GRID CONNECTED PV INVERTERS: MODELING AND SIMULATION

_______________
A Thesis
Presented to the
Faculty of
San Diego State University
_______________
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Science
in
Electrical Engineering
_______________
by
Jordana Bratt
Summer 2011


iii
Copyright 2011
by
Jordan Bratt
All Rights Reserved



iv
DEDICATION
Dedicated to Mama, Papa, Granny and Jonathan


v
Be the change that you want to see in the world
Mohandas Gandhi





vi
ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS
Grid Connected PV Inverters: Modeling and Simulation
by
Jordana Bratt
Master of Science in Electrical Engineering
San Diego State University, 2011

The need for a cleaner environment and the continuous increase in power demands
makes renewable energy production like solar and wind increasingly interesting. Energy
production using solar energy could be a solution for the ever increasing power demands. This
demand overloads the distribution grids as well as the power stations having a negative impact
on power quality and availability. One solution to this problem is grid-connected photovoltaic
(PV) systems.
A PV array has an optimum operating point, known as the maximum power point,
which varies according to cell temperature and insulation level and array voltage. A maximum
power point tracker (MPPT) is needed to operate the PV array at the optimal point enabling
the system to extract the maximum amount of energy available.
Once the system is in place it can be either connected to a charge a battery or to the
grid through an inverter. This research explores the different methods for modeling a PV array
and simulates in Simulink a comprehensive model of a PV cell that can be expanded into
arrays, modules and panels, allowing the user to edit the PV model based solely on the
datasheet parameters. This model is coupled to a DC-DC booster (step up converter). By
manipulating the duty cycle of the DC-DC booster the system implements two of the most
popular MPPT methods to extract maximum power: Incremental Conductance and Perturb
and Observe. The model is then tested under various conditions for different loads, irradiance
and temperature comparing it to the values provided by the manufactures datasheet.
The system is then connected to either a Single Phase Inverter or a Three Phase
Inverter implemented in Simulink. The final step is the grid synchronization through two
proposed methods of NREL: voltage control and current control. Several simulations were
performed to make sure the system complied with all IEEE 1547 standards. The overall PV
model system has an efficiency of 98.2% with the best performance under the Incremental
Conductance algorithm. The inverter model complies with all IEEE 1547 standards varying a
maximum of 5% under different testing conditions.


vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. vi
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................x
LIST OF NOTATIONS ......................................................................................................... xiii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .....................................................................................................xv
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................1
1.1 Background to the Research ..............................................................................1
1.1.1 Solar Energy..............................................................................................1
1.1.2 Grid Connected PV Systems .....................................................................2
1.2 Aims of the Project ............................................................................................3
1.2.1 Problem Formulation ................................................................................3
1.2.2 Objective ...................................................................................................4
1.2.3 Outline of the Thesis .................................................................................4
2 PHOTOVOLTAIC MODEL .........................................................................................6
2.1 Photovoltaic Cells Theory ..................................................................................6
2.2 Modeling Algorithm ..........................................................................................9
2.3 Simulink Model ...............................................................................................11
2.4 Model Validation .............................................................................................14
3 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING ...............................................................19
3.1 Perturb and Observe .........................................................................................19
3.2 Incremental Conductance .................................................................................20
3.3 DC/DC Converter ............................................................................................24
3.4 Simulink Model ...............................................................................................29
3.4.1 Perturb and Observe MPPT .................................................................29
3.4.2 Incremental Conductance ........................................................................31
3.4.3 DC-DC Converter ...................................................................................35


viii
3.5 Model Validation .............................................................................................35
4 INVERTERS................................................................................................................49
4.1 Modified Sine Wave ........................................................................................49
4.2 True Sine Wave ................................................................................................50
4.3 Pulse Width Modulation ..................................................................................50
4.4 Sinusoidal PWM ..............................................................................................50
4.5 Grid Connected Inverters .................................................................................53
4.5.1 Voltage ....................................................................................................53
4.5.2 DC-injection ............................................................................................54
4.5.3 Flicker .....................................................................................................55
4.5.4 Frequency ................................................................................................55
4.5.5 Current Distortion ...................................................................................55
4.5.6 Power Factor ...........................................................................................55
4.5.7 Reconnection...........................................................................................55
4.6 Grid Synchronization .......................................................................................56
4.6.1 Voltage Control .......................................................................................56
4.6.2 Current Control .......................................................................................56
4.7 Simulink Model ...............................................................................................57
4.7.1 Single Phase Inverter ..............................................................................57
4.7.2 Three Phase Inverter ...............................................................................58
4.8 Voltage Control PWM .....................................................................................58
4.9 Current Control PWM......................................................................................60
4.10 Model Validation ...........................................................................................61
4.10.1 Single Phase Voltage Controlled ..........................................................61
4.10.1.1 VOLTAGE OUTPUT ..................................................................61
4.10.1.2 Current Output .............................................................................62
4.10.2 Single Phase Current Controlled ...........................................................63
4.10.2.1 Voltage Output .............................................................................63
4.10.2.2 Current Output .............................................................................64
4.10.3 Three Phase Voltage Controlled ...........................................................66
5 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................70
BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................72


ix
A MATLAB CODE FOR THE INITIALIZATION OF THE PV CELL ...............74
Matlab code for the initialization of the PV Cell ......................................75


x
LIST OF TABLES
PAGE
Table 2.1. Datasheet Parameters for KC200GT ......................................................................14
Table 2.2. Datasheet Parameters for SW245MONO ...............................................................15
Table 4.1. Standards of Grid Connected Inverters ...................................................................54


xi
LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE
Figure 1.1. Grid tied PV capacity. .............................................................................................3
Figure 2.1. Ideal PV cell. ...........................................................................................................7
Figure 2.2. More accurate PV model. ........................................................................................8
Figure 2.3. Equivalent circuit of PV cell. ..................................................................................8
Figure 2.4. Simulink model of Ipv. ..........................................................................................12
Figure 2.5. Simulink model of Io. ............................................................................................12
Figure 2.6. Simulink model of the new current calculated. .....................................................13
Figure 2.7. SimPowerSystem PV model.................................................................................13
Figure 2.8. User interface of the PV module. ..........................................................................14
Figure 2.9. Current-voltage characteristics of KC200GT ........................................................15
Figure 2.10. Power-voltage characteristics of KC200GT. .......................................................16
Figure 2.11. Current-voltage characteristics of KC200GT at different irradiances. ...............16
Figure 2.12. Current-voltage characteristics of KC200GT at different temperatures. ............17
Figure 2.13. Current-voltage characteristics of SW245MONO at STC. .................................17
Figure 2.14. Power-voltage characteristics of SW245MONO at STC. ...................................18
Figure 3.1. Perturb and observe tracking method or hill climbing. .........................................20
Figure 3.2. Perturb and observe algorithm. ..............................................................................21
Figure 3.3. Incremental conductance behavior. .......................................................................22
Figure 3.4. Incremental conductance algorithm. .....................................................................24
Figure 3.5. DC-DC converter. ..................................................................................................25
Figure 3.6. DC-DC converter on time equivalent circuit. ........................................................25
Figure 3.7. DC-DC converter off time equivalent circuit. .......................................................26
Figure 3.8. Simulink model of perturb and observe MPPT input. ...........................................30
Figure 3.9. Perturb and observe comparision. .........................................................................31
Figure 3.10. Perturb and observe comparison 2. .....................................................................31
Figure 3.11. Perturb and observe Vdelta comparison. .............................................................32
Figure 3.12. Perturb and observe Pdelta comparison. .............................................................32
Figure 3.13. Incremental conductance input Simulink block. .................................................33


xii
Figure 3.14. Incremetal conductance Vdelta comparison block. .............................................33
Figure 3.15. Incremental conductance Idelta comparison block. ............................................33
Figure 3.16. Incremental conductance comparison. ................................................................34
Figure 3.17. Incremental conductance equation (3.4) signal comparison. ..............................34
Figure 3.18. Incremental conductance output. .........................................................................34
Figure 3.19. DC-DC booster Simulink model. ........................................................................36
Figure 3.20. Pulse generator Simulink model. .........................................................................36
Figure 3.21. DC-DC booster voltage ripple. ............................................................................37
Figure 3.22. PV Power output without MPPT. ........................................................................37
Figure 3.23. PV module V -I -P characteristics for perturb and observe MPPT. ....................38
Figure 3.24. Perturb and observe MPPT oscillation area. .......................................................39
Figure 3.25. Perturb and observe duty cycle............................................................................39
Figure 3.26. PV module voltage ripple. ...................................................................................40
Figure 3.27. PV module current ripple. ...................................................................................40
Figure 3.28. Absolute error of perturb and observe MPPT. ....................................................41
Figure 3.29. DC-DC booster output error with perturb and observe MPPT............................41
Figure 3.30. PV Module V -I -P characteristics for incremental conductance MPPT. ............42
Figure 3.31. Incremental conductance MPPT oscillation area. ...............................................43
Figure 3.32. Incremental conductance duty cycle. ..................................................................43
Figure 3.33. Voltage ripple for incremental conductance MPPT. ...........................................44
Figure 3.34. Current ripple for incremental conductance MPPT. ............................................45
Figure 3.35. Error of MPPT incremental conductance. ...........................................................45
Figure 3.36. DC-DC booster efficiency. ..................................................................................46
Figure 3.37. Comparison of MPPT methods by error value. ...................................................46
Figure 3.38. MPPT testing under varying conditions. .............................................................47
Figure 3.39. Power output of MPPT methods during a sunny day. .........................................48
Figure 4.1. Single phase inverter. ............................................................................................51
Figure 4.2. Three phase inverter. .............................................................................................52
Figure 4.3. Sinusoidal pulse with modulation. ........................................................................53
Figure 4.4. Simulink single phase inverter. .............................................................................57
Figure 4.5. Simulink three phase inverter. ...............................................................................58
Figure 4.6. Simulink voltage control loop. ..............................................................................59


xiii
Figure 4.7. Simulink voltage PWM duty generator. ................................................................59
Figure 4.8. Simulink current control loop. ...............................................................................60
Figure 4.9. Simulink current PWM duty generator. ................................................................60
Figure 4.10. Single phase voltage controlled output. ...............................................................61
Figure 4.11. Zoomed in voltage controlled output. .................................................................62
Figure 4.12. Single phase RMS value. .....................................................................................63
Figure 4.13. Single phase voltage controlled current output. ..................................................64
Figure 4.14. Single phase voltage controlled harmonics. ........................................................65
Figure 4.15. Single phase current controlled voltage output. ..................................................65
Figure 4.16. Zoomed in current controlled output. ..................................................................66
Figure 4.17. Single phase current controlled RSM output. ......................................................66
Figure 4.18. Single phase current controlled harmonics. .........................................................67
Figure 4.19. Three phase inverter output. ................................................................................68
Figure 4.20. Three phase inverter RMS output. .......................................................................68
Figure 4.21. Three phase inverter THD. ..................................................................................69


