarchical authority and control are not regarded as effective mechanisms. Problems and conflicts should be confronted, and not disguised or avoided. People affected by change should be involved in its implementation.

Objectives of Organizational Development Individual and group development. Development of organization culture and processes by constant interaction between members irrespective of levels of hierarchy. Inculcating team spirit. Empowerment of social side of employees. Focus of value development. Employee participation, problem-solving and decision-making at various levels. Evaluate present systems and introduction of new systems thereby achieving total system change if required. Transformation and achievement of competitive edge of the organization. Achieve organization growth by total human inputs by way of research and development, innovations, creativity and exploiting human talent. Behavior modification and self managed team as the basic unit of an organization. Implications 1. For Individuals a) Most individuals believe in their personal growth. Even today, training and development, promotion to the next higher position dominates the organization philosophy. b) Majority of the people are desirous of making greater contributions to the organizations they are serving. Achievements of organizational goals are however, subject to limitations or environmental constraints. It is for the organizations to tap the skills that are available in abundance. This leads to adopt the following organization strategy for development: Ask questions to resolve doubts. Listen to superiors advice.

Support employees in their venture. Accept challenge. Leaders to encourage creativity and promote risk taking. Give additional responsibility to subordinates. Set high standards of quality. Empower employees.

Initiate suitable reward system that should be compatible, if not more than the industry norms. 2. For Groups a) One of the most important factors in the organization is the work group around whom the organization functions. This includes the peer group and the leader (boss) b) More people prefer to be part of the group because the group accepts them. c) Most people are capable of making higher contributions to the groups effectiveness. Following strategy is required to be adopted for group development based on the above assumptions: Invest in training and development of the group. Money and time spent on this is an investment for the organization. Leaders should also invest in development of skills and thus help create a position organizational climate. Let the team flourish. Teams are the best approach to get the work done. Apart from the above teams enjoy emotional and job satisfaction when they work in groups. Leaders should adopt team leadership style and not autocratic leadership style. To do this, jobs should be allotted to the team and not to the individual. It is not possible for one individual (leader) to perform both, the leadership and maintenance functions. It is therefore necessary for team members to assist leader in performance of his duties. Group should be trained in conflict management, stress management, group decision-making, collaboration, and effective interpersonal communication. This will improve organizational effectiveness. Empowerment is the corner stone of the successful organizations. Leaders should pay particular attention to the feelings of the employees. It should be understood that suppressed feeling and attitudes adversely affect problemsolving, personal growth and job satisfaction. Development of group cohesiveness. 3. For Organizations a) Create learning organization culture. b) Adopt win-win strategy for sustained growth. c) Create cooperative dynamics rather than competitive organizational dynamics in the organization. d) Needs and aspirations of the employees in the organization must be met. This leads to greater participation of the employees. Organizations should adopt developmental

outlook and seek opportunities in which people can experience personal and professional growth. Such orientation creates a self-fulfilling prophecy. People must be treated with due respect and considered important. The credit of success must be given to the employees unconditioned. Promote organizational citizenship. It is possible to create organizations that are humane, democratic and empowering on one hand and high performing in terms of productivity, quality of output, profitability, and growth on the other. It is the responsibility of every entrepreneur to ensure that the needs of the society are met. O. D. PROCESS The O. D. process consists of three components: Diagnosis component consists of continuous collection of data about the total system, its sub-units its processes, and its culture. Action component consists of all the activities and interventions designed to improve the organizations functioning. Program management component is designed to ensure success of the program.

