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Disclaimer
This e-book is presented solely for educational purposes. While best efforts have been used in preparing this e-book, the author makes no representations or warranties of any kind and assumes no liabilities of any kind with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents. The author shall not be held liable or responsible to any person or entity with respect to any loss or incidental or consequential damages caused, or alleged to have been caused, directly or indirectly, by the information contained herein. Every student and every course is different and the advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. This e-book is intended for supplemental use only. You should always seek help FIRST from your professor and other course material regarding any questions you may have.

Introduction
Authors Note
As a third grader, I learned my multiplication tables faster than anyone in my class. I was allowed to skip all of seventh-grade math and go straight to eighth-grade (something I think most people would pay a lot of money for, considering how much math sucks for pretty much everyone). As a junior, I finished all the math courses my high school was offereing. It wouldnt be conceited to say that math was a subject that came easier to me than it did to others. Compared to my classmates, I was always good at it. What can I say? I got my butt kicked by every science class I ever took, but I was always ahead of the curve when it came to math. I guess its just the way my brain works. And yet, despite the fact that its always been easier for me, Ive struggled with all kinds of math concepts soooooo many times, and often remember feeling totally and completely lost in math classes. You know that feeling when youre reading through an example in your textbook, hoping with desperation that it will show you how to do the problem youre stuck on? You hang in there for the first few steps, and youre like, Okay awesome! Im getting this! And then by about the fourth step, you start to lose track of their logic and you cant for the life of you figure out how they got from Step 3 to Step 4? Its the worst feeling. This is the point where most people give up completely and just resign themselves to failing the final exam. Ive seen this same reaction in many of the students I tutored in calculus while I was in college. As hard as they tried to understand, the professor and the textbook just didnt make sense, and theyd end up feeling overwhelmed and defeated before theyd ever really gotten started. I wasnt a math major in college, but I spent a lot of time tutoring calculus students, and Ive come to the conclusion that for most people, the way we teach math is fundamentally wrong. First, theres a pretty good chance that you wont ever actually use what you learn in calculus. Algebra? Definitely. Basic geometry? Probably. But calculus? Not so much. Second, even if it is worthwhile to learn this stuff, trying to teach us how to work through problems with proofs that are supposed to illustrate how the original formulas are derived, just seems ridiculous. In my experience, most students get the most benefit out of understanding the basic steps involved in completing the problem, and leaving it at that. Get in, get out, escape with your life, and hopefully your G.P.A. still intact. Sure, theres a lot to be said for going more in depth with the material, and Id love to help you do that if thats your goal. For most people though, a basic understanding is sufficient. My greatest hope for this e-book and for integralCALC.com is that theyll help you in whatever capacity you need them. If youre shooting for a C+, lets get you a C+. I dont want to waste your time trying to give you more than you need. That being said though, most of the students I tutored who came in shooting for a C+ came out with something closer to a B+ or an A-. If you want an A, attaining it is easier than you think. No matter what your skill level, or the final grade youre shooting for, I hope that this ebook will help you get closer to it, and better yet, save you some stress along the way.

Remember, if theres anything I can ever do for you, please contact me at integralCALC.com.

Words of Wisdom
There are two pieces of advice Id like to give you before we get started.

come to rely on them more and more to solve their problems on both homework and exams. Instead of relying on my calculator to solve problems outright, I like to use it as a doublecheck system. If you never learn how to do the problem without your calculator, you wont know if what your calculator tells you is correct. Nor will you be able to show any work if youre required to do so on an exam, which could cost you big points. Learning the calculus itself means youll be able to show your work when you need to, and youll actually understand what youre doing. Once you solve a problem, you should know how to punch in the equation so that you can look at the graph or solution to verify that the answer you got is the same one your calculator gives back to you.

really excited about proofs, and you just get bored and confused. The purpose of this e-book is to serve as a supplement to the rest of your course material, not to completely replace your professor or your textbook. Even though Ive tried to cover the most common introductory calculus topics in enough detail that you could get by with just this e-book, neither of us can predict whether your professor will ask you to solve a problem with a different method on a test, or a specific problem not covered here. The last thing I want is for you to think that this e-book is a replacement for going to class, miss that information, and then do poorly on the test because you didnt get all the instructions.

1. Stay Positive
More than anything, you have to stay positive. Dont defeat yourself before you even get started. Youre smarter than you think, and calculus is easier than you think it is. Dont panic. Half of the people Ive tutored over the years needed a personal calculus cheerleader more than they needed a tutor. Theyd gingerly proceed through a new problem Is this right? Then if I am I still doing it right? Theyd doubt themselves at every step. And I would just stand behind them and say Yeah, its right, youre doing great, youve got it, youre right, until theyd solved the problem without my help at all. So many students let themselves get worked up and freaked out the moment something starts to get difficult. Its understandable, but the more you can fight the fear that starts to creep in, the better off youll be. So take a deep breath. Its going to be okay.

What You Wont Find

Im not here to replace your textbook. Because this is a quick-reference guide, you wont find chapter introductions full of calculus history you dont care about. Im also not here to replace your professor, nor do I expect that youre particularly excited about learning calculus. If you are excited about calculus, thats awesome! So am I. But if youre not, this is the place to be, because, at least in this e-book, you wont find pointless tangents where I geek out hard core and get

What You Will Find

This e-book should give you the most crucial pieces of information youll need for a real understanding of how to solve most of the problems youll encounter. I dont want to be your textbook, which is why this e-book is only about thirty pages long. I want this to be your quick reference, the thing you reach for when you need a clear understanding in only a few minutes. For a specific list of topics covered in this ebook, please refer to the Table of Contents.