xiv
LIST OF NOTATIONS
Symbol Description Unit(s)
PV PhotoVoltaic -
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers
-
NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory's -
MPP Maximum Power Point -
MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking -
IC Incremental Conductance -
P&O Perturb and Observe -
DG Distributed Generation -
IEA International Energy -
STC Standard Testing Conditions -
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission -
THD Total Harmonic Distortion -
PWM Pulse Width Modulation -
SC
I
Short Circuit Current Amperes [A]
OC
V
Open Circuit Voltage Voltage [V]
d
I
Diode Current Amperes [A]
o
I
Reverse Saturation Current of Diode Amperes [A]
d
V
Diodes Voltage Voltage [V]
k Boltzmanns Constant Joules/Kelvin [J/K]
T Temperature Kelvin [K]
q
Electron Charge Coulombs [C]
s
R
Series Resistance Ohms [ ]
p
R Shunt Resistance Ohms [ ]


xv
pv
I PV Current Amperes [A]
i
K
Shot-circuit current/temperature coefficient. Amperes/Kelvin [A/K]
Symbol Description Unit(s)
mpp
V Maximum Power Point Voltage Voltages [V]
I
mpp
Maximum Power Point Current Current [A]
Differential -
s
DT
Duty Cycle Seconds [s]
s
f
Switching Frequency Frequency [Hz]
x
Averaged Values -

Efficiency %
PWM
T
Period of a PWM Seconds [s]
DC
U
Voltage of the Inverter bus Voltage [V]
1
t
Switch On Time Seconds [s]
2
t
Switch Off Time Seconds [s]
1 T
u
Average Voltage Value Voltage [V]
ref
V Reference Voltage Voltage [V]
DC
V
DC Voltage Voltage [V]


xvi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to extend my infinite gratitude to Dr. Sridhar Seshagiri, my thesis
advisor, my professor or how I call him my prof!. Thank you for guiding me every step of
the way. It has been an honor and a pleasure to work with you.
I would like to thanks the many friends who always gave me encouragement: Taru,
Melissa, AnaK and Jenna. You are my ladies.
I would like to thank Preston Richey, for helping me focus endless time when
boredom tried to set in.
I would like to thank my family, Mom, Dad and little Brother for being with me all
the way.
Without you, I wouldnt be here.


1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH
There are two main concepts that need to be introduced before proceeding with the
research, these are: Solar Energy and Grid Connected PV Systems.
1.1.1 Solar Energy
Energy is the most basic and essential of all resources. All the energy we use on earth
comes from fission or fusion of atomic nuclei or from energy stored in the Earth. The
problem with both fission and fusion is the dangerous side effect that radioactive
manipulation might have. As a result most of the energy consumed in the world is strongly
dependant on very limited non-renewable resources, particularly fossil fuel. As the world
energy demand increases and resources begin to wane the search for alternative energy
sources has become an important issue.
A lot of research has been done in the area of unlimited energy resources such as
wind power generation and solar energy transformation. Of these the most effective and
harmless energy is solar energy. The use of solar energy instead of fossil fuel combustions
particular in areas of simple applications like low to medium water heating or battery
charging can reduce the load of harmful emissions to the environment. This energy can be
harvested by use of photovoltaic (PV) arrays.
The photovoltaic generation systems can either be operated as isolated systems or be
connected to the grid as a part of an integrated system, with other electrical generation, they
form the distributed generation system. As renewable distributed generation, PV has some
advantages if it is compared to other renewable energy generations. PV generation plant
needs not a specific geographic or geo-morphological requirement such as on the wind and
micro-small hydropower generation. In contrary, PV generation plant can be built in almost
any area where the sun irradiation is available; allows the flexibility to determine the place of
the plant according to its main allotment. In addition, the module-based production of PV


2
plant components that enables one to build and adjust the size of PV plant from small
capacity and then expand it to follow the demand growth is also one of advantages of this
type of generation system. All of these facts make the PV modules an interesting choice for
the development of electrical distributed generation systems
1.1.2 Grid Connected PV Systems
The continuously increasing energy consumption overloads the distribution grids as
well as the power stations, therefore having a negative impact on power availability, security
and quality [1]. One of the solutions for overcoming this is the Distributed Generation (DG)
systems. DG systems using renewable energy sources like solar or wind have the advantage
that the power is produced in close proximity to where it is consumed minimizing the loss
due to transmission lines. In the last decade solar energy technologies have become less
expensive and more efficient, which have made it an attractive solution being cleaner and
more environmentally friendly energy resource than traditional ones. Nevertheless a PV
system is still much more expensive than other methods of energy generation given the high
manufacturing costs of PV panels.
One of the major advantages of PV technology is that it has no moving parts therefore
the hardware is very robust; it has a long lifetime and low maintenance requirements and
most importantly it is one solution that offers environmentally friendly power generation.
Nowadays PV panels are present in everyday life: powering wrist watches, small
calculators, supplying loads in remote sites and, and most importantly, they are connected to
the public grid, generating the green power of the future.
According to the latest report of IEA PVPS on installed PV power, during 2010 there
was a total of 35 GW capacity that could grow by 2050 to 3000 GW corresponding to an
11% of global electricity generation. Particularly in USA PV installation grew by 92%
compared to 2009, for a total of approximately 900 MW. Preliminary market segment data
show that commercial-scale projects constituted over 50 % of the market, residential systems
about 25 %, and utility-scale projects the remainder [1]. The top 7 states accounted for 76%
of the market in 2010.
According to the US Solar market InsightTM report of 2010 the highlights of the year
can be summarized as follows [2]:


3
1. The total value of US. Solar market installations grew 67% from 3.6 billion in 2009
to 6.0 billion in 2010.
2. Solar electric installations in 2010 totaled 956 megawatts to reach a cumulative
installed capacity of 2.6 GW. This is enough to power more than half a million
households.
3. Grid Connected PV installations grew 102% in 2010 to reach 878MW, up from 453
in 2009, bringing the cumulative capacity in the US to 2086 MW.
4. Sixteen states installed more than 10 MW of PV in 2010, up from four states.
5. Utility PV installations more than tripled in 2010 to reach 242 MW, up from 70 MW
brought online in 2009.
6. U.S. manufacturing of PV components increased substantially year-over-year for
wafers (97 percent growth), cells (81 percent growth), and modules (62 percent
growth).
The Figure 1.1 showcases the growing trend of grid-Tied PV capacity by market
segment from 2006 to 2010.
Figure 1.1. Grid tied PV capacity.
1.2 AIMS OF THE PROJECT
The project has three main stages: The problem formulation the Objectives that are
the specific goals of the research and finally the Thesis report.
1.2.1 Problem Formulation
The efficiency of commercial PV panels is around 15-20%. Therefore, it is very
important that the power produced by these panels is not wasted, by using inefficient power


4
electronics systems. The efficiency and reliability of both single-phase and three phase PV
inverter systems can be improved using transformerless topologies and maximum power
point tracking methods. Simulation of modern electrical systems using power electronics has
always been a challenge because of the nonlinear behavior of power switches, their
connection to continuous sub-systems and the design of discrete-time control. Nowadays,
more and more complex systems are studied for designing efficient control strategies, such as
renewable energy conversion systems whole traction systems and so on. In these cases
efficient simulations before practical control implantation are required. Furthermore very few
systems address the three main problems in PV Inverter design. The researchers are either
focused on simulating an accurate PV cell or in optimizing an MPPT model or designing a
control for the inverter synchronization. Our research will approach the three problems first
individually then integrate all the systems. It will also provide a friendly user interface that
allows for multiple PV cell and modules simulation.
1.2.2 Objective
The main goal of this project is to analyze and model transformerless PV inverter
systems that are grid connected working under both voltage and current synchronization
control. A comprehensive PV model cell will be implemented that takes into consideration
the datasheet parameters provided by the manufacturer. Two of the most popular methods
of MPPT, perturb and observe and incremental conductance, will be implemented and
compared for efficiency.
1.2.3 Outline of the Thesis
The work presented in this thesis deals with analyzing and modeling of PV inverter
systems. Each chapter deals with a specific area of research: PV modeling, maximum
power point tracking and inverter design.
Chapter 1: Introduction focusing in the background of the research and motivation
for the project. The chapter finishes with an outline of the thesis.
Chapter 2: This chapter overviews the PV cell characteristics and possible modeling
methods of PV modules. The chapter starts with introducing the concepts solar energy
transformation to electrical energy and explaining the non lineage characteristics of PV cells.


5
It explores the datasheet produced by the manufacturer and the information it provides is
then used to simulate a PV module in Matlab, specifically Simulink. The chapter concludes
with the model validation comparing it against the manufactures tests.
Chapter 3: On Chapter 3 the different concept of MPPT is introduced and two
different methods: perturb and observe and incremental conductance are introduced. Both are
implemented in Simulink with the aid of a DC/DC boost converter. The models are validated
by comparing the values the two MPPT methods produce under different temperatures and
irradiation with the use of the PV cell designed in Chapter 1.
Chapter 4: This chapter focuses on the different inverter topologies and the
pulse width modulation technique used to control the gate of the transistors. The current
IEEE 1547 standard is summarized and two different control methods: current and
voltage, both proposed by NREL, are implemented in single phase and three phase grid
connected inverters. Finally the models are validating by comparing if they comply
with the standards.
Chapter 5: the final conclusion is presented, based on the theoretical and
experimental results performed. Also a list is given, detailing the contributions presented in
this thesis. Additionally, guidelines for future work are given.


