Logic Proof Notes

i
AN INTRODUCTION TO
LOGIC
and
PROOF TECHNIQUES
Michael A. Henning
School of Mathematical Sciences
University of KwaZulu-Natal
ii
Contents
1 Logic 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Negation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Conjunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Disjunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 The Implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.7 The converse, inverse and contrapositive of an implication . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.8 Compound Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.9 The Biconditional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.10 Tautologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.11 Contradictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.12 Logical Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.13 Negation of a Conditional Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.14 The Contrapositive of a Conditional Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.15 Quantied Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.16 The Universal Quantier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.17 The Existential Quantier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.18 Negation of Quantied Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.19 Universal Conditional Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.20 Review of Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
iii
iv CONTENTS
2 Proof Techniques 29
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 Trivial Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3 Vacuous Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4 Direct Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.5 Proof by Contrapositive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.6 Proof by Cases and the Quotient-Remainder Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.7 Proof by Contradiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.8 Existence Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.9 Disproof by Counterexample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.10 Proof by Mathematical Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Chapter 1
Logic
1.1 Introduction
In this chapter we introduce the student to the principles of logic that are essential for
problem solving in mathematics. The ability to reason using the principles of logic is key
to seek the truth which is our goal in mathematics.
Before we explore and study logic, let us start by spending some time motivating this
topic. Mathematicians reduce problems to the manipulation of symbols using a set of rules.
As an illustration, let us consider the following problem:
Example 1.1 Joe is 7 years older than Themba. Five years from now Joe will be twice
Thembas age. How old are Joe and Themba?
Solution. To answer the above question, we reduce the problem using symbolic formula-
tion. We let Thembas age be x. Then Joes age is x+7. We are given that ve years from
now Joe will be twice Thembas age. In symbols, (x+7) +5 = 2(x+5). Solving for x yields
x = 2. Therefore, Themba is 2 years old and Joe is 9.
Our objective is to reduce the process of mathematical reasoning, i.e., logic, to the
manipulation of symbols using a set of rules. The central concept of deductive logic
is the concept of argument form. An argument is a sequence of statements aimed at
demonstrating the truth of an assertion (a claim). Consider the following two arguments.
Argument 1. If x is a real number such that x < 2 or x > 2, then x
2
> 4. Therefore,
if x
2
4, then x 2 and x 2.
Argument 2. If it is raining or I am sick, then I stay at home. Therefore, if I do not
stay at home, then it is not raining and I am not sick.
Although the content of the above two arguments is very dierent, their logical form is
the same. To illustrate the logical form of these arguments, we use letters of the alphabet
(such as p, q and r) to represent the component sentences and the expression not p to
refer to the sentence It is not the case that p. Then the common logical form of both the
1
2 CHAPTER 1. LOGIC
arguments above is as follows:
If p or q, then r. Therefore, if not r, then not p and not q.
We start by identify and giving names to the building blocks which make up an argument.
In Arguments 1 and 2, we identied the building blocks as follows:
Argument 1. If x is a real number such that x < 2
. .
p
or x > 2
. .
q
, then x
2
> 4
. .
r
.
Therefore, if x
2
4
. .
not r
, then x 2
. .
not p
and x 2
. .
not q
.
Argument 2. If it is raining (p) or I am sick (q), then I stay at home (r).
Therefore, if I do not stay at home (not r), then it is not raining (not p)
and I am not sick (not q).
1.2 Statements
In mathematics, we are constantly dealing with statements. By a statement we shall mean
the following:
Denition. A statement (or proposition) is a declarative
sentence that is true or false, but not both.
Example 1.2 In this example, we consider the following sentences.
(i) One plus one equals two.
(ii) One plus one equals three.
(iii) He is a university student.
Sentences (i) and (ii) are both statements (only the rst of which is true). On the other
hand, sentence (iii) is neither true nor false (the truth or falsity depends on the reference
for the pronoun he. For some values of he the sentence is true; for others it is false), and so
it is not a statement.
Every statement has a truth value, namely true (denoted by T) or false (denoted by
F). We often use p, q and r to denote statements, or perhaps p
1
, p
2
, . . . , p
n
if there are
several statements involved. For example, we might write
p : One plus one equals two.
q : One plus one equals three.
1.3. NEGATION 3
We have seen that p and q are statements, where p has truth value T and q has truth
value F.
The possible truth values of a statement are often given in a table, called a truth table.
The truth values for two statements p and q are given in Figure 1.1. Since there are two
possible truth values for each of p and q, there are four possible combinations of truth values
for p and q. It is customary to consider the four combinations of truth values in the order
of TT, TF, FT, FF from top to bottom as shown in Figure 1.1.
p q
T T
T F
F T
F F
Figure 1.1 A truth table for two statements p and q.
Exercises
1.1 Which of the following are statements? For those that are, indicate their truth value.
(a)

2 is an integer.
(b) Pietermaritzburg is the capital of KwaZulu-Natal.
(c) Why should we study mathematics?
(d) 3x + 1 is an odd integer.
(e) Please be quiet.
(f) Camels can y.
We now introduce four symbols, called logical connectives, used to build more compli-
cated logical expressions out of simpler ones. We begin with the negation of a statement.
1.3 Negation
Denition. Given a statement p, the negation of p is the
statement not p or It is not the case that p and is
denoted by p.
4 CHAPTER 1. LOGIC
The negation of statement p has the opposite truth value from p: if p is true, then p is
false; if p is false, then p is true. The truth table for p (in terms of the possible truth
values of p) is given in Figure 1.2.
p p
T F
F T
Figure 1.2 A truth table for negation.
For example, consider the statement
p : The integer 2 is even.
Then the negation of p is the statement
p : It is not the case that the integer 2 is even.
It would be better to write
p : The integer 2 is not even.
Or better yet to write
p : The integer 2 is odd.
Exercises
1.2 State the negation of each of the following statements.
(a) 5 is an even integer.
(b) 0 is not an odd integer.
(c) It is cold.
1.3 Write the statement It is not the case that 0 is an odd integer in symbolic form and
determine the truth value of the statement.
1.4 Conjunction
Next we consider the conjunction of two statements.
1.4. CONJUNCTION 5
Denition. Given two statements p and q, the conjunction
of p and q is the statement p and q and is denoted by p q.
The conjunction p q is true only if both p and q are true; otherwise, p q is false. For
example, consider the statements
p : The integer 2 is even.
q : 4 is less than 3.
The conjunction of p and q, namely,
p q : The integer 2 is even and 4 is less than 3.
is a false statement since q is false (even though p is true). The truth table for the conjunc-
tion of two statements is shown in Figure 1.3. (As before, we write the truth values for p
and q in the order of TT, TF, FT, FF from top to bottom in the table.) This truth table
describes precisely when p q is true (or false).
p q p q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Figure 1.3 A truth table for conjunction.