2. Use Your Calculator (Or Dont)

Your calculator can be your greatest ally, but it can also be your worst enemy. As calculators have gotten more powerful, students have

(Clickable) Table of Contents

I. Foundations of Calculus A. Functions 1. Vertical Line Test 2. Horizontal Line Test 3. Domain and Range 4. Independent/Dependent Variables 5. Linear Functions a. Slope-Intercept Form b. Point-Slope Form 6. Quadratic Functions a. The Quadratic Formula b. Completing the Square 7. Rational Functions a. Long Division B. Limits 1. What is a Limit? 2. When Does a Limit Exist? a. General vs. One-Sided Limits b. Where Limits Dont Exist 3. Solving Limits Mathematically a. Just Plug It In b. Factor It c. Conjugate Method 4. Trigonometric Limits 5. Infinite Limits C. Continuity 1. Common Discontinuities a. Jump Discontinuity b. Point Discontinuity c. Infinite/Essential Discontinuity 2. Removable Discontinuity 3. The Intermediate Value Theorem II. The Derivative A. The Difference Quotient 1. Secant and Tangent Lines 2. Creating the Derivative 3. Using the Difference Quotient B. When Derivatives Dont Exist 1. Discontinuities 2. Sharp Points 3. Vertical Tangent Lines C. On to the Shortcuts! 1. The Derivative of a Constant 2. The Power Rule 3. The Product Rule 4. The Quotient Rule 5. The Reciprocal Rule 6. The Chain Rule D. Common Operations 1. Equation of the Tangent Line 2. Implicit Differentiation a. Equation of the Tangent Line b. Related Rates E. Common Applications 1. Speed/Velocity/Acceleration 2. LHopitals Rule 3. Mean Value Theorem 4. Rolles Theorem III. Graph Sketching A. Critical Points B. Increasing/Decreasing C. Inflection Points D. Concavity E. - and -Intercepts F. Local and Global Extrema 1. First Derivative Test 2. Second Derivative Test G. Asymptotes 1. Vertical Asymptotes 2. Horizontal Asymptotes 3. Slant Asymptotes H. Putting It All Together IV. Optimization V. Essential Formulas

Foundations of Calculus
Functions
Vertical Line Test
Most of the equations youll encounter in calculus are functions. Since not all equations are functions, its important to understand that only functions can pass the Vertical Line Test. In other words, in order for a graph to be a function, no completely vertical line can cross its graph more than once. between and will cross the graph twice, which causes the graph to fail the Vertical Line Test. At , can be both and . Since a function can only have one unique output value for for any input value of , the graph fails the Vertical Line Test and is therefore not a function. Weve now proven with both the graph and with algebra that this circle is not a function.

Horizontal Line Test

The Horizontal Line Test is used much less frequently than the vertical line test, despite the fact that theyre very similar. Youll recall that any function passing the Vertical Line Test can only have one unique output of for any single input of .

You can also test this algebraically by plugging in a point between and for , such as . Example Determine algebraically whether or not is a function. Plug in for and simplify.

This graph does not pass the Vertical Line Test because a vertical line would intersect it more than once. Passing the Vertical Line Test also implies that the graph has only one output value for for any input value of . You know that an equation is not a function if can be two different values at a single value. You know that the circle below is not a function because any vertical line you draw

This graph passes the Horizontal Line Test because a horizontal line cannot intersect it more than once. Contrast that with the Horizontal Line Test, which says that no value corresponds to two different values. If a function passes the

Horizontal Line Test, then no horizontal line will cross the graph more than once, and the graph is said to be one-to-one.

Example Describe the domain and range of the function

1. 2. 3. 4.

A point Another point The slope, The y-intercept,

In this function, cannot be equal to , because that value causes the denominator of the fraction to equal . Because setting equal to is the only way to make the function undefined, the domain of the function is all .

If you know any two of these things, you can plug them into either formula to find the equation of the line. Slope-Intercept Form The equation of a line can be written in slopeintercept form as , where is the slope of the function and is the -intercept, or the point at which the graph crosses the -axis and where . The slope, represented by , is calculated using two points on the line, and , and the equation you use to calculate is

This graph does not pass the Horizontal Line Test because any horizontal line between and would intersect it more than once.

Independent and Dependent Variables

Your independent variable is , and your dependent variable is . You always plug in a value for first, and your function returns to you a value for based on the value you gave it for . Remember, if your equation is a function, there is only one possible output of for any input of .

Domain and Range

Think of the domain of a function as everything you can plug in for without causing your function to be undefined. Things to look out for are values that would cause a fractions denominator to equal and values that would force a negative number under a square root sign. The range of a function is then any value that could result for from plugging in every number in the domain for .

Linear Functions
Youll need to know the formula for the equation of a line like the back of your hand (actually, better than the back of your hand, because who really knows what the back of their hand looks like anyway?). You have two options about how to write the equation of a line. Both of them require that you know at least two of the following pieces of information about the line:

To find the slope, subtract the -coordinate in the first point from the -coordinate in the second point in the numerator, then subtract the -coordinate in the first point from the coordinate in the second point in the denominator.

Example Find the equation of the line in slopeintercept form that passes through the points and . We start by finding the slope.

Point-Slope Form The equation of a line can also be written in point-slope form as

Quadratic Functions
Quadratic Functions are functions of the specific form

Now we can plug in our slope and either one of our points to the formula and solve for .

In this form, is one point on the line, and is the other. Just as with slopeintercept form, is still the slope of the function. To use this form, find the same way you did in slope-intercept form, then simply plug in your two points to the pointslope formula. Example Find the equation of the line in pointslope form that passes through the points and . We start by finding the slope.

As long as you have an term and an term and a constant, the coefficients , and can be any number. The Quadratic Formula The Quadratic Formula can be used to factor and solve for the roots of a quadratic function. To use it, plug , and into the Quadratic Formula, here:

Multiply every term by to cancel out the denominator of the fraction.

Subtract

from both sides.

Divide by

to solve for .

Now plug in the slope and either one of the points into the formula. Even though we could, simplifying any further would take this out of point slope form, so we leave it as is.

If any terms in your quadratic function are negative, make sure to keep the negative sign when plugging into the formula. For example, If is negative in your quadratic function, youll end up with for the first term in the numerator of the Quadratic Formula, which would make that term positive. You should also remember that in order for this formula to work, must be greater than or equal to , because you cant take the square root of a negative number. If you do end up with a negative number inside the radical, then there are no real solutions to your quadratic function.

For the final answer, plug and back into the formula, leaving and as variables.