6
CHAPTER 2
PHOTOVOLTAIC MODEL
2.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS THEORY
The ability to generate electrical power by means of converting solar irradiation is
called Photovoltaics. It first was characterized in 1839 by Becquerel when he observed two
dissimilar materials would develop an electric potential when their junctions where
illuminated with photons. Modern PhotoVoltaic (PV) cells use a semiconductor p-n junction
that after absorbing light energy, results in an increased population of charge carriers with a
potential related to the bandgap and also into cell heating which degrades the performance.
A typical solar cell consists of a 0.2mm thick monocrystalline or polycrystalline silicon
wafer having two layers that present different electrical properties enhanced by doping with
impurities creating an electric field at the junction area. When sunlight impacts the solar cell
the energy from the photons creates free charges that are separated by the electrical field,
creating a potential so when a load is placed between the terminals a photo current (I pv) is
created. The most common material used in photocells today is silicon (Si) divided in
monocrystalline, polycrystalline, and amorphous. The amount of energy they can deliver
changes depending on the material of the cell and the incidence of sunlight. A simple PV
cell from a modeling perspective is an ideal current source in parallel with an ideal diode as
seen in Figure 2.1. The two parameters used to model and characterize a PV cell are: the
open circuit voltage (Voc ) and the short circuit current (Isc ). The Voc is the maximum
voltage which a solar cell can provide at zero current. The Isc is the maximum current which
a solar cell can provide at zero voltage.
The output current from the PV cell can be found using the equation:
sc d
I I I =

(2.1)



7
where Isc is the short circuit current that is equal to the photon generated current and Id is the

Figure 2.1. Ideal PV cell.
current shunted thought the intrinsic diode. The diode current is given by Shockleys diode
equation:
*
*
* 1
d
q V
k T
d o
I I e
| |
=
|
\ .

(2.2)
where:
1. Io is the reverse saturation current of the diode
2. q is the electro charge valued at 1.602x1023 C
3. V
d
is the diodes voltage
4. k is Boltzmanns constant valued at 1.381x1023 J/K
5. T is the junction temperature in Kelvin combining Equation (2.1) and Equation (2.2)
we then obtain:
/( * )
*( 1)
qV k T
sc o
I I I e =

(2.3)
In this case V is the voltage that exists across the PV cell and I is the output current of
the ideal circuit model.
A single solar cell typically produces only about 0.5V so they need to be connected
in series forming what is known as the PV Module. A PV panel is a collection of PV
modules physically and electrically grouped together and finally a PV Array is a collection
of PV panels. All three configurations follow the same basic modeling equations. The simple
PV cell model neglects to take into consideration a series of parameters [3] that create a
more accurate model represented in Figure 2.2:


8
1. The series resistance (Rs): that accounts for any resistance in the current paths
through the semiconductor material, the metal grid, contacts and currents controlling
the system. This value also accounts for the loss associated with connecting a number
of cells in series.
2. The parallel (shunt Rp) resistance: is a loss associated with a slight leakage current
through a parallel resistive path to the device. In most models it is neglected because
its effect isnt as noticeable unless a large amount of cells are connected in parallel.
3. A recombination factor related directly to the depletion region of PV cells and to the
amount of cells connected in series. Usually its represented by a second diode in the
equivalent circuit, or characterized by a factor in the Equation (2.3).

Figure 2.2. More accurate PV model.
Taking into account all the additional elements mentioned the Equation (2.3) changes to:
( ) * *
* *
( * )
* 1
q V I Rs
n k T
pv o
V I Rs
I I I e
Rp
+
| |
+
=
|
|
\ .

(2.4)
where n also is sometimes described as a, being the ideality factor and its value is between 1
and 2 [4]. For the purposes of this research we have adopted the value proposed in [5] of 1.3.
The equivalent final circuit of the PV module is in Figure 2.3

Figure 2.3. Equivalent circuit of PV cell.
The short circuit can be calculated at any given temperature using:
( )
@ @
* 1
sc T sc Tref i
I I K T Tref = + (




9
(2.5)
Isc at the reference temperature is found on the datasheet, and a refers to the temperature
coefficient of Isc in percent change per degree. Both measurements are done under the
standard irradiance of 1000W/m2. Normally the reference temperature is 25o C. The photon
generated current also varies based on the irradiance (G) according to the following equation:
@ @
*
sc G sc Gref
G
I I
Gref
| |
=
|
\ .

(2.6)
Combining both equations and simplifying we then obtain a generic expression for the
short circuit current. The assumption that Isc Ipv is generally used since the series
resistance is low and the parallel resistance is high, leading then to:
( )
pv sc i
G
I I K T
Gn
= +

(2.7)
The last term of Equation (2.4) is Io that is dependent on temperature described by equation:
3
* 1 1
*
*
@ @
* *
q V
n
n k T Tref
o T o Tref
T
I I e
Tref
( | |

( |
\ .
| |
=
|
\ .

(2.8)
2.2 MODELING ALGORITHM
Modeling accurate Photovoltaic Arrays has been discussed in many papers [6-8]. For
the purposes of this research we will be using the method describer in [5]. This modeling
algorithm includes both the calculation on Rs and Rp, and it takes into consideration the
effect of an array of solar modules and a panel of solar arrays. The PV datasheets always
provide the following information:
1. Standard Operating Conditions: 25o C and 1000W/m2
2. I sc at standard operating conditions.
3. V oc at standard operating conditions.
4. I mpp: I at the maximum power point at standard operating conditions.
5. Vmpp: at the maximum power point at standard operating conditions.
6. K v: the open-circuit voltage/temperature coefficient.


10
7. K i: the shot-circuit current/temperature coefficient.
8. Pmaxe : the maximum experimental peak output power at standard test conditions
The only unknowns in the Equation (2.4) are Rs and Rp. If we make Pmaxe , which is
an experimental value, equal the theoretical Pmaxt that corresponds to the V mpp then we
have the following set of equations
*I
( )*
1
mpp mpp
V Rs
q
mpp
kT aNs
e mpp pv o
V Rs
Pm V I I e
Rp
+
( +

=
( `
(
)

(2.9)
( )
( ) *
*
max
*
* * *
mpp mpp
mpp mpp mpp
V I Rs
q
Ns a kT
mpp pv mpp o mpp o
V V I Rs
Rp
V I V I e V I P
(
+
(
(

+
=


+
`

)

(2.10)
There is only one combination of Rs and Rp that satisfies the experimental peak
power, but it requires several iterations incrementing Rs gradually and numerically solving
the Equation (2.4). N s represents the amount of cells in series in a module. Each iteration
varies the value of Rp and Rs making it necessary to further adjust the model by updating the
value of Ipv with the following relation:
pvn scn
Rp Rs
I I
Rp
+
=

(2.11)
Initial guesses are suggested by [5] that allows the iteration process to begin, setting
the values of Rs=0 and Rp to:
mpp oc mpp
initial
sc mpp mpp
V V V
Rp
I I I

(2.12)
The model can be extended as proposed in [7] for solar arrays and panels with NxM
identical modules connected in parallel and series, changing Equation (2.4) to


11
1
t
N
V Rs I
M
V aN
pv o
N
V Rs I
M
I I N I M e
N
Rp
M
| | | |
+
| |
\ .
|
|
|
\ .
(
| |
(
+
|
(
\ .
=
(
| |
(
|
\ . (


(2.13)
Leading to the conclusion that the new values of Rp and Rs of the equivalent circuit are:
new
N
Rs Rs
M
| |
=
|
\ .

(2.14)
new
N
Rp Rp
M
| |
=
|
\ .

(2.15)
Once all variables are determined the model can be then simulated in Matlab, Simulink and
PSCad among others.
2.3 SIMULINK MODEL
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) in their technical report [9] used
Matlab, Simulink since it presents unique capabilities for developing control algorithms,
modeling power electronics and implementing DSP codes under the same software
platforms. NREL also has used SimPowerSystems to model different grid topographies and
inverters as illustrated in [9] before they implemented the models in hardware. In their case,
SimPowerSystems allowed matching the parameters to the hardware that was being used,
and the control design could be adjusted to simplify the DSP hardware platform. In the
research for a platform to model a PV array or cell, many different programs were proposed
but at the end the choice was clear in that Matlab, Simulink and SimPowerSystems would be
the ideal modeling system since it offered accurate computations and eased up on the power
system block diagram design. The system was divided by stages, first modeling Equation
(2.7) as seen in Figure 2.4 followed by modeling Io of Equation (2.8) in Figure 2.5 All
temperatures where passed to Kelvins since the mask works in Centigrades. Once both Io
and Ipv were obtained the Equation (2.4) can be computed with simulink blocks. As it was
mentioned before the Equation (2.4) is transcendental and needs to be solved by numerical


12

Figure 2.4. Simulink model of Ipv.

Figure 2.5. Simulink model of Io.
methods. Since we are using SimPowerSystems this solves the computations necessary. By
giving the system initial conditions for the algebraic loops and establishing the electrical
model the simulation is simplified as represented in Figure 2.6. The SimPowerSystem model
is presented in Figure 2.7 Inew corresponds to the new value of the current that is dependent
on I and V that are obtained from running the simulation of the model. The exit of the
subsystem is both the current and the voltage that is obtained from the PV in the forms of
Simulink signals and SimPowerSystem connectors. The values of Rs and Rp where
calculated by the algorithm described in Equation (2.12) in a subroutine located at the
initialization area of the mask of the subsystem. See Appendix for the complete code. The


13
error accepted in the subroutine for the convergence of the Newton-Rhapson method was
chosen to be 0.0001 and the step size of the increment of Rs at 0.0001. This ensured a highly
accurate value of Rp and Rs. The model aims to be generic and user oriented so that anyone
can input the parameters of the PV module they wish to simulate. To accomplish this
subsystem was masked and a user interface prompting for the parameters found in the data
sheet appears when the PV cell model is double clicked. The Figure 2.8 shows the user
interface.

Figure 2.6. Simulink model of the new current calculated.

Figure 2.7. SimPowerSystem PV model.


14

Figure 2.8. User interface of the PV module.
2.4 MODEL VALIDATION
To validate the model two PV modules where simulated: the KC200GT and the SW
245MONO . Their responses were compared to the datasheet information provided by the
manufacturer in points of interest and points extracted from the datasheets experimental
values summarized in Table 2.1 and Table 2.2. Both relevant plots: Voltage vs Current and
Voltage vs Power were computed for different values of irradiance and temperature.
Table 2.1. Datasheet Parameters for KC200GT











Datasheet Parameters for KC200GT
Irradiance 1000 W/m
2
800 W/m
2
Impp 7.61A 6.13A
Vmpp 26.3V 23.2 V
Pmax 200.143W 142W
Isc 8.21 A 6.62 A
Voc 32.9V 29.9 V
Kv -0.1234 V/K -0.1234 V/K
Ki 0.0032 A/K 0.0032 A/K
Ns 54 54


15
Table 2.2. Datasheet Parameters for SW245MONO
Datasheet Parameters for SW245MONO
Irradiance 1000 W/m
2
800 W/m
2
Impp 7.96 A 6.37A
Vmpp 30.8 V 28.1V
Pmax 245 W 179 W
Isc 8.25 A 6.65 A
Voc 37.7 V 34.4V
Kv -0.33 V/K -0.33 V/K
Ki 0.042 A/K 0.042 A/K
Ns 60 60
To simulate the system a voltage source that varied from 0 to Voc was placed at the
terminals of the circuit diagram and the resulting voltage and current signals were exported to
the workspace. The experiment was repeated for three different temperature values (25o C,
50
o
C, 75
o
C) and for irradiance varying from 200 W/m2 to 1200W/m2 in steps of
200W/m2at the reference temperature provided in the datasheet. Special attention was given
to the graphs of 25o C with irradiance of 1000W/m2 and 800W/m2 since those were the
experimental data points given in the datasheets. The first PV module to be simulated was the
KC200GT which yielded an absolute error rate of 0.11% in the voltage parameter, 0.05% in
the power parameter and 0.42% in current falling well under the 5% indicated in the
datasheet of the manufacturer as seen in Figure 2.9. At different irradiances the PV cell has a
non linear response (Figure 2.10).