Exercises
1.4 Write each of the following statements in symbolic form and determine their truth
value.
(a) 1 < 2 and 2/3 is a rational number.
(b) 3 is a prime number and 3 > 4.
1.5 Let p and q be the statements
p : 1 is an odd integer.
q : 1 < 2.
Write each of the following sentences in terms of p, q and logical connectives, and nd
the truth values of the given statements.
(a) 1 is an odd integer and 1 < 2.
(b) 1 is not an odd integer and 1 < 2.
(c) 1 is not an odd integer and 1 2.
6 CHAPTER 1. LOGIC
1.5 Disjunction
Denition. Given two statements p and q, the disjunction
of p and q is the statement p or q and is denoted by pq.
The disjunction p q is true if at least one of p and q is true; otherwise, p q is false.
Therefore, p q is true if exactly one of p and q is true or if both p and q are true. Thus
for the statements p and q described earlier, the disjunction of p and q, namely,
p q : The integer 2 is even or 4 is less than 3.
is a true statement since at least one of p and q is true (in this case, p is true). The truth
table for the disjunction of two statements is shown in Figure 1.3.
p q p q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Figure 1.4 A truth table for disjunction.
Exercises
value.
(a) 1 < 2 or 2/3 is a rational number.
(b) 3 is a prime number or 3 > 4.
q : 1 < 2.
(a) 1 is an odd integer or 1 < 2.
(b) 1 is not an odd integer or 1 < 2.
(c) 1 is not an odd integer or 1 2.
1.6. THE IMPLICATION 7
1.6 The Implication
Of special importance to us will be a connective called the implication (also called the
conditional).
Denition. Given two statements p and q, the implication of p and
q is the statement If p, then q and is denoted by p q. We call p
the hypothesis of the implication and q the conclusion.
The implication p q can be expressed in words in several ways in addition to the
wording If p, then q, namely:
If p, then q.
p implies q.
q if p.
p only if q.
p is sucient for q.
q is necessary for p.
The truth table for the implication p q is shown in Figure 1.5.
p q p q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Figure 1.5 A truth table for implication.
Notice that the only situation for which the implication p q is false is when p is true
and q is false. The truth table for p q is actually a denition, but let us convince ourselves
with an example that the truth values in this truth table are indeed justied.
Example 1.3 Suppose your boss makes you the following promise:
If you meet the month-end deadline, then you will get a bonus.
Under what circumstances are you justied in saying that your boss spoke falsely?
Solution. The answer is: You do meet the month-end deadline and you do not get a
bonus. Your bosss promise only says you will get a bonus if a certain condition (you meet
8 CHAPTER 1. LOGIC
the month-end deadline) is met; it says nothing about what will happen if the condition is
not met. So if the condition is not met, your boss did not lie (your boss promised nothing
if you did not meet the month-end deadline); so your boss told the truth in this case. Are
you convinced? Good! If not, let us then check the truth and falseness of the implication
based on the various combinations of the truth values of the statements
p : You meet the month-end deadline.
q : You get a bonus.
The given statement can be written as p q. Suppose rst that p is true and q is true.
That is, you meet the month-end deadline and you do get a bonus. Did your boss tell the
truth? Yes, indeed. So if p and q are both true, then so too is p q, which agrees with the
rst row of the truth table of Figure 1.5.
Second, suppose that p is true and q is false. That is, you meet the month-end deadline
and you did not get a bonus. Then your boss did not do as he/she promised. What your
boss said was false, which agrees with the second row of the truth table of Figure 1.5.
Third, suppose that p is false and q is true. That is, you did not meet the month-end
deadline and you did get a bonus. Your boss (who was most generous) did not lie (your
boss promised nothing if you did not meet the month-end deadline); so he/she told the
truth. This agrees with the third row of the truth table of Figure 1.5.
Finally, suppose that p and q are both false. That is, you did not meet the month-end
deadline and you did not get a bonus. Your boss did not lie here either. Your boss only
promised you a bonus if you met the month-end deadline. So your boss told the truth. This
agrees with the fourth row of the truth table of Figure 1.5.
In summary, the implication p q is false only when p is true and q is false. A conditional
(or implication) statement that is true by virtue of the fact that its hypothesis is false is
said to be vacuously true or true by default. Thus the statement: If you meet the
month-end deadline, then you will get a bonus is vacuously true if you do not meet the
month-end deadline!
Exercises
value.
(a) If 0 is an odd integer, then South Africa will win the World Cup Soccer in 2010.
(b) If Mtunzini is the capital of KwaZulu-Natal, then 2 is an even integer.
q : 1 < 2.
1.7. THE CONVERSE, INVERSE AND CONTRAPOSITIVE OF AN IMPLICATION 9
(a) If 1 is not an odd integer, then 1 2.
(b) If 1 is an odd integer, then 1 2.
1.10 Suppose that p and q are statements so that p q is false. Find the truth values of
each of the following:
(a) p q (b) p q (c) q p.
1.7 The converse, inverse and contrapositive of an implica-
tion
Denition. Let p and q be two statements.
The statement q p is called the converse of the implication p q.
The statement p q is called the inverse of the implication p q.
The statement q p is called the contrapositive of the implication p q.
Example 1.4 Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the statement in Exam-
ple 1.3.
Solution. Recall that the given statement can be written as p q where p and q are the
statements
p : You meet the month-end deadline.
q : You get a bonus.
The converse of this implication is q p, which is
q p : If you get a bonus, then you have met the month-end deadline.
The inverse of this implication is p q, which is
p q : If you do not meet the month-end deadline, then you will not get a bonus.
The contrapositive of this implication is q p, which is
q p : If you do not get a bonus, then you will not have met the month-end deadline.
Example 1.5 Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the following statements:
If today is Saturday, then I will go for a 10km run.
Solution. Let p and q be the following statements:
p : Today is Saturday.
q : I will go for a 10km run.
10 CHAPTER 1. LOGIC
Then the given statement can be written as p q. The converse of this implication is
q p, which is
q p : If I go for a 10km run, then today is Saturday.
The inverse of this implication is p q, which is
p q : If today is not Saturday, then I will not go for a 10km run.
The contrapositive of this implication is q p, which is
q p : If I do not go for a 10km run, then today is not Saturday.
Exercises
1.11 Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of each of the following statements.
(a) If 0 is an odd integer, then South Africa will win the World Cup Soccer in 2010.
(b) If Mtunzini is the capital of KwaZulu-Natal, then 2 is an even integer.