APPLICATION OF OD To understand this evolution of OD practice requires knowledge of three general approaches to change: (1) Lewins three steps (2) Action research (3) Action learning
1. Lewins Three Steps

This approach to organization change derives from the work of Lewin and his colleagues on how to overcome resistance to change and how to sustain change once it is made. It starts from the premise that targets of change and the social processes underlying them are relatively stable when forces driving for change are roughly equal to forces resisting change. To change this status quo requires a three-step process: (1) Unfreezing the balance of forces that keep the change target stable (2) Moving the change target to a new level or kind of behavior (3) Refreezing the balance of forces to reinforce the new behaviors and to keep them stable. This simple yet profound framework has guided OD practice for over half a century. It has led to numerous techniques for leading and managing change. a) Unfreezing

This step underscores the need to assess the present situation before change is contemplated. Referred to as a force field analysis, this diagnosis examines the driving and restraining forces in the change application of organization development situation that maintain the status quo. It can reveal which forces are strongest (or weakest) and which are easiest (or hardest) to modify. Such information is essential for unfreezing the current situation and creating a readiness for change among organization members. For example, a force field analysis might discover that the key forces restraining change are members lack of understanding about the need for change and strong group norms about task performance. Techniques to overcome the rationale underlying the proposed changes and member participation in the change process itself. b) Moving This stage involves intervening in the situation to change it. OD includes a variety of interventions for improving organizations. These change programs address organization issues having to do with human processes, strategic choices, human resource management, and work designs and structures. To implement these changes effectively, OD has devised methods for creating a compelling vision of the desired changes, developing political support for them and managing the transition from the current to the desired situation. c) Refreezing This final step involves making changes a permanent part of the organizations functioning. When this stage is ignored, organization changes rarely persist but regress to their previous stable state. Thus, refreezing calls for re-balancing the driving and restraining forces in the changed situation so it remains relatively stable. OD has discovered a variety of practices that can contribute to such permanence. Generally referred to as institutionalizing change, these methods include: reinforcing organization changes by making rewards contingent on them; socializing existing members and newcomers into the beliefs, norms, and values underlying the changes; diffusing changes throughout the organization to provide a wider base of support for them; and sensing and calibrating the changes to detect deviations from desired changes and to take corrective actions.
2. Action Research

This approach to organization change shows that research can be practical; it can serve as an instrument for action and change. Action research applies scientific methods to help organizations identify problems, discover their underlying causes, and implement appropriate changes. It can also produce new knowledge about organizations and change that can be applied elsewhere. In addition to its problem solving focus, action research is highly collaborative, involving both OD practitioners and organization members in the research and action process. Such participation gains members input and commitment to the changes, thus increasing the

chances that they will be implemented. It can also result in higher quality, more situationrelevant changes. Applications to OD generally involve the following cyclical activities: a. Preliminary data gathering and diagnosis Action research typically starts with a pressing problem that organization members are motivated to resolve. Based on this presenting issue, preliminary data are gathered to determine whether the foundations and applications problem has been correctly identified and to diagnose its underlying causes. This initial research is generally informed by diagnostic models that show what features of the organization to examine and what data to collect to discover the source of organizational problems. OD practitioners use a plethora of diagnostic models to assess various aspects of organizations, from members individual motivation to relationships between the organization and other organizations in its environment. They use a variety of methods to collect diagnostic data, from informal interviews with a few people to formal surveys of the total organization. When these data are collected and analyzed appropriately, they provide valid information about causes of organization problems. b. Action planning Based on this preliminary research, participants develop action plans specifying what organization changes will be made and how they will be implemented. The choice and design of change interventions depend on a variety of factors having to do with the target of change and the change situation itself. In selecting a change target, participants can draw on a large diversity of OD interventions to improve various aspects and problems of organizations. Indeed, OD is known primarily for its interventions, such as team building, self-managed teams, and high-involvement organizations. The preliminary diagnosis guides which of those interventions are most relevant for the organization. Moreover, it helps participants choose interventions that are likely to succeed in their specific change situation.. c. Implementation Implementing action plans involves making changes that move the organization towards its desired future. Such change does not occur instantly but requires a transition period during which members learn how to enact the changes and make them work. OD has identified activities and structures that can facilitate this transition phase. These include specifying the change tasks that need to occur, temporally ordering them, and monitoring their progress. It also involves identifying key stakeholders whose commitment is needed for change to occur and gaining their support. In cases where change is large scale and involves several features and levels of the organization, special structures for managing the change process may need to be created. These structures mobilize resources for change, coordinate the changes, and account for progress. Members who have both the power to make change happen and the respect of key stakeholders lead them. d. Assessment