Lets say we have the function Example Factor Plug for , for and the Quadratic Formula. for into The first thing we want to do is set the function equal to . Finally, add to both sides of the equation to solve it for .

Simplify to find your solutions.

Next, well take one half of the coefficient on the term and square it.

This is the same process youll follow each time you use this method to solve for the roots of a quadratic function.

Rational Functions
A rational function is a quotient of two polynomials (a fraction with polynomials in both the numerator and denominator). While polynomials themselves are defined for all values of , rational functions are undefined where the denominator of the function is equal to . Long Division Believe it or not, long division is a skill youll use semi-frequently in calculus. Its just like the long division you learned in fifth grade, except that instead of just numbers, this time youll be dividing polynomials. Example Use long division to convert Take the square root of both sides to eliminate the exponent on the left. Dont forget to add the positive/negative sign in front of the square root on the right side.

Use the solutions to factor your function.

We then add and subtract our result back into the function, so that we dont change the value of the function.

Since you always get a fraction with a plus or minus sign in the numerator, the Quadratic Formula produces two solutions, which you then use to factor your polynomial. If your solutions are and , your factors will always be and . Completing the Square This method is another option you can use to find the solutions of a quadratic function, if you cant easily factor it. Since its very much a step-by-step process, the easiest way to explain this method is to use an example, so lets do it.

Now we factor the quantity in parentheses and consolidate the constants.

Now add to both sides to move the constant to the right side.

First, we should keep the following in mind:

For an easy example, consider the function Divisor Numerator Dividend Denominator When , . Therefore, is the limit of the function at , because is the value that the function approaches as the value of gets closer and closer to . I know its strange to talk about the value that a function approaches. Think about it this way: If you set in the function above, then . Similarly, if you set , then . You can begin to see that as you get closer to , whether youre approaching it from the side or the side, the value of gets closer and closer to .
.0000 .0000

When Does a Limit Exist?

General vs. One-Sided Limits When you hear your professor talking about limits, he or she is usually talking about the general limit. Unless a right- or left-hand limit is specifically specified, youre dealing with a general limit. The general limit exists at the point if

________ | -( ) -(

To start our long division problem, we determine what we have to multiply by (in the divisor) to get (in the dividend). Since the answer is , we put that on top of our long division problem, and multiply it by the divisor, to get , which we then subtract from the dividend. We bring down from the dividend and repeat the same steps until we have nothing left to carry down from the dividend. Our original problem reduces to:

1. The left-hand limit exists at , 2. The right-hand limit exists at , and 3. The left- and right-hand limits are equal. These are the three conditions that must be met in order for the general limit to exist. The general limit will look something like this:

Limits
What is a Limit?
The limit of a function is the value the function approaches at a given value of , regardless of whether the function actually reaches that value.

In this simple example, the limit of the function is clearly because that is the actual value of the function at that point; the point is defined. However, finding limits gets a little trickier when we start dealing with points of the graph that are undefined. In the next section, well talk about when limits do and do not exist, and some more creative methods for finding the limit.

You would read this general limit formula as The limit of of as approaches equals . Left- and right-hand limits may exist even when the general limit does not. If the graph approaches two separate values at the point as you approach from the left- and right-hand side of the graph, then separate left- and right-hand limits may exist. Left-hand limits are written as

The negative sign after the indicates that were talking about the limit as we approach from the negative, or left-hand side of the graph. Right-hand limits are written as

Where Limits Dont Exist We already know that a general limit does not exist where the left- and right-hand limits are not equal. Limits also do not exist whenever we encounter a vertical asymptote. There is no limit at a vertical asymptote because the graph of a function must approach one fixed numerical value at the point for the limit to exist at . The graph at a vertical asymptote is increasing and/or decreasing without bound, which means that it is approaching infinity instead of a fixed numerical value. In the graph below, separate right- and lefthand limits exist at but the general limit does not exist at that point. The left-hand limit is , because that is the value that the graph approaches as you trace the graph from left to right. On the other hand, the right-hand limit is , since that is the value that the graph approaches as you trace the graph from right to left.

Where there is a vertical asymptote at , the left-hand limit is , and the right-hand limit is . However, the general limit does not exist at the vertical asymptote because the left- and right-hand limits are unequal.

Solving Limits Mathematically

Just Plug It In Sometimes you can find the limit just by plugging in the number that your function is approaching. You could have done this with our original limit example, . If you just plug into this function, you get , which is the limit of the function. Below is another example, where you can simply plug in to the function to solve for the limit. Example

The positive sign after the 2 indicates that were talking about the limit as we approach 2 from the positive, or right-hand side of the graph. In the graph below, the general limit exists at because the left- and right- hand limits both approach . On the other hand, the general limit does not exist at because the left-hand and right-hand limits are not equal, due to a break in the graph.

Plug in

for

and simplify.

Left- and right-hand limits are equal at , but not at . The general limit does not exist at . or at

Factor It When you cant just plug in the value youre evaluating, your next approach should be factoring.

Example In this example, the substitution method would result in a in the denominator. We also cant factor and cancel anything out of the fraction. Luckily, we have the Conjugate Method. Notice that the numerator has exactly two terms, and .

Simplify and cancel the .

Just plugging in would give us a nasty result. Therefore, well try factoring instead.

Cancelling from the top and bottom of the fraction leaves us with something that is much easier to evaluate:

Conjugate Method to the rescue! In order to use it, we have to multiply by the conjugate of whichever part of the fraction contains the two terms. In this case, thats the numerator. The conjugate of two terms is those same two terms with the opposite sign in between them. Notice that we multiply both the numerator and denominator by the conjugate, because thats like multiplying by , which is useful to us but still doesnt change the value of the original function. Example

Since were evaluating at , plug that in for and solve.

Now the problem is simple enough that we can just plug in the value were approaching.

Conjugate Method This method can only be used when either the numerator or denominator contains exactly two terms. Needless to say, its usefulness is limited. Heres an example of a great, and common candidate for the Conjugate Method.

Multiply the numerator and denominator by the conjugate.