1.8 Compound Statements
The symbols , , and are sometimes referred to as logical connectives. From given
statements, we can use these logical connectives to form more intricate statements, called
compound statements.
Denition. A compound statement (or statement form or for-
mula) is a statement made up of one or more statements with statement
variables (such as p, q, and r) and at least one logical connective (such
as , , and ). The truth table for a given statement form displays
the truth values that correspond to the dierent combinations of truth
values for the variables.
For example, for given statements p and q, the conjunction pq is a compound statement.
For a slightly more complex example, consider the compound statement given by
(( p) (q r)) ( (s (q ( t)))).
In compound statements, we avoid the use of many parentheses when no confusion
arises. We often omit the outer pair of parentheses in a compound statement. For example,
we write p rather than ( p). In expressions using the logical connectives , , and
, we adopt the following order of operation:
1.8. COMPOUND STATEMENTS 11
performed rst,
, performed second,
performed third.
For example,
p q = ( p) q.
As in ordinary algebra, however, the order of operation can be overridden by the use of
parentheses. Thus,
(p q)
represents the negation of the disjunction of p and q. Notice that the symbols and
are coequal in order of operation. Therefore an expression such as p q r is considered
ambiguous. It should be written as either
(p q) r or p (q r).
Example 1.6 Write each of the following sentences symbolically, letting p and q be the
statements:
p : It is hot.
q : It is sunny.
(a) It is not hot and it is sunny.
(b) It is not hot and it is not sunny.
Solution. (a) ( p) q.
(b) ( p) ( q).
Example 1.6 Construct the truth table for the compound statement
(p q) (q p).
Solution. Set up columns labelled p, q, p q, q p, and (p q)(q p). Complete the
p and q columns with all four possible combinations of truth values for p and q (in the order
of TT, TF, FT, FF from top to bottom). Then use the truth tables for (see Figure 1.5)
to ll in the p q and q p columns. Finally, using the truth table for (see Figure 1.3),
ll in the (p q) (q p) column. The resulting truth table is given in Figure 1.6.
p q p q q p (p q) (q p)
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T
Figure 1.6 A truth table for (p q) (q q).
12 CHAPTER 1. LOGIC
Example 1.7 Construct the truth table for the compound statement
( (p q)) (q p).
Solution. Set up columns labelled p, q, p q, (p q), q p and ( (p q)) (q p).
Complete the p and q columns with all four possible combinations of truth values for p and
q. Then use the truth tables for (see Figure 1.4) and (see Figure 1.3) to write the truth
values in the columns of p q and q p. Next, using the truth table for (see Figure 1.2),
ll in the column of (p q). Finally, using the truth table for (see Figure 1.5), ll in
the column for ( (p q)) (q p). The resulting truth table is given in Figure 1.7.
p q p q (p q) q p ( (p q)) (q p)
T T T F T T
T F T F F T
F T T F F T
F F F T F F
Figure 1.7 A truth table for ( (p q)) (q p).
Exercises
1.12 Construct truth tables for the compound statement:
(a) p (q p).
(b) (p q) r.
1.9 The Biconditional
For statements p and q, we are often interested in both the implication p q and its
converse q p.
Denition. Given two statements p and q, the conjunction
(p q) (q p)
of the implication p q and its converse q p is called
the biconditional of p and q and is denoted by p q. The
biconditional p q is often stated as p if and only if q.
or p is equivalent to q.
1.10. TAUTOLOGIES 13
The truth table for the biconditional p q is shown in Figure 1.8.
p q p q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Figure 1.8 A truth table for a biconditional.
Recall that p q represents the compound statement (p q) (q p) whose truth
table we established earlier (see Figure 1.6). As mentioned earlier (in Section 1.6), the
implication q p can be expressed in words as p is necessary for q, while p q can
be expressed as p is sucient for q. Therefore, p q can be expressed in words as p is
necessary for q and p is sucient for q. Another way to say this is
p is necessary and sucient for q.
We remark that the phrase if and only if occurs often in mathematics. Many math-
ematicians abbreviate this phrase by writing i. Although i is informal and not a
word, its use is common and you should be familiar with it.
1.10 Tautologies
Denition. A compound statement S is called a tautology
if the truth value of S is true for any assignment of truth
values to the statement variables occurring in S.
Example 1.8 Show that the compound statement p ( p) is a tautology.
Solution. The truth table (see Figure 1.9) for p( p) shows that this statement is always
true regardless of the truth value of p. Hence, p ( p) is a tautology.
p p p ( p)
T F T
F T T
Figure 1.9 A truth table for p ( p).
14 CHAPTER 1. LOGIC
Example 1.9 Show that the compound statement ( p) (q p) is a tautology.
Solution. The truth table (see Figure 1.10) for ( p) (q p) shows that this statement
is always true regardless of the truth values of p and q. Hence, this statement is a tautology.
p q p q p ( p) (q p)
T T F T T
T F F T T
F T T F T
F F T T T
Exercises
1.13 Show using truth tables that the following statements are tautologies:
(a) (p q) q.
(b) (p q) (p q).
1.11 Contradictions
Denition. A compound statement S is called a contradiction
if the truth value of S is false for any assignment of truth values
to the statement variables occurring in S.
Example 1.10 Show that the compound statement p ( p) is a contradiction.
Solution. The truth table (see Figure 1.11) for p ( p) shows that this statement is
always false regardless of the truth value of p. Hence, this statement is a contradiction.
p p p ( p)
T F F
F T F
1.12. LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE 15
Example 1.11 Show that the compound statement (p q) (q p) is a contradiction.
Solution. The truth table (see Figure 1.12) for (p q) (q p) shows that this
statement is always false regardless of the truth values of p and q. Hence, this statement is
a contradiction.
p q p q p q p (p q) (q p)
T T T F F F
T F F F T F
F T F T T F
F F F T T F
Figure 1.12 A truth table for (p q) (q p).
Exercises
1.14 Show using truth tables that the following statements are contradictions:
(a) (p q) (p q). (b) (p q) (p q).
1.12 Logical Equivalence
Denition. Two statements R and S are logically equiv-
alent if they have the same truth values for all combinations
of truth values of the statement variables occurring in R and
S. We denote the logical equivalence of R and S by R S.
Example 1.12 Show that p q q p .
Solution. The logical equivalence of p q and q p is veried in the truth table shown in
Figure 1.13 since the corresponding columns of these two statements are identical.
p q p q q p
T T T T
T F F F
F T F F
F F F F
Figure 1.13 p q and q p are logically equivalent.
16 CHAPTER 1. LOGIC
Example 1.13 Show that p q ( p) q .