This final phase of action research involves gathering and analyzing data to determine the effects of the changes. Such information is used to decide whether the changes are having their intended results, and, if not, how they can be modified to be more effective. Assessment tends to occur at different stages of the change process both during implementation and after it is completed. During implementation, evaluation provides timely feedback about whether the changes are being implemented as intended. Because organization change generally involves considerable learning and experimentation, such information is vital to members learning new behaviors and procedures needed to implement change. Assessment that occurs after implementation provides feedback about application of organization development the overall impact of the organization changes. It helps members determine whether the changes should continue to be supported or whether other possible interventions should be tried.
3. Action Learning

Action learning has been variously referred to as participatory action research, action inquiry, and self-designing organizations. It is a relatively new and still evolving form of planned change. Action learning moves beyond the problem-solving focus inherent in traditional applications of OD, and treats change as a continuous learning and transformation process. It responds to the enormous pressures for change facing organizations today. They are experiencing competitive demands to perform more quickly and efficiently at lower cost and higher quality. They are being forced to adapt to turbulent environments where technological, economic, and cultural forces are changing rapidly and unpredictably. To respond to these forces, organizations are radically transforming themselves into leaner, more flexible structures capable of continuous adaptation and change. Such change involves considerable learning and innovation as members try new behaviors, structures, and processes, assess the results, make necessary adjustments, and so on. It also requires significant support and commitment from key stakeholders including managers, employees, and staff experts. Action learning addresses these issues. It helps members acquire the skills and expertise to design their own innovations, to manage their own change processes, and, perhaps most important, to learn how to do these things more effectively and efficiently. It identifies key stakeholders and gets them actively involved in analyzing the organization and its environment, designing appropriate changes, and implementing them. It builds the capacity to change and to improve continually into the organization so it becomes part of normal functioning. Action learning involves a number of interrelated actions that comprise an iterative learning process. As members move through these activities, they learn how to change and improve the organization, including their own work behaviors and interactions. This learning feeds into the next cycle of action learning and so on, thus enhancing members capacity to change both the organization and themselves. Action learning general includes the following steps: a. Valuing

Action learning generally starts with clarifying the values that will guide the change process. Organization values influence members behaviors and decision-making; they affect which innovations and changes are seen as good or bad. Because organization values are tacit and rarely questioned, they tend to perpetuate the status quo. Thus, valuing seeks to make explicit the organizations values and to judge their relevance to competitive conditions. This may result in modifying or replacing certain values, or considering entirely new ones. Moreover, because stakeholders often have diverse interests, valuing attempts to uncover underlying value conflicts and to resolve them so they do not adversely affect subsequent design and implementation activities. Unless organization changes take into account the interests of different stakeholders, there is likely to be differential support and commitment for them. OD practitioners have developed various methods for resolving value conflicts, including collaborating, compromising, and negotiating. The key objective is to achieve sufficient value agreement among stakeholders so they can proceed with changing the organization in a shared and committed direction. A common outcome of valuing is a vision statement that explains the values that will guide organization change, including valued human and performance outcomes and valued foundations and applications organizational conditions for achieving them. Although valuing occurs early in action learning, members may periodically reassess and modify the values as they continually move through the cycle of learning activities. b. Diagnosing This phase of action learning involves assessing the organization against the values. This can reveal value gaps where the organization is not functioning or performing consistent with the values. Such inconsistencies direct the subsequent design of organization changes to close the gaps. Thus, action learning is aimed at continually assessing and improving the organization in a valued direction. c. Designing This step involves developing specific organization changes to reduce value gaps and to move the organization in a valued direction. Depending on the diagnosis, members may determine that limited change is necessary and existing conditions only need to be fine tuned; or that more extensive change is needed requiring innovations that either imitates what other organizations are doing or that are entirely new and original. Thus, designing is not deterministic but involves considerable creativity and choice. Members explore new ways for organizing that are consistent with the values. They iterate back and forth between the values which serve as design guides and the designs themselves. Designing typically results in organization changes that are minimally specified and flexible. This enables members to adjust the changes to fit situational contingencies during implementation. It provides members with sufficient freedom to modify the changes as they learn how to enact them behaviorally and how to modify and improve them as the circumstances demand.