Figure 2.9. Current-voltage characteristics of KC200GT


16
Figure 2.10. Power-voltage characteristics of KC200GT.
Further test were done to verify the behavior of the module at different irradiances
and temperatures comparing to graphics provided in the datasheet. Figure 2.11 was obtained
by varying the voltage between the terminals from 0 to Voc and changing the value of the
irradiance, while keeping steady the temperature at 25o C. The behavior of the PV cell model
was as expected.

Figure 2.11. Current-voltage characteristics of KC200GT
at different irradiances.
Figure 2.12 was obtained by varying the temperature parameter in increments of 25
o
C
while keeping the value of the irradiance steady at 1000W/m
2
. The plot matches the one
provided in the manufactures datasheet. The second PV module simulated was the


17
Figure 2.12. Current-voltage characteristics of KC200GT at
different temperatures.
SW245MONO which yielded an absolute error rate of 1.38% in the voltage parameter,
3.15% in the current parameter and 1.59% in the power parameter as seen in Figure 2.13.

Figure 2.13. Current-voltage characteristics of SW245MONO
at STC.


18
The manufacturer didnt provide charts at different temperatures or irradiance for
comparison. Further simulations for the different irradiance levels and temperature were still
obtained to confirm the correct behavior of the model verified by the matlab plot of Figure
2.14. It can be seen the module is accurate and falls within the error range accepted by the
manufacturers in their datasheets. The advantage of this PV model apart from its accuracy is
that is generic to any PV cell and it works not only for modules but also for arrays and panels
of solar cells.
Figure 2.14. Power-voltage characteristics of
SW245MONO at STC.


19
CHAPTER 3
MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING
The power output of the PV module changes with the amount of solar irradiance and
with the variation of temperature. In Figure 2.9 and Figure 2.10 we could observe the non
linear response characteristic of any PV cell. There exists a single maxima point of the
power that corresponds to a specific voltage and current. Since we know the efficiency of a
solar cell is around 15% to 17%,[10] is it desirable to operate the module at the peak power
point so that the maximum power can be delivered to the load under varying temperature and
irradiance levels.
The maximum power point tracker (MPPT) is necessary to draw the maximum
power from the PV module. Generally a DC/DC converter is placed between the PV and the
load, and by varying the duty cycle the point of operation of the module is modified[11].
There are many algorithms used to find the maximum power point. Ideally the power
tracking is done automatically to adjust to the varying weather conditions. Fig shows how
the maximum power point varies due to irradiance. Many papers have been written
comparing the efficiency, effectiveness, easiness of the many MPPT algorithms [10], [12],
[13]. There are static methods where a specific voltage is chosen for the system to operate in
and the solar array is forced to match the voltage referenced. There are clear disadvantages
to this method since it doesnt take into consideration the varying conditions and the fact the
voltage maximum power point is dynamic and changes with the variations in irradiance and
temperature. Since the research aims to emulate a system likely to be found in real
application under different scenarios only the most common MPPT methods were chosen to
be simulated.
3.1 PERTURB AND OBSERVE
Perturbation and Observation method also known as Hill Climbing method [11] is
one of the most popular algorithms. As the name implies the method will perturb the system
by either increasing or decreasing the arrays operating voltage point and comparing the
result to the one obtained in the previous perturbation cycle. If the perturbation leads to an


20
increase or decrease in array power, the subsequent perturbation is made in the same or
opposite direction. In this manner, the peak power tracker continuously seeks the peak power
condition. With this algorithm the voltage V is constantly perturbed with every step
calculation meaning V will oscillate around the ideal Vmpp in the manner showcased in
Figure 3.1. In order to keep the power variation small the perturbation size is also kept small,
this introduces an obvious drawback the time required to reach the peak power point is large.
If the variation is large, then the oscillation around the Vmpp will be larger, causing power
loss. The value of the optimal step size is unique to each system. For simulation purposes the
variation in duty cycle is set at 0.01%, but it is editable by the user. The starting value of the
duty cycle is set at 50%.

Figure 3.1. Perturb and observe tracking
method or hill climbing.
Another drawback of the system happens during sudden increase of irradiance. The
algorithm reacts as if the increase in power is due to the perturbation, therefore the system
will continue the perturbation in the same direction sometimes causing the system to operate
far away from the maximum power point [14]. The algorithm for this method is summarized
in Figure 3.2.
3.2 INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE
The Incremental conductance method eliminates the drawbacks of the Perturb
and Observe method. It uses the advantage that the derivate of the power with respect to the
voltage at the maximum power point is zero. Furthermore the derivative at the left of the
MPP is greater than zero and less than zero to the right of the MPP (see Figure 3.3). The


21

Figure 3.2. Perturb and observe algorithm.
following set of equations describe the incremental conductance algorithm
P V I =

(3.1)
Deriving Equation (3.1) with respect to V:
( ) dP d V I
dV dV

=

dP dV dI
I V
dV dV dV
= +

dP dI
I V
dV dV
= +

(3.2)


22


Figure 3.3. Incremental conductance behavior.
Since it is known that:
0
dP
dV
=

(3.3)
At the MPP, combining Equation (3.2) and Equation (3.3) and substituting
I
G
V
= , with G
being the conductance the following relationship is established:
dI I
dV V
dI
G
dV
=
=

(3.4)
If the incremental changes dV and dI are approximated by comparing the most recent
measured and approximated to
( ) ( ) ( 1)
( )
dV k V k V k
dV k V






23
and
( ) ( ) ( 1)
( )
dI k I k I k
dI k I



Finally the algorithm can be summed up in the following set of equations
0,
dP
G G
dV
> >

(3.5)
0
dP
G G
dV
= =

(3.6)
0
dP
G G
dV
< <

(3.7)
The incremental conductance can determine that the MPPT has reached the MPP and
stop perturbing the operating point. If this condition is not met, the direction in which the
MPPT operating point must be perturbed can be calculated using the relationships describes
in Equation (3.5) and Equation (3.7). The Figure 3.4 shows the algorithm of incremental
conductance.
This algorithm has advantages over perturb and observe. One of them is that it is able
to determine when the MPPT has reached the actual MPP and stop searching, whereas
perturb and observe oscillates around the actual value of the MPP. Also, incremental
conductance can track rapidly increasing and decreasing irradiance conditions with higher
accuracy than perturb and observe. One disadvantage of this algorithm is the increased
complexity when compared to perturb and observe. During various studies [14] and [15] after
conducting several experiments they concluded that the condition in Equation (3.4) does not
occur very often. A simple solution was added in [12] and implemented by adding a small



24
Figure 3.4. Incremental conductance algorithm.
margin of error (tolerance) to Equation (3.4) so it is modified to:
dI I
dV V
+

(3.8)
3.3 DC/DC CONVERTER
There are several types of DC/DC converters:
1. Buck Converter: also known as the step down converter. Its typical application is to
convert the input voltage into a lower output voltage.
2. Boost Converter: also known as a step up converter. The typical application is
increasing the output voltage.
3. Cuk Converter: Its main characteristic its the non linear conversion of the input
voltage and has an output voltage magnitude that is either greater than or less than the
input voltage magnitude.
The main converter used in PV systems is the boost converter [16]. In Figure 3.5. the
topology of the boost converter can be observed.


25

Figure 3.5. DC-DC converter.
The mathematical model of the boost converter can be found applying Kirchoffs
law to the circuit. Assuming an ideal switch and a duty with on-time
s
DT and an off-time
of ( ) 1
s
D T where Ts is the switching period corresponding to: 1/
s
f . During the first time
interval of the switching period when the switch is on on-time, the closed switch connects
the input through the inductor to ground and a high current starts to flow, after the switch is
opened the nature of the inductor objects to the discontinuity of the current flow and it leads
to a high voltage rise which is applied to across the load. The equivalent circuit can be seen
in Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.6. DC-DC converter on time equivalent circuit.
We obtain the following set of equations for the on-time:
( )
( )
( ) ( )
1 1
i
c l
dv t
i t C i t i t
dt
= =

(3.9)


26
( )
( )
( )
2 2
o
o
dv t
ic t C i t
dt
= =

(3.10)
( )
( )
( )
l
l i
di t
v t L v t
dt
= =

(3.11)
For the off time with an equivalent circuit as shown in Figure 3.7 we obtain the
following set of equations:
( )
( )
( ) ( )
1 1
i
l
dv t
ic t C i t i t
dt
= =

(3.12)

( )
( ) ( )
2 2
o
C l o
dv t
i C i t i t
dt
= =

(3.13)
( )
( )
( ) ( )
l
l i o
di t
v t L v t v t
dt
= =

(3.14)

Figure 3.7. DC-DC converter off time equivalent circuit.
Every DC-DC converter has a small ripple in its component and can be expressed generically
as:
( ) ( )
ripple
x t X x t = +



27
where
X
represents the DC component of ( ) x t , which is equivalent to the average value of
( ) x t and ( )
ripple
x t is the signals ripple. On practical mathematical approximations the
ripples effects are neglected since the DC value is larger [12]. This approximation is called
small-ripple approximation or linear-ripple approximation and the signal is approximated to
the DC component.
( ) x t X x =

Taking advantage of the approximation the Equations (3.9) to (3.14) can be rewritten to:
1 C l
i I I =

2 C o
i I =

l i
v V =

while the ones regarding the switchs off time can be rewritten to:
1 C l
i I I =

2 C l o
i I I =

l i o
v V V =

To find the averaged values for
1 C
i ,
2 C
i and
l
v over an entire switching period
s
T ,
using the definition of an average value:
( ) ( )
1 s
t T
t
s
x t x d
T