Solution. The logical equivalence of p q and ( p) q is veried in the truth table
shown in Figure 1.14 since the corresponding columns of these two statements are identical.
p q p p q ( p) q
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T
Figure 1.14 p q and ( p) q are logically equivalent.
Example 1.14 Show that p q (p q) (q p).
Solution. The logical equivalence of p q and (p q) (q p) follows directly from
the denition of a biconditional and from Example 1.13.
p q (p q) (q p) (by denition of biconditional)
(p q) (q p) (by Example 1.13).
The logical equivalence of p q and ( p) q, and the logical equivalence of p q
and (p q) (q p), is especially important. Strictly speaking this means that we can
actually dispense with the logical connectives and .
Remark. Any statement form containing or is logi-
cally equivalent to one containing only , , and .
Example 1.15 Show that the statements (pq) and pq are not logically equivalent.
Solution. The statements (p q) and p q have dierent truth values in rows 2 and
3 of in the truth table (shown in Figure 1.15), and are therefore not logically equivalent.
p q p q p q (p q) p q
T T F F T F F
T F F T F T = F
F T T F F T = F
F F T T F T T
Figure 1.15 (p q) and p q are not logically equivalent.
Example 1.16 Show that (p q) (p) (q) .
Solution. The logical equivalence of (p q) and (p) (q) is veried in the truth
table shown in Figure 1.16 since the corresponding columns (columns 4 and 7) of these two
statements are identical.
p q p q (p q) p q (p) (q)
T T T F F F F
T F T F F T F
F T T F T F F
F F F T T T T
Figure 1.16 (p q) (p) (q) are logically equivalent.
Example 1.17 Show that p (q r) (p q) (p r) .
Solution. The logical equivalence of p (q r) and (p q) (p r) is veried in the truth
table shown in Figure 1.17 since the corresponding columns (columns 5 and 8) of these two
statements are identical.
p q r q r p (q r) p q p r (p q) (p r)
T T T T T T T T
T T F F T T T T
T F T F T T T T
T F F F T T T T
F T T T T T T T
F T F F F T F F
F F T F F F T F
F F F F F F F F
Figure 1.17 p q and ( p) q are logically equivalent.
There are many fundamental logical equivalences that we often encounter. We summarize
a number of these in Theorem 1 for future reference.
Theorem 1 Let p, q and r be statements. Then the following logical equivalences hold.
(1) Commutative Laws
(i) p q q p
(ii) p q q p
(2) Associate Laws
(i) (p q) r p (q r)
(ii) (p q) r p (q r)
18 CHAPTER 1. LOGIC
(3) Distributive Laws
(i) p (q r) (p q) (p r)
(ii) p (q r) (p q) (p r)
(4) De Morgans Laws
(i) (p q) (p) (q)
(ii) (p q) (p) (q)
(5) Idempotent Laws
(i) p p p
(ii) p p p
(6) Negation Laws
(i) p (p) T
(ii) p (p) F
(7) Universal Bound Laws
(i) p T T
(ii) p F F
(8) Identity Laws
(i) p F p
(ii) p T p
(9) Double Negation Law
(p) p
Proof. A proof of the Commutative Law 1(i) was given in Example 1.12, while proofs of
the Distributive Law 3(i) and De Morgans Law 4(i) were given in Examples 1.17 and 1.16,
respectively. We leave the proofs of the other Laws as an exercise. 2
We mention that De Morgans Laws can be expressed in words as follows:
De Morgans Laws.
The negation of an and statement is logically equivalent to
the or statement in which each component is negated, while
the negation of an or statement is logically equivalent to the
and statement in which each component is negated.
From Example 1.16 and the Double Negation Law, we have the logical equivalence
Fact 1.1 p q (p q).
Exercises
1.15 Determine which of the pairs of statement forms listed below are logically equivalent.
Justify your answers using truth tables.
(a) p (p q) and p.
(b) p (p q) and p.
(c) (p) (q) and (p q).
1.16 Using Theorem 1, supply reasons for each step in the logical equivalence derived in
(i) and (ii) below.
(i) (p q) (p q) p (q q) (by (a) )
p (q q) (by (b) )
p T (by (c) )
p (by (d) ).
(ii) (p q) (p q) (q p) (q p) (by (e) )
q (p p) (by (f) )
q F (by (g) )
q (by (h) ).
1.17 Without using truth tables, verify the following logical equivalences using Theorem 1.
(a) p (p q) and p.
(b) p (p q) and p.
(c) (p q) (p q) and p.
(d) (p q) and p q.
1.18 Use the logical equivalences given in Example 1.13, Example 1.14, and Fact 1.1, to
rewrite the given compound statements using only the connectives and .
(a) (p q) r.
(b) (p q) (r q).
(c) (p r) (q r).
20 CHAPTER 1. LOGIC
1.13 Negation of a Conditional Statement
Example 1.18 Show that
(p q) p q
Solution. We can prove this using truth tables. However, let us prove this without using
truth tables and rather present a proof using the logical equivalences in Theorem 1. We
have
(p q) (p q) (by Example 1.13)
(p) (q) (by De Morgans Laws)
p q (by the Double Negation Law).
The negation of a conditional statement can be expressed in words as follows:
The negation of if p then q is logically equivalent to p and not q.
1.14 The Contrapositive of a Conditional Statement
Recall that the contrapositive of a conditional statement p q is the statement q p.
In this section, we show that:
A conditional statement is logically equivalent to its contrapositive.
Example 1.19 Show that
p q q p
Solution. We can prove this using truth tables. However, let us prove this without using
truth tables and rather present a proof using the logical equivalences in Theorem 1. We
have
p q p q (by Example 1.13)
q p (by the Commutative Laws)
(q) p (by the Double Negation Law)
q p (by Example 1.13).
1.15. QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS 21
1.15 Quantied Statements
In the previous sections, we dened and discussed basic properties of compound statements.
We were interested in whether a particular statement was true or false. This logic is called
propositional logic or statement logic. However there are many arguments whose
validity cannot be veried using propositional logic. Consider, for example, the sentence
p : x is an even integer.
This sentence is neither true nor false. The truth or falsity depends on the value of the
variable x. For some values of x the sentence is true; for others it is false. Thus this sentence
is not a statement. However, let us denote this sentence by P(x), i.e.,
P(x) : x is an even integer.
Then, P(4) is true, while P(5) is false. To study the properties of such sentences, we need
to extend the framework of propositional logic to what is called rst-order logic.
Denition. A predicate or propositional function is a sentence that
contains a nite number of variables and becomes a statement when spe-
cic values are substituted for the variables. The domain of a predicate
variable is the set of all values that may be substituted in place of the
variables.