d. Implementing and assessing In this phase, members implement and assess organization changes. This involves learning by doing. Members take action to implement or modify the changes. They periodically assess whether the changes and implementation process are progressing as intended, and, if not, make plans to modify them. This feedbackadjustment process enables members to learn how to change the organization and themselves. It continues indefinitely as members learn how to improve the organization continuously. Implementing and assessing can involve three levels of learning. At the most basic level, which is referred to as single-loop learning, members concentrate on getting the changes implemented in accordance with the values. They seek to reduce deviations from the changes underlying values. This learning occurs continuously and involves considerable problem solving and trial-and-error as members learn to move the organization closer to its values. Single-loop learning is involved in all approaches to organization change, including Lewins three steps and action research. It enables members to implement planned changes as intended. Action learning goes beyond these other approaches, however, to also include higher levels of learning. Called double-loop learning, the next level involves changing the values themselves. Members learn how to confront value inconsistencies and conflicts and modify values accordingly; they learn how to change values that may no longer support the organizations strategy and competitive situation. This level of learning occurs periodically and generally requires members to return to the valuing and designing phases. They may learn that the values set initially need to be modified and that renewed designing, implementing, and assessing activities need to occur. At the highest level, action learning involves deutero learning, or learning how to learn. This is the most difficult yet important level of action learning. Because organization learning processes tend to be tacit and taken for granted, members are not accustomed to examining or questioning them. This can references lead to repetition of learning mistakes and disorders. Thus, deutero learning is aimed at the learning process itself. Members examine values, organizational conditions, and behaviors that inhibit single and double-loop learning; they design more effective learning processes. Members then engage in implementing and assessing the new learning behaviors. Over time, deutero learning enables members to enhance their capacity to learn, and thus become better at implementing changes and improving the organization. OD Interventions Intervention refers to a set of planned change activities intended to help an organization to increase its effectiveness.

Based on valid information (accurate organizational diagnosis)

Opportunity for free and informed choice (employees active involvement) Gain members internal commitment (employees accept ownership of the intervention and its implementation)

Human Process interventions

1. T-groups: Provides members with experiential learning about group dynamics, leadership,

and interpersonal relations. Purpose is to sensitize people to the perceptions & behavior related aspects of themselves & others. Feedback helps the member to know about themselves. Improves listening skills, add openness, helps to accept individual differences Used to reduce interpersonal conflict Enhances group cohesiveness & improves organizational productivity & efficiency Facilitator plays important role by moderating the discussion & by providing constructive feedback. Broader scope , lacks specific goal

2. Survey Feedback Systematic data collection from all levels of the organization. Sharing of the information Interpretation/analysis of data Transfers the ownership of the data from change agent to participants Participants plays key role in developing solutions to the problem.
3. Process consultation / third party interventions: Consultant helps group members to

diagnose group functioning and to devise solutions to process problems (conflicts, communications, norms). Emphasizes more on resolving interpersonal problems. Increases the participation in problem solving. Specific goal of improving a particular process.

 Emphasizes on organizational process Coaching & counseling by consultants Determines processes that needs improvement

4. Team building: Goes beyond process consultation, examines group's task, member roles,

strategies for performing tasks. Used to improve the performance of work teams. Problem diagnosis Task accomplishment improving team & organizational processes

Maintaining team relationships

Forms of team building interventions Analyze the reason for the existence of team, objectives of the team & how the team prepares the action plan for the accomplishment. General critic of the team Team leader & members decide about the need for the diagnostic meetings. Information is collected through whole groups, or subgroups or pairs of individual. Half a day duration Meeting.

Based on the need formal meeting is conducted Action plan is prepared Guidance towards the achievement of the goal.

5. Search conference: Clarifying important values, looking for new ways to address problems,

articulating a new vision for the organization.

6. Organization confrontation meeting: Mobilizing employees in problem solving during

periods of stress.
7. Normative approaches: Specifies best way to manage an organization, through use of

standardized instruments for measuring organizational practices.