+
=


( )
| |
( )
| |
( )
0, ,
1 s s
s s s
s
t DT t T
DT DT T
t t DT
s
x t x d x d
T

+ +
+
(
= = +
(




Application of the principle of inductor volt-second balance and capacitor charge
balance yields to the averaged model of a boost converter:
( ) ( ) ( )
1
0
C l l
i t D I I D I I = + =



28
( ) ( ) ( )
2
0
C o l o
i t D I D I I = + =

( ) ( ) 0
l i i o
v t DV D V V = + =

Once the converter reaches steady state and substituting
1 D D =

l
I I =

o l
I D I =

i o
V D V =

Assuming an ideal boost converter the relationship between
o
V and
i
V is established to
1 1
1
o
i
V
V D D
= =


Every DC-DC system has a ripple in the DC output value. A linear ripple
approximation
o
v is made for the output voltage also for the inductor current
l
i and for the
input voltage
i
v . Based on Equation (3.9) and Equation (3.14):
1 1
1 1
C l
i I I dvc
dt C C

=

2 2
2 2
C o
i I dvC
dt C C

=

l l i
di v V
dt L L
=

If we approximate
1 2
, ,
C C l
dv dv di
dt dt dt
to their linear counter parts for the first time
interval
s
DT the peak to peak ripple is then defined as
1
2
l
ipp i s
I I
v v DT
C

= =



29
2
2
o
opp o s
I
v v DT
C

= =

2
i
lpp l s
V
i i DT
L
= =

No system is ideal, and SimPowerSystem comes in handy when simulating the
components, since it takes into consideration their parasitic resistances and other
imperfections. If the losses of the system are taken into consideration the efficiency

of the
converter can be calculated
o o
i o l l
V V
V D V R I
=
+

(3.15)
2
1
1
l
R
D G
=
+

(3.16)
This shows that the efficiency and the conversion ratio not only become dependent of
parasitic effects of the circuit but also on the actual load of the converter.
3.4 SIMULINK MODEL
In Sections 3.1 and 3.2 the two algorithms to be implemented were described. Both
systems were done in Simulink. The current and voltage coming out of the PV module
implemented in Section 2.2 are measured and converted in Simulink signals and then passed
to two different MPPT algorithms. These control the duty cycle of a DC-DC booster that has
a load and a battery at the output for testing and model validation purposes.
3.4.1 Perturb and Observe MPPT
Figure 3.8 shows the Simulink model of the algorithm described in Figure 3.2. The
current and the voltage are measured trough a SimPowerSystem element and converted to
Simulink signals referred as V and I. These are used as inputs at the MPPT. The algorithm
requires theprevious value of the signals so a delay is introduced to both V and I signals and


30
Figure 3.8. Simulink model of perturb and
observe MPPT input.
initialized to zero. The real power is calculated by multiplying the I signal and the V signal
obtaining the P signal. Simulink switches are used to route the signals in the direction needed
by comparing two elements and using the Boolean output as a threshold value. The adjust
input signal is used to feedback the last value obtained of the duty cycle. The linear
approximation of the slope of the Voltage-Power characteristics of the PV module is
obtained by subtracting the current value of P to its delayed which was obtained previously
by multiplying the delayed values of V and I . The signal obtained is Pdelta. Figure 3.9
shows the Simulink model of the diagram. Its value is compared to zero determining if the
power went up or down during the last perturbation. If the power differential is positive, the
signal routing takes the value obtained comparing the measurements of the two last samples
of the voltage namely the signal Vdelta. If Vdelta is positive the Adjust signal will decrease
by a value of 0.01 corresponding in an increase in duty ratio of 1%. If the differential is
negative then the Adjust signal will increase by the same value. If the power differential is
negative (signal Pdelta is smaller than zero) the signal routing goes to the lower half of the
Simulink model presented in Figure 3.10. If Vdelta is positive then the perturbation will
increase in size by 1%, if it is negative then it will decrease by the same percentage. Finally
the power differential, Pdelta, is compared to zero. If there is no variation on the power that
means the correct duty cycle has been reached as presented in Figure 3.11 and Figure 3.12.
This situation is hypothetical since there is always a ripple due to the DC-DC voltage
conversion but it is still included in the design for accuracy. The algorithm allows the duty


31

Figure 3.9. Perturb and observe comparision.


Figure 3.10. Perturb and observe comparison 2.
cycle to be controlled by the exit signal Adjust. This signal has a saturation component
between 1 and 0, corresponding to a variation of the duty cycle to 0% and 100%.
3.4.2 Incremental Conductance
Figures 3.13 to 3.18 show the Simulink model of the algorithm implemented in
Figure 3.4. The current and voltage of the PV model are measured and fed as input signals to
the algorithm. The differential of each signal are obtained by delaying their corresponding
input signals (V and I ) and subtracting it to the signal value that was sampled at the input
obtaining Vdelta and Idelta signals. The memory block was initialized to zero for the initial
computation. The fist switching block compares the value of Vdelta to zero, and splits the
algorithm in an upper and lower half. The upper half corresponds to the case when the value


32

Figure 3.11. Perturb and observe Vdelta comparison.

Figure 3.12. Perturb and observe Pdelta
comparison.
of Vdelta is equal to zero. The next comparison is regarding the current values. If the
variation of Idelta is zero then the Adjust signal passes without any modification meaning
the MPPT point has been reached. If the variation is any value but zero the signal gets
directed to a signal comparison of Idelta. If Idelta is positive, then the Adjust signal is
incremented by 0.01, if the value is negative then the signal is decreased by the same
amount. This calculation is a linear approximation to the slope of the Current-Voltage
characteristic near the MPPT point. The lower half corresponds to the case when there exists
a variation in the voltage signal, meaning Vdelta is any value but zero the value of Equation
(3.4) is calculated. When this condition is satisfied the MPPT has been reached and the
system stops oscillating.


33

Figure 3.13. Incremental conductance input Simulink
block.

Figure 3.14. Incremetal conductance Vdelta
comparison block.

Figure 3.15. Incremental conductance Idelta
comparison block.


34

Figure 3.16. Incremental conductance
comparison.

Figure 3.17. Incremental conductance equation
(3.4) signal comparison.

Figure 3.18. Incremental conductance output.
In the case that the value of
I I
V V

is not zero (or a tolerance) we proceed to find

the sign of the signal by comparing it to zero. If the result is positive, according to Figure 3.3


35
it means the operation point is at the left of the MPPT in which case increasing the duty ratio
is necessary. This is done by adding a value of 0.01 to the input signal Adjust. The opposite
is done if the value of
I I
V V

is negative.
Once the MPPT point is reached the Adjust signal is not perturbed until a change in
the Voltage or Current is detected.
The output signal is a value between 0 and 1 controlled by a saturation block,
corresponding to a variation in the duty cycle between 0 and 100%.
3.4.3 DC-DC Converter
To design the DC-DC converter SimPowerSystem interface was implemented since it
allows the use of power elements. Figure 3.19 shows the schematic of the system. The two
SimPowerSystem input pots V+ and V- correspond to the terminals to connect to the PV
Module or generically speaking the voltage that will be passed through the booster. A
capacitor C1 was placed at the terminal, an inductor L1 with initial current of zero between
the nodes of the C1 capacitor and a MOSFET to act as a switch. At the exit of the circuit
there is a capacitor C2 in series with a small resistance Rp that was introduced due to
SimPowerSystem limitations for simulation purposes. Two SimPowerSystem terminals Vo+
and Vo- where placed as connectors for the exit voltage and current obtained. A diode was
placed between the nodes of the MOSFET and the capacitor C2 to avoid reverse currents.
Finally two measurement components to pass the signals to Simulink objects where placed at
the end of the system. The gate of the MOSFET is controlled by a subsystem presented in
Figure 3.20. One of the inputs of the system is the duty cycle obtained from the MPPT
algorithms. The switching frequency can be set as a constant or as another input, and the
amplitude is set to one. The subsystem uses the Simulink clock to track the time between
pulses and adjusts the value it outputs depending on the percentage assigned to the duty
cycle.
3.5 MODEL VALIDATION
To test the system comprised of the PV model, MPPT tracker and DC-DC booster
several simulations were run. The output of the system was connected to a DC source
simulating a battery since many PV systems are used to charge batteries. There are many


36
Figure 3.19. DC-DC booster Simulink model.
Figure 3.20. Pulse generator Simulink model.
PV Modules in the market but few offer a datasheet with charts or values of different
irradiance levels. We searched for a PV datasheet with the most information regarding MPPT
at different irradiance levels. Since in the model validation of the PV Module the KC200GT
produced the least margin of error, it will also be used to test the MPPT and DC-DC booster
performance. Initially the DC-DC booster needed to be tested to make sure the ripple was
smaller than the DC output confirming the equations presented in Section 3.3. The output of
the DC-DC booster was connected to a Voltage Source of 120V in series with a Resistance of
10ohms.
The voltage input was the PV module operating at 26.3V. The gain obtained was 5x
with a total output of 132.7V. The ripple varied between the values of 132.75V and 132.65V
for a total range of 0.1V. The voltage ripple is then smaller than the DC output (0.075%) so it
is negligible. There are two models to test: the Perturb and Observe algorithm and the


37
Incremental Conductance algorithm. The initial test was under STC, since the value of the
maximum power point is known and easy to compare. The KC200GT under STC has a value
of 26.3V, 7.61A and a 200W (10%). When the system is simulated for a static duty cycle
(see results in Figure 3.21 with no MPPT) the average output power is 120, Figure 3.22
presents the absolute value of the power lost by not using MPPT varying between 100W and
70W, corresponding to a loss between 35 and 50%.

Figure 3.21. DC-DC booster voltage ripple.

Figure 3.22. PV Power output without MPPT.



38
In a system as inefficient as a PV module this power loss is simply not acceptable.
Simulating the system with a Perturb and Observe MPPT a Voltage of 26.04 V and a current
value of 7.65 was obtained (see Figure 3.23) corresponding to a power output of 199.2649.
This represents an error of 0.97% in the voltage parameter, 0.5% in the current parameter
and a total of 0.36% in the output power. This error, smaller than 1%, is well within the
accepted range of the PV module. The following figure presents the tracking of the MPP by
the Perturb and Observe algorithm.