In our earlier example, the sentence P(x) : x is an even integer is a predicate (or propo-
sitional function) with domain D the set of integers since for each x D, P(x) is a statement,
i.e., for each x D, P(x) is true or false, but not both.
Example 1.20 The following are examples of propositional functions:
(a) The sentence P(x): x+3 is an odd integer with domain D the set of positive integers.
(b) The sentence P(x): x + 3 is an odd integer with domain D the set of integers.
(c) The sentence P(x, y, z): x
2
+ y
2
= z
2
with domain D the set of positive integers.
Some sets are encountered so often that they are given special names. These are summa-
rized below:
symbol for the set of
N natural number (positive integers)
Z integers
Q rational numbers
R real numbers
22 CHAPTER 1. LOGIC
Thus,
N = {1, 2, 3, . . .},
Z = {. . . , 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, . . .}, and
Q = {
a
b
| a, b Z and b = 0}.
A real number that is not a rational number is called irrational.
1.16 The Universal Quantier
Example 1.21 Let P(x) be a predicate with domain D. Then the sentence
Q(x) : for all x, P(x)
is a statement. To see this, notice that either P(x) is true at each value x D (the notation
x D indicates that x is in the set D, while x / D means that x is not in D) or P(x) is
false for at least one value x D. If P(x) is true at each value x D, then Q(x) is true.
However, if P(x) is false for at least one value x D, then Q(x) is false. Hence, Q(x) is a
statement because it is either true or false (but not both).
Denition. Each of the phrases every, for every, for each,
and for all is referred to as the universal quantier and is
expressed by the symbol . Let P(x) be a predicate with domain
D. A universal statement is a statement of the form
x D, P(x).
It is false if P(x) is false for at least one x D; otherwise, it is
true.
Example 1.22 Let P(x) be the predicate P(x) : x
2
x. Determine whether the following
universal statements are true or false.
(a) x R, P(x);
(b) x Z, P(x).
Solution. (a) Let x =
1
2
R. Then, (
1
2
)
2
=
1
4
<
1
2
, and so P(
1
2
) is false. Therefore,
x R, P(x) is false.
(b) For all integers x, x
2
x is true, and so P(x) is true for all x Z. Hence, x
Z, P(x) is true.
1.17. THE EXISTENTIAL QUANTIFIER 23
Exercises
1.19 Symbolize the following by using quantiers, predicates, and logical connectives.
(a) The square of any real number is nonnegative.
(b) All sh can swim.
(c) No integer has a square equal to 2.
1.20 Let P(x) be the predicate x is an odd integer, Q(x) the predicate x is a prime
integer and R(x) the predicate x
2
is an odd integer. Write the following symbolic
statements in English.
(a) x Z, P(x) R(x).
(b) x Z, P(x) Q(x).
1.17 The Existential Quantier
Denition. Each of the phrases there exists, there is, for some,
and for at least one is referred to as the existential quantier and
is denoted in symbols . Let P(x) be a predicate with domain D. An
existential statement is a statement of the form
x D such that P(x).
It is true if P(x) is true for at least one x D; otherwise, it is false.
Example 1.23 Let P(x) be the predicate P(x) : x
2
< x. Determine whether the following
existential statements are true or false.
(a) x R, P(x);
(b) x Z, P(x).
Solution.
(a) Let x =
1
2
R. Then, (
1
2
)
2
=
1
4
<
1
2
, and so P(
1
2
) is true. Therefore, x R, P(x)
is true.
(b) For all integers x, x
2
x is true, and so there is no integer x such that P(x) is true.
Hence, x Z, P(x) is false.
24 CHAPTER 1. LOGIC
Exercises
1.21 Symbolize the following by using quantiers, predicates, and logical connectives.
(a) Some rational numbers are integers.
(b) Some integers are even.
(c) There is an integer x such that x
2
= 4.
(d) There exists an integer that is odd and prime.
(e) Everybody trusts somebody.
(f) Somebody trusts everybody.
(g) Between every integer and its double there is a prime number.
1.22 Let P(x) be the predicate x is an odd integer and Q(x) the predicate x is a prime
integer. Write the following symbolic statement in English.
x Z, P(x) Q(x).
1.18 Negation of Quantied Statements
Fact 1.2. The negation of a universal statement of the form
x D, P(x)
is logically equivalent to an existential statement of the form
x D such that P(x).
Symbolically,
(x D, P(x)) x D such that P(x).
Consider the universal statement
x D, P(x).
It is false if P(x) is false for at least one x D; otherwise, it is true. Hence it is false if
and only if P(x) is false for at least one x D if and only if P(x) is true for at least one
x D. Thus the negation of this statement is the statement
x D such that P(x).
1.18. NEGATION OF QUANTIFIED STATEMENTS 25
Example 1.24 What is the negation of the statement All mathematicians wear glasses?
Solution. Let us write this statement symbolically. Let D be the set of all mathematicians
and let P(x) be the predicate x wears glasses with domain D. The given statement can
be written as
x D, P(x).
The negation is
x D such that P(x).
In words, the negation is There exists a mathematician who does not wear glasses or
Some mathematicians do not wear glasses.
Fact 1.3. The negation of an existential statement of the form
x D such that P(x)
is logically equivalent to a universal statement of the form
x D, P(x).
Symbolically,
(x D such that P(x)) x D, P(x).
Consider the existential statement
x D such that P(x)
It is true if P(x) is true for at least one x D; otherwise, it is false. Hence it is false if
and only if P(x) is false for all x D if and only if P(x) is true for all x D. Thus the
negation of this statement is the statement
x D, P(x).
Example 1.25 What is the negation of the statement Some politicians are honest?
Solution. Let us write this statement symbolically. Let D be the set of all politicians and
let P(x) be the predicate x is honest with domain D. The given statement can be written
as
x D such that P(x).
The negation is
x D, P(x).
In words, the negation is All politicians are not honest or No politician is honest.
26 CHAPTER 1. LOGIC
Consider next the negation of a universal conditional statement. By Fact 1.2, we have
that
(x D, (P(x) Q(x))) x D such that (P(x) Q(x)).
But the negation of an if p then q statement is logically equivalent to an p and not
q statement (see Example 1.18). Hence,
(P(x) Q(x)) P(x) Q(x).
Therefore we have the following fact:
Fact 1.4. The negation of a universal conditional statement of the form
x D, P(x) Q(x)
is logically equivalent to a universal statement of the form
x D such that (P(x) Q(x)).
Symbolically,
(x D, P(x) Q(x)) x D such that (P(x) Q(x)).