Remember, if none of these methods work, you can always go back to the method we were using originally, which is to plug in a number very close to the value youre evaluating and solve for the limit that way.

Trigonometric Limits
Trigonometric limit problems revolve around three formulas:

When solving trigonometric limit problems, our goal is to reduce our problem to a simple combination involving nothing but these formulas and simple constants. Heres an example. Example

As it turns out, we can now easily evaluate our entire problem with the three fundamental trigonometric limit formulas, without making the denominator .

In order to do that, simply plug in a number very close to 1. If our result is positive, the limit will be . If the result is negative, the limit is .

Infinite Limits
Since we have exactly two terms in the numerator, were actually going to borrow the Conjugate Method for the first step of this problem. Infinite limits exist when we can plug in a number for that causes the denominator of a rational function in lowest terms to equal . Here is an example of a rational function in lowest terms, which means that we cannot factor and cancel anything in the fraction.

We can see that the result will be very large and positive, so we know that the limit of this function at is .

Continuity
I would give you the definition of continuity, but I think its confusing. Plus, you should have some intuition about what it means for a graph to be continuous. Basically, a function is continuous if there are no holes, breaks, jumps, fractures, broken bones, etc. in its graph. You can also think about it this way: A function is continuous if you can draw the entire thing without picking up your pencil. Lets take some time to classify the most common types of discontinuity, or what makes a function not continuous.

Applying the identity to the numerator gives

We can see that setting gives in the denominator, which means that we have a vertical asymptote at , and therefore an infinite limit at that point. Now that weve established that this is a rational function in lowest terms and that a vertical asymptote exists, all thats left to determine is whether the limit at approaches positive or negative infinity.

Notice now that we can factor out , which is one of our three fundamental formulas.

Common Discontinuities
Jump Discontinuity Youll usually encounter jump discontinuities with piecewise-defined functions. A piecewahoozle whatsit? you ask? Exactly. A piecewise-defined function is a function for which different parts of the domain are defined by different functions. One example thats often used to illustrate piecewisedefined functions is the cost of postage at the post office. Heres how the cost of postage might be defined as a function, as well as the graph of this function. They tell us that the cost per ounce of any package lighter than pound is cents per ounce, that the cost of every ounce from pound to anything less than pounds is cents per ounce, etc.

imagining yourself walking along on top of the first segment of the graph. In order to continue, youd have to jump up to the second segment. Point Discontinuity Point discontinuity exists when there is a hole in the graph at one point. You usually find this kind of discontinuity when your graph is a fraction like this:

is not a point of discontinuity, because it doesnt break up any part of the graph.

In this case, the point discontinuity exists at , where the denominator would equal . This function is defined and continuous everywhere, except at . The graph of a point discontinuity is easy to pick out because it looks totally normal everywhere, except for a hole at a single point. Infinite/Essential Discontinuity Youll see this kind of discontinuity called both infinite discontinuity and essential discontinuity. In either case, it means that the function is discontinuous at a vertical asymptote. Vertical asymptotes are only points of discontinuity when the graph exists on both sides of the asymptote. The first graph below shows a vertical asymptote that makes the graph discontinuous, because the function exists on both sides of the vertical asymptote. The vertical asymptote in the second graph below

A vertical asymptote at that makes the graph discontinuous

A vertical asymptote at that does not make the graph discontinuous

Removable Discontinuity
Discontinuity is removable if you can easily plug in the holes in its graph by redefining the function. When you cant easily plug in the holes because the gaps are bigger than a single point, youre dealing with nonremovable discontinuity. Point discontinuity is removable, because you can easily patch the hole.

A piecewise-defined function Every break in this graph is a point of jump discontinuity. You can remember this by

Lets take the function from the Point Discontinuity section:

The Intermediate Value Theorem

Similarly to the definition of continuity, the definition of the Intermediate Value Theorem is absolutely more harmful than helpful. So instead, consider the following graph: This theorem is fairly ridiculous because it doesnt tell us anything that we dont already know. All it says is that, when we look at a continuous function on a closed interval between (blue) and (purple), there will be a point in between them, which well call (orange). must be between and and must be between and . Looking at the graph, isnt that obvious? Values may or may not exist below and above depending on the graph, but must exist.

If we add another piece to this function as follows, we plug the hole and the function becomes continuous:

Jump and infinite discontinuities are always nonremovable, because the gaps are large.

The Intermediate Value Theorem

The Derivative
The derivative of a function is written as , and read as prime of . By definition, the derivative is the slope of the original function. Lets find out why. But since our goal is just to get you a good grade, and not to make a big scene, well learn how to find derivatives the long way first, then well learn the shortcuts and things will end up better in the end. I promise. For now, the long way

The Difference Quotient

I should warn you that this is one of those dumb things you have to learn to do before you learn how to do it the real way. If you can believe this, your professor will actually have the nerve to require you on a test to find the derivative using this method, even though you could just use the shortcuts that were going to learn later. Unbelievable, I know.

Secant and Tangent Lines

A tangent line is a line that juuussst barely touches the edge of the graph, intersecting it at only one specific point. Tangent lines look very graceful and tidy, like this: A tangent line A secant line, on the other hand, is a line that runs right through the middle of a graph,

sometimes hitting it at multiple points, and looks generally meaner, like this: which, when we simplify, gives us

tangent line. In fact, weve just changed the secant line into the tangent line entirely. That is how we create the formula above, which is the very definition of the derivative, which is why the definition of the derivative is the slope of the function at a single point.

I bet your heart just skipped a beat out of pure excitement. No? Strange A secant line Its important to realize here that the slope of the secant line is the average rate of change over the interval between the points where the secant line intersects the graph. The slope of the tangent line instead indicates an instantaneous rate of change, or slope, at the single point where it intersects the graph. The point of all this nonsense is that, if I take my second point and start moving it slowly left, closer to the original point, the slope of the secant line becomes closer to the slope of the tangent line at the original point.