Figure 3.23. PV module V -I -P characteristics for
perturb and observe MPPT.
There exists an oscillation area since the P&O algorithm only converges in theory
and not in practice. In the simulation this area had a range of 2.76V between the values of
24.5V and 27.28V. The current value oscillated between 7.953A to 7.254A producing a
range of 0.69A presented in Figure 3.24. This oscillation is due to the duty cycle constantly
changing to reach the MPP, which in turn produces a ripple in both output and input voltage.
The MPPT cant difference between this ripple and the weather variations so it
adjusts accordingly producing an oscillation area larger than expected. The duty cycle varies


39

Figure 3.24. Perturb and observe MPPT
oscillation area.
between 20% and 40% shown in Figure 3.25. For simulation purposes the initial duty cycle
was placed at 0% and a step size of 0.1%. The mean value of the signal obtained is 26.49%
(0.2649). The output voltage of the PV module in Figure 3.26 shows the response time of the
MPPT to reach the oscillating point corresponding to 0.502ms. The ripple of the PV module
is around 1.5V. Same as the voltage of the PV module the current also has a ripple of 0.25A
shown in Figure 3.27.
Figure 3.25. Perturb and observe duty cycle.


40
Figure 3.26. PV module voltage ripple.
Figure 3.27. PV module current ripple.
The response time of the system is the same as the voltage with 0.5ms. Since it is
known the ideal power value at the MPP is 200W by subtracting the Power signal obtained to
the ideal value we obtain the absolute error of the Power.
Initially when the MPP is trying to track the systems operating point the value is a
high spike. Once the operating point is found the system starts oscillating producing an error
between 5.2 and 0 W (see Figure 3.28), with a mean value of 0.735W. This corresponded to
a maximum error of 2.6% which is within the manufacturers standards.


41
Figure 3.28. Absolute error of perturb and observe MPPT.
As was mentioned before every MPPT is coupled with a DC-DC converter. Since
there is a ripple in the input voltage, and a ripple in the output voltage as well as in the output
current it makes sense there will be an effect on the converters efficiency. The equation:
out out
in in
V I
V I
=

was obtained and graphed with a mean value of 0.845 (84.5%) efficiency shown in Figure
3.29.

Figure 3.29. DC-DC booster output error with perturb
and observe MPPT.
Running a simulation for the incremental conductance algorithm a voltage of
23.3196V and a current value of 7.52 A was obtained corresponding to a mean output power


42
of 197.9226 W. This represents an error of 1.37% in the power parameter, 1.18% in the
current parameter and 0.03% in the voltage parameter. When analyzed a bit more the error of
the power parameter is actually smaller since the reaction time of the system is being take
into consideration to extract these value. Once the system reaches the MPP value that the
algorithm produces this error reduces to 0.1%. Figure 3.30 presents the tracking process of
the algorithm.
Figure 3.30. PV Module V -I -P characteristics for
incremental conductance MPPT.
Same as with the P&O algorithm, the Incremental Conductance has an oscillating
area before it reaches the stability point. The difference is that while the P&O oscillates
around an area Incremental Conductance oscillates until it finds a stability point. This
oscillation is between 23.43V to 28.34V giving a range 4.91V presented in Figure 3.31,
while the current varies between 8.048A to 6.645A producing a range of 1.403A. The
oscillation is due to the duty cycle varying to reach the maximum power point. Unlike the
P&O this system does reach a point where it is stable, but the oscillation of the duty cycle is
larger until stability is found. As it can be seen in Figure 3.32 the duty cycle varies between
0.1 (10%) and 0.45 (45%) reaching a stable value at 0.27 (27%). While the oscillation period
is in effect the value of the power has a greater error than the P&O model, but once stability
is obtained the error becomes smaller.


43

Figure 3.31. Incremental conductance MPPT
oscillation area.
Figure 3.32. Incremental conductance duty cycle.
The PV Modules voltage and current oscillates due to the duty cycle and some
caused by the switching frequency of the DC-DC booster. The two oscillation periods
correspond to the charging period of the capacitor of the DC-DC booster that causes system
instability, but the Incremental Conductance algorithm responds accordingly and acts to
adjust the output power. The initial voltage ripple is 0.5V but it reaches a steady state in


44
5ms (ceases duty cycle oscillations) as shown in Figure 3.33. The initial response time
required to oscillate around the MPP is 0.7ms. Once the steady state is obtained the
oscillation is less than 0.01V.
Figure 3.33. Voltage ripple for incremental
conductance MPPT.
The same situation happens with the current from the PV module. The current has
less of a ripple with the same response time.
The datasheet of the KC200GT specifies the maximum power output at STC is
200W. Subtracting this to the power obtained at the DC-DC output we obtain the error value.
During the oscillation period the error is ranging from 0W to 15W with an average value of
8W that corresponds to 4%. Once the oscillation period is over the Power variation decreases
to 0W to 1W with an average value of 0.7W corresponding to 0.35%, smaller than the value
obtained in P&O. The DC-DC booster efficiency also is affected by the oscillation of the
MPPT, but it stabilizes and in general has better response overtime than the P&O. During the
oscillation period the efficiency is varying between 0.83 and 0.87 stabilizing at 0.85 (85%).
The results are presented in Figure 3.34, Figure 3.35 and Figure 3.36 respectively.


45
Figure 3.34. Current ripple for incremental
conductance MPPT.

Figure 3.35. Error of MPPT incremental conductance.
The error difference can be summarized in the Figure 3.37 that presents the error of
each MPPT algorithms compared to no MPPT. Two more tests were run: the first one with
abrupt changes (steps) with a cool down period so the MPPT has time to stabilize at a value
and comparing it to a method with no MPPT. The second one with the standard values
recorded during a day and calculating the total output power value compared to a system
with no MPPT.
The Figure 3.38 shows the difference between the three simulations clearly
identifying the Incremental Conductance as the optimal. It is of interest to note the difference
in oscillation between the two MPPT methods. The more irradiance the higher is the


46
Figure 3.36. DC-DC booster efficiency.
Figure 3.37. Comparison of MPPT methods by
error value.
oscillations of the methods. At lower irradiances around the values of 200W/m2 both
methods are similar and respond to the charges of the DC-DC booster capacitors and
responds accordingly to adjust, since the MPPT methods dont difference between a
capacitor charges and variation in the irradiance from the PV Module. For the second test a


47
Figure 3.38. MPPT testing under varying conditions.
realistic input signal was used instead of a stair input signal.
The solar irradiation during a normal day varies from 200W/m
2
to 1300W/m
2
. A
cloud passing over the PV module will produce a variation as large as 200W/m
2
. The total
output power difference between P&O and Incremental Conductance is 1.1979MW, over
time this variation is considerable. Even so the mean output power varies only 1W from
177.6W on P&O to 178.2W in Incremental Conductance. Without MPPT the output mean
power is 109.7W, which is a huge loss of possible power that the system can produce. The
results can be appreciated in Figure 3.39.


48
Figure 3.39. Power output of MPPT methods
during a sunny day.


49
CHAPTER 4
INVERTERS
Power Inverter is a device that converts a DC source into an AC source. Inverters are
used in a wide range of applications, from small switched power supplies for a computer to
large electric utility applications to transport bulk power.
Power inverters produce one of three different types of wave output:
1. Square Wave
2. Modified Square Wave or Modified Sine Wave
3. Pure Sine Wave or True Sine Wave
The three different wave signals represent three different qualities of power output.
Square wave inverters result in uneven power delivery that is not efficient for running most
devices. Square wave inverters were the first type of inverters made and are now obsolete.
Modified square wave inverters deliver power that is consistent and efficient enough to run
most devices fine. Some sensitive equipment requires a sine wave, like certain medical
equipments and variable speed rechargeable tools.
4.1 MODIFIED SINE WAVE
Modified sine wave inverters are known as the second generation of power inverter,
and are a great improvement over their predecessors. These popular inverters represent a
compromise between the low harmonics (a measure of the waveform quality) of a true sine
wave inverter and the higher cost and lower efficiency of a true sine wave inverter.
Modified sine wave inverters approximate a sine wave and have low enough
harmonics that they do not cause problems with household equipment. They run TVs,
stereos, induction motors, universal motors, computers, microwaves among other appliances.
The main disadvantage of a modified sine wave inverter is that the peak voltage varies with
the battery voltage. Inexpensive electronic devices with no regulation of their power supply
may behave erratically when the battery voltage fluctuates.


50
4.2 TRUE SINE WAVE
True sine wave inverters represent the current technology, since the power delivered
to the utility have the harmonics virtually eliminated and all appliances operate properly. The
drawback is that they are more complicated and expensive to implement.
All inverters rely on switches that will turn on and off at specific times depending on
the configuration of the system and the desired output. These switches are transistors and
they vary depending on the needs of the designer. In most common cases they are either
IGBT for higher switching frequencies or power MOSFETS for slower frequencies and high
power demands.
4.3 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION
Pulse width modulation (PWM) is a method where the switched voltage pulses
are produced for different output frequencies and voltages. A typical modulator produces
an average voltage value equal to the reference voltage within each PWM period.
PWM provides a way to decrease the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) of load
current. The THD requirement can be met when the output of a PWM inverter is filtered
since the unfiltered output of a PWM based inverted will have a relatively high distortion.
There are many PWM schemes, the most popular ones being sinusoidal PWM
(SPWM), hysteresis PWM (HPWM) , space vector modulation (SVM) and optimal PWM
that is based on the optimization of certain performance criteria. Among these only
sinusoidal PWM and hysteresis PWM can be implemented using analog techniques, the
remaining PWM require the use of a microprocessor.
4.4 SINUSOIDAL PWM
Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM) can be used for three phase inverters
or single phase inverters. In both cases the control of the switches requires a reference
signal known as the modulating or control signal which is a sinusoidal wave and a carrier
signal usually a triangular wave or a saw tooth that is the switching frequency.
Given the H-Bridge configuration shown in Figure 4.1 for a single phase inverter
there can be two types of switching that control the transistors T1 to T4.