Written less symbolically, this becomes
(x D, if P(x) then Q(x)) x D such that P(x) and Q(x).
1.19 Universal Conditional Statements
Recall from Section 1.7 that a conditional statement has a contrapositive, a converse, and
an inverse. These denitions can be extended to universal conditional statements.
1.19. UNIVERSAL CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS 27
Denition. Consider a universal conditional statement
of the form
x D, P(x) Q(x)
1. Its contrapositive is the statement
x D, Q(x) P(x).
2. Its converse is the statement
x D, Q(x) P(x).
3. Its inverse is the statement
x D, P(x) Q(x).
Example 1.26 Write the contrapositive, converse, and inverse of the statement:
If a real number is greater than 3, then its square is greater than 9.
Solution. Symbolically, the statement can be written as:
x R, if x > 3 then x
2
> 9.
(Here P(x) is the statement x > 3 and Q(x) the statement x
2
> 9.)
1. The contrapositive is: x R, if x
2
9 then x 3, or, equivalently,
x R, if x
2
9 then x 3.
2. The converse is:
x R, if x
2
> 9 then x > 3.
(Note that the converse is false; take, for example, x = 4. Then, (4)
2
> 9 is true but
4 > 3 is false. Hence the statement if (4)
2
> 9 then 4 > 3 is false. Hence the
universal statement x R, if x
2
> 9 then x > 3 is false.)
3. The inverse is: x R, if x 3 then x
2
9, or, equivalently,
x R, if x 3 then x
2
9.
28 CHAPTER 1. LOGIC
Exercises
1.23 Write the contrapositive, converse, and inverse of the following statements:
(a) If the square of an integer is odd, then the integer is odd.
(b) If an integer is divisible by 4, then it is even.
(c) x R, if x(x + 1) > 0 then x > 0 or x < 1.
1.20 Review of Symbols
We close this chapter with a review of the symbols that we have introduced.
negation (not)
disjunction (or)
conjunction (and)
implication
biconditional
universal quantier (for every)
existential quantier (there exists)
Chapter 2
Proof Techniques
2.1 Introduction
In this chapter, we discuss the topic of mathematical proofs. Our goal is to introduce the
student to several important proof techniques for verifying mathematical statements. For
a given true mathematical statement, how exactly can we verify that it is true? Finding
answers to mathematical questions is all very well, but we must be certain that we are right
and we must be able to able to convince others, not just ourselves, of this!
A true mathematical statement is called a result. Interesting or signicant mathematical
results are called theorems (or propositions). For example, the mathematical statement
1+1 = 2 is true, but we would not call this a theorem, but rather a result. A corollary is
a mathematical result that can be deduced from or is a consequence of some earlier result. A
lemma is a mathematical result that is useful in proving another (more interesting) result.
A lemma can be thought of as a helping result to prove some other result.
Before presenting several proof techniques, we will need some elementary denitions in
number theory.
Denition. An integer n is even if and only if n = 2k for some integer k.
An integer n is odd if and only if n = 2k + 1 for some integer k.
Example 2.1
(a) The integer 8 is even since 8 = 2 4 (i.e., 8 = 2k where k = 4 Z).
(b) The integer 5 is odd since 5 = 2(3) + 1 (i.e., 5 = 2k + 1 where k = 3 Z).
We shall show in Section 2.6 (using the so-called quotient-remainder theorem) that every
integer is either even or odd.
29
30 CHAPTER 2. PROOF TECHNIQUES
Denition. An integer n is prime if and only if n > 1 and for all positive
integers r and s, if n = rs, then r = 1 or s = 1. An integer n is composite
if and only if n = r s for some positive integers r and s with r = 1 and
s = 1.
Example 2.2
(a) The rst six prime numbers are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13.
(b) The rst six composite numbers are 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12.
(c) Every integer greater than 1 is either prime or composite since the two denitions are
negations of each other (see Section 1.18!).
Denition. Two integers m and n are said to be of the same parity
if m and n are both even or are both odd, while m and n are said to be
of the opposite parity if one of m and n is even and the other is odd.
Two integers are consecutive if one is one more than the other. So if one
integer is n, the next consecutive integer is n + 1.
Example 2.3
(a) The integers 2 and 18 are of the same parity (since they are both even).
(b) The integers 7 and 12 are of the opposite parity (one is even, the other odd).
Denition. Let n and d be integers with d = 0. Then n is said to be
divisible by d if n = d k for some integer k. Alternatively, we say that
n is a multiple of d, or
d is a factor of n, or
d is a divisor of n, or
d divides n.
The notation d | n is read d divides n.
Example 2.4
(a) Is 16 divisible by 8? (b) Does 3 divide 21? (c) Is 21 a multiple of 7?
(d) Does 5 | 30? (e) Is 7 a factor of 42? (f) Is 8 a factor of 8?
Solution
(a) Yes: 16 = 8 2. (b) Yes: 21 = 3 7. (c) Yes: 21 = 7 3.
(d) Yes: 30 = 5 6. (e) Yes: 42 = 7 6. (f) Yes: 8 = 8 (1).
2.2. TRIVIAL PROOFS 31
Exercises
2.1 Let m and n be (xed) integers. Justify your answers to each of the following questions:
(a) Is 4mn + 10n even?
(b) Is 8mn + 5 odd?
(c) If m and n are positive, is m
2
+ 2mn + n
2
composite?
(d) If m n + 2 3, is m
2
n
2
composite?
2.2 (a) Is 45 divisible by 9?
(b) Is 5k(3k + 6) divisible by 3?
(c) Is 24 a multiple of 8?
(d) Does 11 | 54?
(e) Is 6 a factor of 42?
(f) If n = 4k + 3, does 8 divide n
2
1?
2.2 Trivial Proofs
Trivial proof. Let P(x) and Q(x) be statements with domain D.
If Q(x) is true for all every x D, then the universal statement
x D, P(x) Q(x)
is true (regardless of the truth value of P(x)).
Recall from the Truth Table 1.5, that if Q(x) is a true statement, then so too is the
implication P(x) Q(x). Furthermore, the universal statement x D, P(x) Q(x)
is a true statement provided P(x) Q(x) is true for every x D. In particular if
Q(x) is true for all every x D, then immediately we can deduce that the statement
x D, P(x) Q(x) is true. Such a proof we call a trivial proof.
Result 2.1 For x R, if x > 5, then x
2
+ 2 > 0.