Using the Difference Quotient

To find the derivative of a function using the difference quotient, follow these steps: 1. Plug in for every in your original function. 2. Plug your answer from Step in for in the difference quotient. 3. Plug your original function in for in the difference quotient. 4. Put in the denominator. 5. Expand all terms and collect like terms. 6. Factor out in the numerator, then cancel it from the numerator and denominator. 7. Plug in the number your function is approaching and simplify. Example Find the derivative of at

Creating the Derivative

If we start with a point, on a graph, and move a certain distance, , to the right of that point, we can call the new point on the graph . Connecting those points together gives us a secant line, and we can use the slope equation

As the secant line moves closer and closer to the tangent line, the points where the line intersects the graph get closer together, which eventually reduces to . Running through this exercise allows us to realize that if I reduce to and the distance between the two secant points becomes nothing, that the slope of the secant line is now exactly the same as the slope of the

to determine that the slope of the secant line is

After replacing with plug it your answer for plug in as-is for denominator.

in , . Then . Put in the

we say that the original function is not differentiable there.

On to the Shortcuts!
Finally, weve gotten to the point where things start to get easier. Weve moved past the Difference Quotient, which was cumbersome and tedious and generally not fun. Youre about to learn several new derivative tricks that will make this whole process a whole lot easier. Arent you excited?!

Discontinuities
A derivative cannot exist at a point of discontinuity in a function. This does not mean that the function is not differentiable at other points in its domain, only that the function is not differentiable at the specific point of discontinuity.

Expand all terms.

The Derivative of a Constant

The derivative of a constant (a term with no variable attached to it) is always . Remember that the graph of any constant is a perfectly horizontal line. Remember also that the slope of any horizontal line is . Because the derivative of a function is the slope of that function, and the slope of a horizontal line is , the derivative of any constant must be .

Collect similar terms together then factor out of the numerator and cancel it from the fraction.

Sharp Points
If a graph contains a sharp point (A.K.A. a cusp), the function is not differentiable at that point. Youre most likely to find sharp points in your function if it contains absolute values or if its a piecewise-defined function.

The Power Rule

For , plug in the number youre approaching, in this case . Then simplify and solve.

The Power Rule is the tool youll use most frequently when finding derivatives. The rule says that for any term of the form , the derivative of the term is

A cusp in the graph of

Vertical Tangent Lines

When Derivatives Dont Exist

Before we jump into finding derivatives with the shortcuts, lets talk about instances when the derivative doesnt exist. When the derivative doesnt exist at a point in the graph,

Since the slope of a vertical line is undefined, and a tangent line represents the slope of the graph, a tangent line by definition cannot be vertical, so the derivative cannot be a perfectly vertical line.

To use the Power Rule, multiply the variables exponent, , by its coefficient, , then subtract from the exponent. If there is no coefficient (the coefficient is ), then the exponent will become the new coefficient.

Example Find the derivative of

Example Find the derivative of Example Find the derivative of

Applying Power Rule gives the following:

Simplify to solve for the derivative.

The two functions in this problem are and . It doesnt matter which one you choose for and . Lets assign to and to . The derivative of is . The derivative of is . According to the Product Rule,

The Product Rule

If a function contains two variable expressions that are multiplied together, you cannot simply take their derivatives separately and then multiply the derivatives together. You have to use the Product Rule. Here is the formula: If a function Simplifying the result gives us our final answer:

Based on the Quotient Rule formula, we know that is the numerator and therefore and that is the denominator and therefore that . is , and is . Plugging all of these components into the Quotient Rule gives

The Quotient Rule

Just as you must always use the Product Rule when two variable expressions are multiplied, you must use the Quotient Rule whenever two variable expressions are divided. Here is the formula: If a function Simplifying the result gives us our final answer:

then

To use the Product Rule, multiply the first function by the derivative of the second function, then add the derivative of the first function times the second function to your result.

The Reciprocal Rule

The Reciprocal Rule is very similar to the Quotient Rule, except that it can only be used with quotients in which the numerator is exactly . It says that if

then

then

You should use Chain Rule anytime your function contains something more complicated than a single variable. The Chain Rule says that if your function takes the form

function, , untouched. Taking the derivative of Power Rule gives using the

Given as your numerator and anything at all as your denominator, the derivative will be the negative derivative of the denominator divided by the square of the denominator. Example Find the derivative of

then

Plugging back in for

gives us

The Chain Rule tells us how to take the derivative of something where one function is inside another one. It seems complicated, but applying the Chain Rule requires just two simple steps: 1. Take the derivative of the outside function, leaving the inside function completely alone. 2. Multiply what you got in Step by the derivative of the inside function. Example Find the derivative of

Step of Chain Rule tells us to take our result from Step and multiply it by the derivative of the inside function. Our inside function is , and its derivative is Multiplying the result from Step by the derivative of our inside function, , gives:

Applying the Reciprocal Rule gives

Simplifying the result gives us our final answer:

The Chain Rule

The Chain Rule is often one of the hardest concepts for calculus students to understand. Its also one of the most important, and its used all the time, so make sure you dont leave this section without a solid understanding. If you go through the example and youre still having trouble, please e-mail me for help at integralCALC@gmail.com.

Common Operations
In this example, the outside function is . is representing , but we leave that part alone for now because Step of Chain Rule tells us to take the derivative of the outside function while leaving the inside

Equation of the Tangent Line

Youll see it written different ways, but the most understandable tangent line formula Ive found is

When a problem asks you to find the equation of the tangent line, youll always be asked to evaluate at the point where the tangent line intersects the graph. In order to find the equation of the tangent line, youll need to plug that point into the original function, then substitute your answer for . Next youll take the derivative of the function, plug the same point into the derivative and substitute your answer for . Example Find the equation of the tangent line at to the graph of

Finally, insert both and into the tangent line formula, along with for , since this is the point at which we were asked to evaluate.

as a function and not just as a variable like . Therefore, we always multiply by when we take the derivative of y. To use implicit differentiation, follow these steps: 1. Differentiate both sides with respect to . 2. Whenever you encounter , treat it as a variable just like , and multiply that term by . 3. Move all terms involving to the left side and everything else to the right. 4. Factor out on the left and divide both sides by the other left-side factor so that is the only thing remaining on the left. Example Find the derivative of

You can either leave the equation in this form, or simplify it further, as follows:

Implicit Differentiation
Implicit Differentiation allows you to take the derivative of a function that contains both and on the same side of the equation. If you cant solve the function for , implicit differentiation is the only way to take the derivative. On the left sides of these derivatives, instead of seeing or , youll find instead. In this notation, the numerator tells you what function youre deriving, and the denominator tells you what variable is being derived. is literally read the derivative of with respect to . One of the most important things to remember, and the thing that usually confuses students the most, is that we have to treat

First, plug in function.

to the original

Next, take the derivative and plug in .