8. Role Negotiation: A misunderstanding between two individuals in an organization or group

can affect its effectiveness. This is usually caused by lack of shared awareness,

misunderstanding or lack of trust. This intervention helps to clarify individual perceptions and mutual expectations so that differences can be identified and reconciled or resolved Techno-Structural Interventions 1. Formal structures Concerns organizations division of labor how to specialize task performances. Four kinds of structures: Functional, self-contained units, matrix, and networked 2. Differentiation and Integration Specialization and coordination mechanisms redesigned as per environmental demands Techno-structural interventions 3. Parallel learning structures Creating an informal, flexible collateral organization to supplement existing organization, to solve problems that a regular organization cannot solve. Human Resource Management Interventions
1. Goal setting: Setting clear and challenging goals, improving organizational effectiveness by

establishing better fit between personal and organizational objectives.

2. Performance appraisal: Joint assessment of work-related achievements, strengths and

weaknesses; providing performance feedback to individuals and work groups.. Technology Madras 3. Reward systems: Designing incentive and reward system for improving employee satisfaction and performance.
4. Career planning and development: Guiding employees to choose career paths and to attain

career objectives; means of improving employees quality of work life.

5. Managing workforce diversity: Change in gender ratio, ethnic ratio, physically challenged

employees; flexibility in policies to accommodate these changes

6. Employee wellness: Employee assistance programs, stress management, etc.

Parallel Learning Structures Creating an informal, flexible collateral organization to supplement existing organization, to solve problems that a regular organization cannot solve.

Person-Focused OD Interventions Partnerships between individuals (participants) and behavioral science experts (facilitators). Participant-active Interventions Encounter groups Instrumentation Self-study and Reflection Awareness Expansion Role playing 1. Encounter Groups (EG) Sensitivity training, laboratory training, T-groups, L-groups (changing individual attitudes and values) Purpose

Facilitator-active Interventions Psychodynamic models Training Feedback Coaching and Mentoring Motivation arousal

2. Role Playing Techniques / processes Usefulness: Perception of others feelings Autonomy Leadership and group work Self-assessment Internalization of learning Interpersonal orientation

Usefulness Perception of others feelings Autonomy Leadership and group work Self-assessment Internalization of learning Interpersonal orientation

Using HRD Instruments Advantages Disadvantages Enables early, easy learning of theory Engenders fear of exposure Promotes personal involvement and Encourages labeling commitment Supplies personal feedback sooner than other Fosters dependence on the facilitator participants are able to

Facilitates contracting for new behavior

Makes the facilitator an expert

Fosters open reception of feedback through Can result in threatening situation low threat Surfaces latent issues Triggers anger and anxiety Makes distortion of feedback possible through manipulation of scores Conclusion OD is an evolving field of applied social science with an increasing diversity of concepts and applications. From its traditional roots in small groups and social processes, OD has grown to include the total organization and work designs, human resources, and organization structures. This development closely parallels the changing needs of modern organizations. It moves beyond solving the unintended social problems inherent in large bureaucracies to helping organizations become leaner, more flexible, and more performance driven, so they can compete in todays complex, rapidly changing environments. To guide these applications, OD draws on a core set of psychological concepts. They include humanistic perspectives of human beings, resulting in organization changes that enhance members maturity and interpersonal competence; motivation frameworks that promote changes satisfying a wide array of members needs; process views of change that account for driving and restraining forces; groups as the focus of change, and the need for members to participate in developing and implementing change. These psychological foundations influence how OD is applied in organizations. They result in change processes that are cyclical and collaborative, and that closely tie research to action. Such change applications can help organizations address specific problems, or, more radically, help them learn how to continuously transform and renew themselves. Because OD is an action science, it will continue to grow and evolve as it helps organizations change and improve. As organizations face new challenges, OD will create new methods and applications. It will draw on new concepts and approaches to guide future practice. ODs success will depend largely on how well those ideas and innovations account for the fact that organization change is essentially a social process requiring human beings to change their behavior.