Proof. Consider the statements P(x) : x > 5 and Q(x) : x
2
+ 2 > 0. Since x
2
0 for
every x R, it follows that x
2
+ 2 0 + 2 > 0 for every x R. Hence, Q(x) is true for
every x R. Thus, P(x) Q(x) is true for every x R, i.e., for x R, if x > 5, then
x
2
+ 2 > 0. 2
The symbol 2 that occurs at the end of the proof of Result 2.1 indicates that the proof
is complete. Note that the proof of Result 2.1 does not depend on x > 5. We could have,
in fact, replaced x > 5 by any hypothesis and the result would still be true. It would have
been better to replace the statement of Result 2.1 by If x R, then x
2
+ 2 > 0.
We remark that the proof of Result 2.1 could be simplied if we do not introduce the
statements P(x) and Q(x):
Proof of Result 2.1. Since x
2
0 for every x R, it follows that x
2
+ 2 0 + 2 > 0 for
every x R. Hence, x
2
+ 2 > 0. 2
Result 2.2 If n is an odd integer, then 6n
3
+ 4n + 3 is an odd integer.
Proof. Since 6n
3
+4n+3 = 2(3n
3
+2n+1) +1 where 3n
3
+2n+1 Z (i.e., 6n
3
+4n+3 =
2k + 1 where k = 3n
3
+ 2n + 1 Z), the integer 6n
3
+ 4n + 3 is odd for every integer n. 2
Note that in Result 2.2 the fact that 6n
3
+ 4n + 3 is odd does not depend on n being
odd. It would have been better to replace the statement of Result 2.2 by
If n is an integer, then 6n
3
+ 4n + 3 is odd.
Exercises
2.3 For x R, prove that if x < 1, then x
2
+
1
4
> 0.
2.4 Prove that if n is an odd integer, then 4n
3
+ 6n
2
+ 12 is an even integer.
2.3 Vacuous Proofs
Vacuous proof. Let P(x) and Q(x) be statements with domain
D. If P(x) is false for all every x D, then the universal statement
x D, P(x) Q(x)
is true (regardless of the truth value of Q(x)).
Recall from the Truth Table 1.5, that if P(x) is a false statement, then the implication
P(x) Q(x) is true. Hence if P(x) is false for all every x D, then we can deduce that
the statement x D, P(x) Q(x) is true. Such a proof we call a vacuous proof.
2.4. DIRECT PROOFS 33
Result 2.3 For x R, if x
2
2x + 1 < 0, then x > 4.
Proof. Consider the statements P(x) : x
2
2x+1 < 0 and Q(x) : x > 4. Since x
2
2x+1 =
(x 1)
2
0 for every x R, we have that x
2
2x + 1 < 0 is false for every x R. Hence,
P(x) is false for every x R. Thus, P(x) Q(x) is true for every x R, i.e., for x R, if
x
2
2x + 1 < 0, then x > 4. 2
Note that in the proof of Result 2.3, the truth value of the statement x > 4 plays no role
whatsoever. We could have, in fact, replaced x > 4 by any conclusion and the result would
still be true.
Exercises
2.5 Let x R. Prove that if 2x
2
4x + 4 < 0, then x
5
7.
2.4 Direct Proofs
One of the most important proof techniques is the method of direct proof.
Direct proof. Let P(x) and Q(x) be statements with domain D. If
P(x) Q(x) is true for all x D for which P(x) is true, then the universal
statement
x D, P(x) Q(x)
is true. Such a proof we call a direct proof. Thus to give a direct proof
of the above universal statement, we
assume P(x) is true for some particular but arbitrary element x D,
and then
show that Q(x) is true for this element x.
Recall that the universal statement x D, P(x) Q(x) is true provided P(x) Q(x)
is true for every x D. If P(x) is a false statement, then the implication P(x) Q(x) is
true. Hence to show that the universal statement x D, P(x) Q(x) is true for every
x D, we need only show that P(x) Q(x) is true for all x D for which P(x) is true.
Such a proof we call a direct proof.
Result 2.4 If n is an even integer, then 3n + 5 is an odd integer.
Proof. If we let P(n): n is even and Q(n): 3n + 5 is odd, then we need to show that
the universal statement
n Z, P(n) Q(n)
is true. To do this, we assume P(n) is true for some particular but arbitrary element n Z
and show that Q(n) is true for this element n. Since P(n) is true, n = 2k for some integer
k. Hence, 3n + 5 = 3(2k) + 5 = 6k + 5 = 2(3k + 2) + 1 = 2m + 1, where m = 3k + 2.
Since k Z, we must have m Z (since the product of two integers is an integer, and the
sum and dierence of two integers is an integer). Hence, 3n + 5 = 2m + 1 for some integer
m, whence Q(n) is true. Thus by the method of direct proof, we have proven our desired
result. 2
statements P(x) and Q(x).
Proof of Result 2.4. Assume that n is an even integer. Then, n = 2k for some integer k.
Hence,
3n + 5 = 3(2k) + 5 = 6k + 5 = 2(3k + 2) + 1 = 2m + 1,
where m = 3k + 2. Since k Z, we must have m Z. Hence, 3n + 5 = 2m + 1 for some
integer m, whence 3n + 5 is an odd integer. 2
Result 2.5 If n is an odd integer, then 5n + 3 is an even integer.
Proof. Assume that n is an odd integer. Then, n = 2k + 1 for some integer k. Hence,
5n + 3 = 5(2k + 1) + 3 = 10k + 8 = 2(5k + 4) = 2m,
where m = 5k +4. Since k Z, we must have m Z. Hence, 5n+3 = 2m for some integer
m, whence 5n + 3 is an even integer. 2
Result 2.6 If n is an odd integer, then n
2
+ n is even.
Proof. Assume that n is an odd integer. Then, n = 2k + 1 for some integer k. Hence
n
2
+ n = (2k + 1)
2
+ (2k + 1) = 4k
2
+ 6k + 2 = 2m,
where m = 2k
2
+ 3k + 1. Since k Z, we must have m Z. Hence, n
2
+ n is even. 2
Result 2.7 If the sum of any two integers is even, then so is their dierence.
Proof. Assume that m and n are (particular but arbitrarily chosen) integers such that
m+n is even. (We show that mn is even.) Then, m+n = 2k for some integer k. Thus,
m = 2k n. Hence,
mn = (2k n) n = 2k 2n = 2(k n) = 2,
2.5. PROOF BY CONTRAPOSITIVE 35
where = k n. Since k, n Z and the dierence between two integers is an integer, Z.
Hence, mn = 2 where Z. Thus, mn is even. 2
Exercises
2.6 Use the method of direct proof to prove that:
(a) The product of two odd integers is an odd integer.
(b) The sum of two even integers is an even integer.
(c) If n is an odd integer, then 5n
2
+ 11 is an even integer.
(d) If n is an even integer, then 3n
2
4n 5 is an odd integer.