Our first step is to differentiate both sides with respect to . Treat as a variable just like , but whenever you take the derivative of a term that includes , multiply by . Youll need to use the Product Rule for the right side, treating as one function and as another.

Example (continued)

another variable is changing. To solve a related rates problem, complete the following steps: 1. Construct an equation containing all the relevant variables. 2. Differentiate the entire equation with respect to (time), before plugging in any of the values you know. 3. Plug in all the values you know, leaving only the one youre solving for. 4. Solve for your unknown variable. Example How fast is the radius of a balloon increasing when the radius is 100 centimeters, if air is being pumped into the spherical balloon at a rate of 400 cubic centimeters per second. In this example, were asked to find the rate of change of the radius, given the rate of change of the volume. The formula that relates the volume and radius of a sphere to one another is simply the formula for the volume of a sphere:

Move all terms that include to the left side, and everything else to the right side. Now that youve found the slope of the tangent line at the point , plug the point and the slope into Point-Slope Form:

Factor out on the left, then divide both sides by .

You could leave the equation as it is above, or simplify it as follows: Dividing the right side by 3 to simplify gives us our final answer:

Equation of the Tangent Line You may be asked to find the tangent line equation of an implicitly-defined function. Just for fun, lets pretend youre asked to find the equation of the tangent line of the function in the previous example at the point . Youd pick up right where you left off, and plug in this point to the derivative of the function.

Related Rates Related Rates are an application of differentiation, and are usually easy They ask you to find how quickly one is changing when you know how

implicit to spot. variable quickly

Before doing anything else, we use implicit differentiation to differentiate both sides with respect to .

Common Applications
Speed/Velocity/Acceleration
A common application of derivatives is the relationship between speed, velocity and acceleration. In these problems, youre usually given a position equation in the form or , which tells you the objects distance from some reference point. This equation also accounts for direction, so the distance could be negative, depending on which direction your object moved away from the reference point. Average speed of the object is

Example Suppose a particle is moving along the -axis so that its position at time is given by the formula

Now we plug in everything that we know. Keep in mind that is the rate at which the volume is changing, is the rate at which the radius is changing, and is the length of the radius at a specific moment. Our problem tells us that the rate of change of the volume is 400, and that the length of the radius at the specific moment were interested in is 100.

Compute its velocity and acceleration as functions of . Next, decide in which direction (left or right) the particle is moving when and whether its velocity and speed are increasing or decreasing. To find velocity, we take the derivative of the original position equation.

Average velocity of the object is Solving for gives us To find velocity, take the derivative of your original position equation. Speed is the absolute value of velocity. Velocity accounts for the direction of movement, so it can be negative. Its like speed, but in a particular direction. Speed, on the other hand, can never be negative because it doesnt account for direction, which is why speed is the absolute value of velocity. To find acceleration, take the derivative of velocity. To find acceleration, we take the derivative of the velocity function.

Therefore, we know that the radius of the balloon is increasing at a rate of centimeters per second.

To determine the direction of the particle at , we plug into the velocity function.

Because

is positive, we can

conclude that the particle is moving in the positive direction (toward the right). To determine whether velocity is increasing or decreasing, we plug 1 into the acceleration function, because that will give us the rate of change of velocity, since acceleration is the derivative of velocity.

To use it, take the derivatives of the numerator and denominator and replace the original numerator and denominator with their derivatives. Then plug in the number youre approaching. If you still get an indeterminate form, continue using LHopitals Rule until you can use substitution to get a prettier answer. Example

If we try plugging in for , we get the indeterminate form , so we know that this is a good candidate for LHopitals Rule. Since acceleration is negative at velocity must be decreasing at that point. Since the velocity is positive and decreasing at , that means that speed is also decreasing at that point. , The derivative of our numerator is . The derivative of our denominator is . To use LHopitals Rule, we take those derivatives and plug them in for the original numerator and denominator.

is our final answer. However, if plugging in had resulted in another indeterminate form, we could have applied another round of LHopitals Rule, and another and another, until we were able to plug in the number were approaching to get an answer that was not indeterminate.

Mean Value Theorem

This theorem guarantees that, at some point on a closed interval, the tangent line to the graph will be parallel to the line connecting the endpoints of that interval. The Mean Value Theorem is the following:

LHopitals Rule
LHopitals Rule is used to get you out of sticky situations with indeterminate limit forms, such as or . If you plug in the number youre approaching to the function for which youre trying to find the limit and your result is one of the indeterminate forms above, you should try applying LHopitals Rule. If we now try plugging in the number were approaching, we get a clear answer.

Example Pretend that we drive from Florida to California in exactly hours, from time to time , and travel a distance of miles. If describes the distance weve traveled at time , then the Mean Value Theorem tells us that

Rolles Theorem
Rolles Theorem is a specific instance of the Mean Value Theorem. Like the Mean Value Theorem, Rolles Theorem applies to a function on a closed interval, . If and are both equal to , meaning that the interval starts and ends on the -axis, then the derivative, or slope of the function, at some point in the interval must be equal to .

The Mean Value Theorem therefore implies that there was an instantaneous velocity of exactly miles/hour at least once during the trip.

Rolles Theorem - At some point between and , the slope of the derivative must be equal to and the derivative must be parallel to the axis.