51
.
Figure 4.1. Single phase inverter.
If the control method is unipolar switching the output is switched from either high
to zero or low to zero having the following sequence:
1. T1 is on when Vcontrol > VT riangular
2. T2 is on when Vcontrol > VT riangular
3. T3 is on when Vcontrol < VT riangular
4. T4 is on when Vcontrol < VT riangular
In the bipolar method the switches T1 and T4 are turned on and off at the same time
and T2 and T3 are paired.
For the three-phase inverter case three-phase reference voltage signals of variable
amplitude and frequency are compared in three different comparators with a common
triangular carrier wave of fixed amplitude and frequency. Each comparator output forms the
switching-state of the corresponding inverter leg.
Since there are six switches and only three control signals the transistors are opposite
paired. This means the switching control for two transistors in the same leg are opposite.
In Figure 4.2 we see the typical topology of a three-phase inverter. Switch T1 has the
opposite reference signal of T2, T3 has the opposite of T4 and finally T5 has the opposite of
T6.
Since the PWM carrier or switching frequency is much higher (the recommended min
value is at least 10x higher) than the frequency of the reference voltage leading to the
approximation that the reference voltage is nearly constant during a PWM period
PWM
T .
The mean value of the output voltage resulting from a reference voltage being constant



52

Figure 4.2. Three phase inverter.
within one PWM-period depends on the on-off states of the affiliates switch:
( )
1 1 1 2
1 1
2
PWM
dc
T T
PWM PWM T
U
u u dt t t
T T
= =

(4.1)
with
1
t and
2
t are the switch on and off time and
dc
U the bus voltage. From this the
switching of and on time can be derived:
*
1
1
1
2 / 2
PWM T
dc
T u
t
U
| |
= +
|
\ .

(4.2)
with the off time being the compliment
2 1 PWM
t T t =
. Combining Equation (4.1) and (4.2)
* *
1 1
1
1
1 1
2 2 / 2 2 / 2
dc PWM PWM T T
T
PWM dc dc
U T T u u
u
T U U
| | | | | |
= +
| | |
|
\ . \ . \ .

*
1 1 T T
u u =

There are two types of carrier signals: triangular and saw-tooth. Saw tooth shaped
always sets the output to a high level at the beginning of each PWM period resulting in
asymmetrical pulses that have an edge-aligned PWM with a high level pulse at the
beginning. On the contrary, pulses of a symmetrical PWM signal, like triangular, and are


53
always aligned with respect to the center of each PWM period causes less current and voltage
harmonics. Figure 4.3 is the resulting PWM.
Figure 4.3. Sinusoidal pulse with modulation.
Sinusoidal PWM is easy to implement in hardware by using analog integrators and
comparators for the generation of the carrier and switching sates, however due to the
variation of the reference values during a PWM period the relation between reference and
carrier signals are not fixed. This introduces sub harmonics of the reference voltage causing
undesired low-frequency fluctuations. If the PWM is software implemented the pulse widths
are proportional to the reference at uniformed spaces sampling times producing less low-
frequency harmonics.
4.5 GRID CONNECTED INVERTERS
Grid connected Inverters need to be aware of the current standards and regulations
which apply in the target country. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory published in
2003 the American National Standard ANSI/IEEE 1547. Additionally the International
Electrotechnical Commission also published the standard IEC 61727.
4.5.1 Voltage
PV systems connected to the grid normally do not have any real influence on the grid
voltage. Their voltage operation range are therefore more of a protection function that is used
for detecting abnormal utility, rather than regulators. Such a typical voltage detection may be
as defined in [17] and shown in Table 4.1. Trip time refers to the time between the abnormal
condition and the inverter ceasing to energize the utility line. The inverter will actually


54
Table 4.1. Standards of Grid Connected Inverters
Issue IEC 61727 IEEE 1547 EN 61000-3-2 (Europe)
Nominal Power 10kW 30kW 16A x 230 V = 3.7 k W
Harmonic
Currents
(3-9) 4.0%
(11-15) 2.0%
(17-21) 1.5%
(23-33) 0.6%

Even harmonics shall
be less than 25% of
the odd harmonics
listed
(2-10) 4.0%
(11-16) 2.0%
(17-22) 1.5%
(23-34) 0.6%
(>35) 0.3%

Even harmonics shall
be less than 25% of the
odd harmonics listed
(3) 2.30 A
(5) 1.14 A
(7) 0.77 A
(9) 0.40 A
(11) 0.33 A
(13) 0.21 A
(15-39) 2.25mA

Even harmonics:
Approximately 30% of
the odd harmonics
Maximum
current THD
5.0% 5.0% -
Power factor at
50% of rated
power
0.90 - -
DC current
injection
Less than 1.0% of
rated output current
Less than 0.5% of
rated output current
<0.22 A corresponds to
a 50 W half-wave
rectifier
Voltage range
for normal
operation
85% - 110 %

88% - 110%

-
Frequency
range for
normal
operation
50 1 Hz 59.3 Hz to 60.5 Hz -
remain connected to the utility to allow the inverter to sense utility electrical conditions for
the reconnection process.
4.5.2 DC-injection
No more than 0.5% of the rated current output shall under any circumstances be
injected into the power grid. The reason for this limitation is because large and durable DC
currents will eventually saturate the transforms iron core. In a saturated iron core the
magnetic flux will start to find other paths outside the iron core. This means that the leakage
flux will be increasingly large, and thus lowering the transformer ratio [17].


55
4.5.3 Flicker
The IEEE standard states that the PV system must not create objectable flicker,
without specifying the percentage for this acceptance. The IEC specifies limits for the flicker
for short term duration should be less than 1 minute and for long term flickers the duration
has to be less than 0.65minutes[17].
4.5.4 Frequency
An inverter shall work synchronously with the connected power grid. If the grid itself
goes outside some specified frequencies, then the PV system must stop providing power to
the grid. For the North American 60 Hz grid, the IEEE gives the following limits for a
system smaller than 30 kW: f<59.3 Hz or f>60.5 Hz with a clearing time 0.16 s. Whereas the
IEC specifies that when the frequency varies with 1 Hz of the base value, then the system
shall cease to output power to the grid within 0.2 s[17].
4.5.5 Current Distortion
Current distortion is highly unwanted in any grid, since it may affect connected
devices in a negative manner. An overview of the maximum allowed harmonic current
distortion may be found in Table 4.1. The THD is limited to 5 % of the rated fundamental
harmonic. Even harmonics are limited to 25% of the odd harmonic limit [17].
4.5.6 Power Factor
In normal conditions the power factor shall be larger than 0.85 (leading or lagging)
when the load is larger than 10 % of the rated power. However, the utility may allow lower
power factors in order to provide reactive power compensation. For small systems the
possible contribution of reactive power to the grid is very small that allows it to be excluded
and only consider the given power factor provided by the grid [17].
4.5.7 Reconnection
The IEEE states that if the inverter for some reason ceases to deliver power due to
abnormal grid activity, then it may be reconnected to the grid only after the power voltage
and frequency has been within normal voltage and frequency ranges for at least 5 minutes.


56
The Table 4.1 summarizes the current standards dealing with interconnections of PV systems
to a grid.
4.6 GRID SYNCHRONIZATION
One of the most important aspects of DG systems is the grid synchronization. The PV
module and inverter must be capable to adapting to the grid phase and frequency. NREL
proposes two methods: current control and voltage control.
When the inverter is connected to the utility, the grid controls the amplitude and
frequency of the inverter output voltage and the inverter itself operates in the current
control mode [9]. In other scenarios like islanded mode or stand alone the inverter is
controlled by voltage.
4.6.1 Voltage Control
For the voltage control mode the transistors are controlled by using bipolar width
modulation switching such that the inverters voltage follows the grid voltage. In a
conventional PWM generation system a sinusoidal control signal is compared to a triangular
carrier signal to generate the switching pattern. A different control method was implemented
to emulate hardware DSP PWM generation. The inverter voltage is compared to a reference
signal and the error is fed back through a proportional controller. The output of the controller
is scaled and added to a feed forward loop with the final output of the new PWM duty given
by equation (4.3).
( )
0.5
2 2
v ref inv ref
DC DC
K V V V
D
V V

| |
= + +
|
\ .

(4.3)
Same as in a classic scenario the duty cycle is compared to a triangular wave to
generate a switching signal to control the transistors gate [9].
4.6.2 Current Control
When the inverter is in utility connected mode it is under current control. As with the voltage
control loop a new duty cycle is generated comparing the reference current from the grid to
the inverter current. NREL in [9] proposes the following duty cycle


57
( )
*
0.5
2 2
i ref inv
inv
DC C
K I I f L
V
D
V V

| |
= + +
|
\ .

(4.4)
This duty signal is compared to a triangular wave and used to control the switched of
the transistors in a bipolar fashion.
4.7 SIMULINK MODEL
The inverters modeled in this research use the tool SimPowerSystems from Matlab
since it allows the simulation of complex power elements like transistors without having to
idealize them, thus taking into consideration their nonlinearity and losses.
4.7.1 Single Phase Inverter
The system proposed in Figure 4.1 is modeled in Matlab using MOSFET transistors
with four Simulink entrances labeled from 1 to 4 that control the gate of the transistors as
shown in Figure 4.4. These Simulink signals come from the PWM scheme which can be
current controlled, voltage controlled or stand alone. The two left hand ports (3 and 4) are
SimPowerSystem ports that accept a DC voltage input. The two right hand ports named 1 and
2 are the output SimPowerSystem ports in which the inverted voltage is obtained.

Figure 4.4. Simulink single phase inverter.


58
4.7.2 Three Phase Inverter
A three phase inverters topology was presented in Figure 4.2. Making use of
SimPowerSystems using MOSFET transistors for the switching element the following model
was obtained (see Figure 4.5) where the Simulink signals 1 to 6 manage the transistors gates
and come from the PWM scheme, entrances 4 and 5 correspond to the DC voltage input and
are SimPowerSystem entrance ports. The A, B, C ports (or 1, 2, 3) are the output voltage
takes for each phase.
Figure 4.5. Simulink three phase inverter.
4.8 VOLTAGE CONTROL PWM
The Simulink voltage control loop block diagram is shown in Figure 4.6. An external
voltage signal corresponding to the grid voltage is first fed into a discrete single-phase
phase-locked-loop (PLL). The gain at the input of PLL is used to normalize the actual
voltage signal. The output of the PLL block generates a phase angle. The phase angle
together with the AC voltage setpoint is used to generate the reference voltage.


59
Figure 4.6. Simulink voltage control loop.
Once this reference voltage is obtained the duty cycle represented in (4.3) is
calculated with basic mathematical Simulink operators. This duty is compared to a 10k Hz
triangular wave producing a pulse waveform that is fed into the transistors gate. For single
phase only two outputs will be produced opposite to each other as shown in Figure 4.7
Figure 4.7. Simulink voltage PWM duty generator.
In the case of the Three Phase Inverter for each phase the reference voltage is
calculated and each is treated on an individual basis producing six exit signals of which two
are always polar opposites.