Graph Sketching
Graph sketching is not very hard, but there are a lot of steps to remember. Like anything, the best way to master it is with a lot of practice. When it comes to sketching the graph, if possible I absolutely recommend graphing the function on your calculator before you get started so that you have a visual of what your graph should look like when its done. You certainly wont get all the information you need from your calculator, so unfortunately you still have to learn the steps, but your calculator is still a good double-check system. Our strategy for sketching the graph will include the following steps: 1. Find critical points. 2. Determine where is increasing and decreasing. 3. Find inflection points. 4. Determine where is concave up and concave down. 5. Find - and -intercepts. 6. Plot critical points, possible inflection points and intercepts. 7. Determine behavior as approaches positive and negative infinity. 8. Draw the graph with the information we just gathered. which a function can change direction, and also the only points on the graph that can be maxima or minima of the function. Example Find the critical points of

Critical Points
Critical points occur at -values where the functions derivative is either equal to zero or undefined. Critical points are the only points at

Take the derivative and simplify. You can move the in the denominator of the fraction into the numerator by changing the sign on its exponent from to .

Using Power Rule to take the derivative gives

We already know that the direction of the graph can only change at the critical points that we found earlier. As we continue with our example, well therefore plot those critical points on a wiggle graph to test where the function is increasing and decreasing. Example (continued) Determine where is increasing and decreasing First, we create our wiggle graph and plot our critical points, as follows:
-----------------------|--------------------|-----------------

Moving the back into the denominator by changing the sign on its exponent gives

An increasing function Similarly, a function that is decreasing (moving down as you travel from left to right along the graph), has a negative slope, and therefore a negative derivative.

Now set the derivative equal to solve for .

and

Increasing/Decreasing
A function that is increasing (moving up as you travel from left to right along the graph), has a positive slope, and therefore a positive derivative. A decreasing function Based on this information, it makes sense that the sign (positive or negative) of a functions derivative indicates the direction of the original function. If the derivative is positive at a point, the original function is increasing at that point. Not surprisingly, if the derivative is negative at a point, the original function is decreasing there.

Next, we pick values on each interval of the wiggle graph and plug them into the derivative. If we get a positive result, the graph is increasing. A negative result means its decreasing. The intervals that we will test are: , and . To test , well plug into the derivative, since is a value in that range.

To test the derivative.

, well plug

into

the graph changes direction, which is the job of critical points. Well learn about concavity in the next section. For now, lets find our inflection points. In order to find inflection points, we first take the second derivative, which is the derivative of the derivative. We then set the second derivative equal to zero and solve for . Example (continued) Well start with the first derivative, and then take its derivative to find the second derivative.

Concavity
Concavity is indicated by the sign of the functions second derivative, . The function is concave up everywhere the second derivative is positive, and concave down everywhere the second derivative is negative. The following graph illustrates examples of concavity. From , the graph is concave down. Think about the fact that a graph that is concave down looks like a frown. Sad, I know. The inflection point at which the graph changes concavity is at . On the range , the graph is concave up. It looks like a smile. Ah much better.

To test the derivative.

, well plug

into

Now we plot the results on our wiggle graph, and we can see that is Increasing on Decreasing on Increasing on , and . Now set the second derivative equal to zero and solve for . is concave down on the range and concave up on the range There is no solution to this equation, but we can see that the second derivative is undefined at . Therefore, is the only possible inflection point.

-----------------------|--------------------|-----------------

Inflection Points
Inflection points are just like critical points, except that they indicate where the graph changes concavity, instead of indicating where

We can use the same wiggle graph technique, along with the possible inflection point we just found, to test for concavity.

Example (continued) Since our only inflection point was at , lets go ahead and plot that on our wiggle graph now. --------------------------|----------------------As you might have guessed, well be testing values is the following intervals: and

- and -Intercepts
To find the points where the graph intersects the and axes, we can plug into the original function for one variable and solve for the other. Example (continued)

Local and Global Extrema

Maxima and Minima (these are the plural versions of the singular words maximum and minimum) can only exist at critical points, but not every critical point is necessarily an extrema. To know for sure, you have to test each solution separately.

To find -intercepts, plug in for .

To test , well plug the second derivative.

into Immediately we can recognize there are no -intercepts because we cant have a result in the denominator. into Lets plug in for intercepts. to try for Minimums exist at as well as . Based on the -values at those points, the global minimum exists at , and a local minimum exists at . If youre dealing with a closed interval, for example some function on the interval to , then the endpoints and are candidates for extrema and must also be tested. Well use the First Derivative Test to find extrema.

To test , well plug the second derivative.

Now we can plot the results on our wiggle graph --------------------------|-----------------------

Multiply every term by the fraction.

to eliminate

We determine that down on the interval concave up on

is concave and .

Since there are no solutions to this equation, we know that there are no intercepts either for this particular function.

First Derivative Test

Remember the wiggle graph that we created from our earlier test for increasing and decreasing?

Based on the positive and negative signs on the graph, you can see that the function is increasing, then decreasing, then increasing again, and if you can picture a function like that in your head, then you know immediately that we have a local maximum at and a local minimum at . You really dont even need the silly First Derivative Test, because it tells you in a formal way exactly what you just figured out on your own: 1. If the derivative is negative to the left of the critical point and positive to the right of it, the graph has a local minimum at that point. 2. If the derivative is positive to the left of the critical point and negative on the right side of it, the graph has a local maximum at that point. As a side note, if its positive on both sides or negative on both sides, then the point is neither a local maximum nor a local minimum, and the test is inconclusive. Remember, if you have more than one local maximum or minimum, you must plug in the value of at the critical points to your original function. The values you get back will tell

you which points are global maxima and minima, and which ones are only local. For example, if you find that your function has two local maxima, you can plug in the value for at those critical points. If the first returns a value of and the second returns a -value of , then the first point is your global maximum and the second point is your local maximum. If youre asked to determine where the function has its maximum/minimum, your answer will be in the form [value]. But if youre asked for the value at the maximum/minimum, youll have to plug in the -value to your original function and state the -value at that point as your answer.

Example (continued) Our critical points are and .

Since the second derivative is negative at , we conclude that there is a local maximum at that point.

Second Derivative Test

You can also test for local maxima and minima using the Second Derivative Test if it easier for you than the first derivative test. In order to use this test, simply plug in your critical points to the second derivative. If your result is negative, that point is a local maximum. If the result is positive, the point is a local minimum. If the result is zero, you cant draw a conclusion from the Second Derivative Test, and you have to resort to the First Derivative Test to solve the problem. Lets try it.

Since the second derivative is positive at , we conclude that there is a local minimum at that point.

Good news! These are the same results we got from the First Derivative Test! So why did we do this? Because you may be asked on a test to use a particular method to test the extrema, so unfortunately, you should really know how to use both tests.

Asymptotes
Vertical Asymptotes
Vertical asymptotes are the easiest to test for, because they only exist where the function is

undefined. Remember, a function is undefined whenever we have a value of zero as the denominator of a fraction, or whenever we have a negative value inside a square root sign. Consider the example weve been working with in this section:

You should see immediately that we have a vertical asymptote at because plugging in for makes the denominator of the fraction , and therefore undefined.

then the -axis is a horizontal asymptote. 2. If the degree of the numerator is equal to the degree of the denominator, then the coefficient of the first term in the numerator divided by the coefficient in the first term of the denominator is the horizontal asymptote. 3. If the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, there is no horizontal asymptote. Using the example weve been working with throughout this section, well determine whether the function has any horizontal asymptotes. We can use long division to convert the function into one fraction. The following is the same function as our original function, just consolidated into one fraction:

the example weve been using throughout this section.

First, well convert this function to a rational function by multiplying the first term by .

Horizontal Asymptotes
Vertical and horizontal asymptotes are similar in that they can only exist when the function is a rational function. When were looking for horizontal asymptotes, we only care about the first term in the numerator and denominator. Both of those terms will have whats called a degree, which is the exponent on the variable. If our function is the following:

Now that we have a common denominator, we can combine the fractions.

We can see that the degree of our numerator is one greater than the degree of our denominator, so we know that we have a slant asymptote. To find the equation of that asymptote line, we divide the denominator into the numerator using long division and we get

then the degree of the numerator is degree of the denominator is .

and the

We can see immediately that the degree of our numerator is , and that the degree of our denominator is . That means that our numerator is one degree higher than our denominator, which means that this function does not have a horizontal asymptote.

Heres how we test for horizontal asymptotes. 1. If the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator,

Slant Asymptotes
Slant asymptotes are a special case. They exist when the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator. Lets take

Right back to our original function! That wont always happen, our function just happened to be the composition of the quotient and remainder.

Whenever we use long division in this way to find the slant asymptote, the first term is our quotient and the second term is our remainder. The quotient is the equation of the line representing the slant asymptote. Therefore, our slant asymptote is the line .

Putting It All Together

Now that weve finished gathering all of the information we can about our graph, we can start sketching it. This will be something youll just have to practice and get the hang of. The first thing I usually do is sketch any asymptotes, because you know that your graph wont cross those lines, and therefore they act as good guidelines. So lets draw in the lines and .

The asymptotes of Knowing that the graph is concave up in the upper right, and concave down in the lower left, and realizing that it cant cross either of the asymptotes, you should be able to make a pretty good guess that it will look like the following:

The graph of In this case, picturing the graph was a little easier because of the two asymptotes, but if you didnt have the slant asymptote, youd want to graph - and -intercepts, critical and inflection points, and extrema, and then connect the points using the information you have about increasing/decreasing and concavity.

Optimization
Optimization is one of the most feared topics for calculus students, but it really shouldnt be. Optimization only requires a few simple steps, all of which you already know how to do. To solve an optimization problem, youll need to: 1. Write an equation in one variable that represents what youre trying to maximize. 2. Take the derivative, find critical points and draw your wiggle graph. 3. Verify that your solutions are correct based on the real-life situation. Lets do one of the most common examples. Example: The Open-Top Box I dont know why this is such a popular optimization example, but I swear its in every calculus book ever written. Say youre given a x piece of paper. Youre told to cut out squares from each corner with side-length , as follows,

Multiplying everything together gives

If we plug into our length, , we get a positive number. However, if we plug into our width, , we get a negative number, so cannot be a solution to our optimization problem. Now we only have to test to make sure its a local max. If it is a local max., then is the value of that maximizes the volume of our box. ----------------------------|-----------------------

Now take the derivative with respect to .

Find critical points by setting the equation equal to zero and solving for .

such that folding the sides up will create a box with no top. Your job is to find the value of that maximizes the volume of the box. As soon as you hear volume of a box, you should immediately write down the formula for the volume of a box:

Using the Quadratic Formula gives:

Our critical points are approximately and . Before we draw our wiggle graph and start testing critical points, we should always test our answers for plausibility. Remember, length, width and height can never be negative.

----------------------------|-----------------------

Based on the picture we drew of our problem, we already know our length, width and height, so we rewrite the formula as follows:

Since our function is increasing to the left of the critical point and decreasing to the right of it, is the value of that maximizes our volume.

Essential Formulas
Foundations of Calculus
Laws of Exponents

Derivatives
Definition of the Derivative

Shortcut Rules
The Power Rule The Product Rule

Linear Functions
Slope-Intercept Form , where is the slope and the -intercept Point-Slope Form , where is the slope Slope of a Linear Function is

The Quotient Rule

The Chain Rule

Logarithms & Exponentials

Quadratic Functions
Quadratic Function Quadratic Formula

Trigonometric Derivatives

Common Operations
Equation of the Tangent Line Average Speed

Test for Global Extrema

has a global maximum at a point if the value there is greater than all others in the domain of the function has a local minimum at a point if the value there is less than all others in the domain of the function

Average Velocity

Inflection Points
If

Graph Sketching
Critical Points
A point is a critical point if either or does not exist.

is an inflection point, then either or is undefined.

Concavity
The graph is concave up if The graph is concave down if decreasing. is is increasing. is

Test for Increasing/Decreasing

If on an interval, then increasing on that interval If on an interval, then decreasing on that interval

is

Test for Local Extrema

has a local maximum at a point if the value there is greater than or equal to the values around it has a local minimum at a point if the value there is less than or equal to the values around it