60
4.9 CURRENT CONTROL PWM
The Simulink block diagram of the current control loop is shown in Figure 4.8.
Similar to the voltage control loop, a discrete PLL is used to find the phase angle of the
utility voltage. The user defined RMS current amplitude and phase angle are then used to
generate the reference current waveform.
Once the reference current is calculated the duty cycle described in equation (4.4) is
implanted with aid of mathematical Simulink blocks shown in Figure 4.9. This duty cycle is
then compared to a triangular wave of 10KHz producing the pulses that control the gate of
the transistor. Similar to the voltage there will be two opposite pulses for single phase or six
pulse waveforms for the three phase inverter with each phase going through the process of
calculating the reference current.
Figure 4.8. Simulink current control loop.
Figure 4.9. Simulink current PWM duty generator.



61
4.10 MODEL VALIDATION
To test the model the PV module designed in Section 2.2 along with the MPPT
method Perturb and Observe were used as inputs of the system. Since two inverters were
designed: a single phase and a three phase and two control methods were implemented:
current control and voltage control, a total of four simulations were needed to validate the
model.
The IEEE 1547 standard limits the THD, the output voltage and the output frequency
as summarized in Table 4.1.
4.10.1 Single Phase Voltage Controlled
The simulation time was set for 0.2 second. The grid was simulated according to the
US standards determined by IEEE with a 120 V AC RMS and a resistive load in series with
an inductive load. In a voltage controlled scheme the inverter must be able to maintain the
frequency and voltage of the grid without actually being connected to it. This helps in
islanded situations when the grid comes back online and the system needs to be synchronized
before reconnecting.
4.10.1.1 VOLTAGE OUTPUT
In Figure 4.10 the output signal of the inverter can be observed. By inspection of the
graph there is no noticeable flicker this complying with IEEE standards.
Figure 4.10. Single phase voltage controlled output.



62
Zooming in the area of interest between 0 and 0.1 seconds the response time can be
obtained. The voltage control takes 0.037 seconds to synchronize the output of the PV to the
voltage provided by the grid. In this same Figure 4.11 the frequency can be calculated
yielding the value 59.91 HZ. This value is within the limits of 59.3 Hz to 60.5 Hz specified
by the IEEE. The peak value is 167.9 V.
The RMS voltage value has to fall between 88% and 110% of 120 thus ranging from
105.6 V to 132 V rms. The single phase inverter has a RMS voltage of 123.7V, corresponding
to a 103.8% which is in compliance with the IEEE 1547 standard verifiable in Figure 4.12.
Figure 4.11. Zoomed in voltage controlled output.
4.10.1.2 CURRENT OUTPUT
The current output wave has no objectable flicker with a RMS value of 6.183 A same
as the voltage the frequency is 59.3 Hz. The response time to synchronize to the grid is 0.05s
with a peak value of 8.3A.
The main factor specified in the IEEE 1547 standard regarding current output is the
THD which has a maximum of 5% of the rated fundamental harmonic. In this research the
fundamental harmonic is 60Hz. The total harmonic distortion is 0.02%.


63
4.10.2 Single Phase Current Controlled
The simulation time was set for 0.2 second. The grid was simulated according to the
US standards determined by IEEE with a 120 V AC RMS and a resistive load in series with
an inductive load. In a current controlled scheme the inverter must be able to maintain the
Figure 4.12. Single phase RMS value.
frequency and voltage of the grid while being connected to, and not introduce any
disturbances, flicker or DC currents to the system. Figure 4.13 and Figure 4.14 show the
preliminary results.
4.10.2.1 VOLTAGE OUTPUT
Since the system is directly connected to the grid the response time is instant, more so
because it was previously synchronized with voltage control. The output of the inverter is
presented in Figure 4.15. There is no noticeable flicker in the inverter output and the
frequency is exactly 60Hz, complying with all IEEE standards. Zooming in the area of
interest the RMS value is 120 and there is no DC current input. In Figure 4.16 both of this
factors can be appreciated.


64
4.10.2.2 CURRENT OUTPUT
The current output has a DC component of 0.02869 A corresponding to 0.4% of the
RMS value of 6.0555 A. The frequency value is 59.8802 HZ falling between the 59.3 Hz to
60.5 Hz accepted. The peak value of the output is 8.031A. These values can be seen in Figure
4.17.
Figure 4.13. Single phase voltage controlled current output.


65

Figure 4.14. Single phase voltage controlled harmonics.
Figure 4.15. Single phase current controlled voltage
output.


66

Figure 4.16. Zoomed in current controlled output.
The THD is below the specified value at 0.02% after the system has settled down,
with a spike at 0.02 seconds corresponding to the 1.82% MPP tracking algorithm responding
to the new system introduced and adapting the output as shown in Figure 4.18.
4.10.3 Three Phase Voltage Controlled
Similar to the single phase inverter the three phase inverter can be connected or not to the
grid to function properly and it is used to synchronize before switching to current control.
Figure 4.17. Single phase current controlled RSM
output.


67

Figure 4.18. Single phase current controlled
harmonics.
The simulation was set for 0.2 seconds with a SimPowerSystem Three Phase Source
representing the grid with a Three Phase Load. Figure 4.19 shows the output voltage of all
the phases.
The three phases Va, Vb, and Vc have a phase of 120 and have no flicker. Their DC
components are respectively 1.69V, 0.23V and 1.92V. The response time varies is the same
for each phase. Figure 4.20 presents the response time of Phase A at 0.525 with an RMS
value of 116.9 corresponding to 97.41% of the rated value and a peak value of 187.8V.
The THD for all the phases are similar and below the specified value in the IEEE
standard 1547 at 0.04% shown in Figure 4.21.


68
Figure 4.19. Three phase inverter output.

Figure 4.20. Three phase inverter RMS output.


69

Figure 4.21. Three phase inverter THD.


70
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
As renewable energy systems become more widespread rooftop PV systems are
more likely to be found in a grid connected scheme.
Modeling an accurate PV cell has always presented a challenge, more so when the PV
module is used to simulate PV arrays and PV Panels. This research addresses both issues by
simulating a comprehensive model in Simulink that takes into consideration the most
important elements in a PV cell, array or panel. The model is entirely based on the datasheet
parameters given by the manufacturer. Experimental results showed that the model is
accurate up to a 98.8% in the voltage area and 97.5% in the current parameter.
When the PV array is used as a source of power supply it is necessary to use the
MPPT to get the maximum power point from the PV array. For this thesis the MPPT is
implemented by using a Boost-Converter, which is designed to operate under continuous
conduction. The Incremental Conduction Algorithm is used as the control algorithm for
the MPPT. Experimental results have shown that the MMPT has the conversion efficiency
of 84.5% and tracking accuracy of 97.3% while the Perturb and Observe model has an
efficiency of 87% and accuracy of 98.75%.
Three inverters were designed with two of them being single phase and one three
phase inverter. The control methods of the system were based on NREL algorithm
involving both voltage and current control.
The three inverters comply with the current standard of the industry IEEE 1547.
When the two systems (PV and Inverter) were coupled the MPPT tracker kept working
extracting the maximum power of the system while the inverter keep a stable output with a
maximum variation to up to 10%.
The response time of the voltage controlled algorithms for both single phase and
three phase was below the 0.5s limit and the frequency variation in the range of 59.3 Hz to
60.5 Hz. The THD was lower than the specified maximum of 5% rating at a maximum of
1%. No noticeable flicker appeared in either inverter.


71
In summation, the contribution of this thesis includes the following:
1. Comprehensive Simulink PV module design.
2. MMPT methods coupled with a DC/DC booster in Simulink
3. Simulink Single Phase Inverter PWM technique from NREL implemented
4. Expanded the single phase inverter PWM from NREL to Three Phase Inverter
systems
5. System integration with PV module and MPP tracker.
6. Model validation after through testing.
Future work includes the expansion of the current control PWM method to three
phase inverter. Since the efficiency achieved by the DC booster is below 90% it is still not
considered a high efficiency product, so component changes in the booster until the right
setting is found.
Also a PV simulation system as a standalone to charge a battery system or to work as
a standalone inverter for isolated areas is currently under testing in Simulink platform.
Regarding the inverter an islanding detection mechanism should be implemented to
be coupled with the system.


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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Trondheim, Norway, 2010.



74
APPENDIX
MATLAB CODE FOR THE INITIALIZATION
OF THE PV CELL

75


Matlab code for the initialization of the PV Cell

A.1 CALCULATION OF RP AND RS

Tn = Tn + 273.15; %Nominal operating temperature [K]
k = 1.3806503e-23; %Boltzmann [J/K]
q = 1.60217646e-19; %Electron charge [C]
a=1.3;
Vt = k * Tn / q;


%% Variables initializations

Rs_increment=0.0001;
tolerance=0.0001;
error = 10; %random value to assure error>tolerance
max_iteration= 10000;
iteration =0;

%% Initial guess of RP and Rs

RP=(Vmp/(Isc-Imp))-((Voc-Vmp)/Imp);
Rs=0;
%% Calculation of Io

Io= Isc/(exp(Voc/(Ns*a*Vt))-1); %dont forget to define a

%% Begin iteration to adjust the model
%since this is the nominal case Iscn=Isc and Ipvn=Ipv
%we will take not consideration G and T in the model
%when calculating for the circuit this equations will
%change
while (error>tolerance)&& RP>0 && iteration<max_iteration

iteration=iteration+1;
Ipv=(RP+Rs)*Isc/RP;
RP_old=RP;
Rs=Rs+Rs_increment;
RP = Vmp*(Vmp+Imp*Rs)/(Vmp*Ipv-Vmp*Io*exp((Vmp+Imp*Rs)/(Vt*Ns*a))+Vmp*Io-Pmax);
V=0:Voc/50:Voc;
I = zeros(1,size(V,2));

%Now we solve the equation for I, since it's a non linear equation
%we will use newton rhapson

for j= 1 : size(V,2)
g = Ipv-Io*(exp((V(j)+I(j)*Rs)/(Vt*Ns*a))-1)-(V(j)+I(j)*Rs)/RP-I(j);

while abs(g)> tolerance
g = Ipv-Io*(exp((V(j)+I(j)*Rs)/Vt/Ns/a)-1)-(V(j)+I(j)*Rs)/RP-I(j);
dg= -Io*Rs/(Vt*Ns*a)*exp((V(j)+I(j)*Rs)/(Vt*Ns*a))-Rs/RP-1;
Inew=I(j)-g/dg;
I(j)=Inew;
end
end

P = (Ipv-Io*(exp((V+I.*Rs)/Vt/Ns/a)-1)-(V+I.*Rs)/RP).*V;
Pm=max(P);
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error=abs(Pm-Pmax);
end

if RP< 0
RP=RP_old;
end

Rs=Rs*Nser/Npar;
RP=RP*Nser/Npar;