(e) If n is an even integer, then 5n
3
is an even integer.
(f) If n Z and 7n 3 is odd, then n is even.
2.7 Find the mistake in the proof of the following result, and provide a correct proof.
Result. If m is an even integer and n is an odd integer, then 2m + 3n is an odd
integer.
Proof. Since m is an even integer and n is an odd integer, m = 2k and n = 2k + 1
for some integer k. Therefore,
2m + 3n = 2(2k) + 3(2k + 1) = 10k + 3 = 2(5k + 1) + 1 = 2 + 1,
where = 5k + 1. Since k Z, Z. Hence, 2m + 3n = 2 + 1 for some integer ,
whence 2m + 3n is an odd integer. 2
2.8 Find the mistake in the proof of the following result, and provide a correct proof.
Result. For all integers n 1, n
2
+ 2n + 1 is composite.
Proof. Let n = 4. Then, n
2
+ 2n + 1 = 4
2
+ 2(4) + 1 = 25 and 25 is composite. 2
2.5 Proof by Contrapositive
Recall that the contrapositive of a conditional statement P(x) Q(x) is the statement
Q(x) P(x). In Section 1.14, we showed that a conditional statement P(x) Q(x) is
logically equivalent to its contrapositive Q(x) P(x).
Let P(x) and Q(x) be statements with domain D. A proof by
contrapositive of the statement
x D, P(x) Q(x)
is a direct proof of its contrapositive
x D, Q(x) P(x);
that is, we assume that Q(x) is true for some particular but
arbitrary element x D, and then show that P(x) is true for
this element x.
Result 2.8 Let n Z. If n
2
+ 5 is odd, then n is even.
Proof. Let P(n) be the statement n
2
+ 5 is odd and let Q(n) be the statement n is
even. Then we need to show that the universal statement
n Z, P(n) Q(n)
is true. To do this, we use a proof by contrapositive. We give a direct proof to show
that Q(n) P(n). Hence we assume that Q(n) is true for some particular but
arbitrary element n Z and show that P(n) is true for this element n. Since Q(n)
is true, n is not even. Thus, n is odd, and so n = 2k + 1 for some integer k. Hence,
n
2
+ 5 = (2k + 1)
2
+ 5 = 4k
2
+ 4k + 6 = 2(k
2
+ 2k + 3) = 2m, where m = k
2
+ 2k + 3.
Since k Z, we must have m Z. Hence, n
2
+ 5 = 2m for some integer m, and so n
2
+ 5
is even, i.e., n
2
+5 is not an odd integer. Thus, P(n) is true. Therefore by the method of
direct proof, we have proven that Q(n) P(n) is true. Hence, P(n) Q(n) is true.
Therefore, n Z, P(n) Q(n). 2
statements P(x) and Q(x).
Proof of Result 2.8. Assume that n is odd. Then, n = 2k +1 for some integer k. Hence,
n
2
+5 = (2k +1)
2
+5 = 4k
2
+4k +6 = 2(k
2
+2k +3) = 2m, where m = k
2
+2k +3. Since
k Z, we must have m Z. Hence, n
2
+ 5 = 2m for some integer m, and so n
2
+ 5 is an
even integer. 2
2
is even, then n is even.
Proof. We use a proof by contrapositive. Assume that n is odd. Then, n = 2k + 1 for
some integer k. Hence, n
2
= (2k + 1)
2
= 4k
2
+ 4k + 1 = 2(k
2
+ 2k) + 1 = 2m + 1, where
m = k
2
+ 2k. Since k Z, we must have m Z. Hence, n
2
= 2m + 1 for some integer m,
and so n
2
is an odd integer. 2
2.6. PROOF BY CASES AND THE QUOTIENT-REMAINDER THEOREM 37
We remark that the statements of Results 2.8 and 2.9 begin with the sentence Let
n Z. We call this the overriding assumption or hypothesis, and so n is assumed to
be an integer throughout the proofs of Results 2.8 and 2.9.
Exercises
2.9 Let n Z. Prove that if 5n + 3 is odd, then n is even.
2.10 Let x Z. Prove that if 11x 3 is even, then x is odd.
2.11 Let n Z. Prove that if 5n + 3 is odd, then 7n + 4 is even.
2.12 Let n Z. Prove that if 7n + 4 is even, then 3n 5 is odd.
2.6 Proof by Cases and the Quotient-Remainder Theorem
Let P(x) be a statement. If x possesses certain properties, and
if we can verify that P(x) is true regardless of which of these
properties x has, then P(x) is true. Such a proof is called a proof
by cases.
Before we look at examples of a proof by cases, we state
1
the Quotient-Remainder
Theorem which says that when any integer n is divided by any positive integer d, the result
is a quotient q and a nonnegative remainder r that is smaller than d.
Theorem 2.10 (Quotient-Remainder Theorem) For every given integer n and positive in-
teger d, there exist unique integers q and r such that
n = d q + r and 0 r < d.
Example 2.5 For each of the following values of n and d, nd integers q and r such that
n = d q + r and 0 r < d.
(a) n = 36, d = 7
(b) n = 36, d = 7.
(c) n = 36, d = 40.
1
A proof of the existence part of the Quotient-Remainder Theorem follows from the so-called well-ordering
principle for the integers, while a proof of the uniqueness part follows using the greatest common divisor of
two integers. We omit the proof.
Solution (a) 36 = 7 5 + 1 (here q = 5 and r = 1).
(b) 36 = 7 (6) + 6 (here q = 6 and r = 6).
(c) 36 = 40 0 + 36 (here q = 0 and r = 36).
Denition. Let n be a nonnegative integer and let d be a positive inte-
ger. By the Quotient-Remainder Theorem, there exist unique integers
q and r such that
n = d q + r,
where 0 r < d. We dene
ndiv d = q (read as n divided by q), and
nmodd = r (read as n modulo q).
Thus ndiv d and nmod d are the integer quotient and integer remainder,
respectively, obtained when n is divided by d.
Observe that given a nonnegative integer n and a positive integer d, we have that
nmodd {0, . . . , d 1} (since 0 r d 1) and that nmodd = 0 if and only if n
is divisible by d.
Example 2.6 Compute 31 div 7 and 31 mod 7.
Solution. Since 31 = 7 4 + 3, we have that 31 div 7 = 4 and 31 mod 7 = 3.
Using the Quotient-Remainder Theorem, we can show that every integer is either even
or odd.
Result 2.11 Every integer is either even or odd.
Proof. By the Quotient-Remainder Theorem with d = 2, there exist unique integers q and
r such that n = 2 q + r and 0 r < 2. Hence, r = 0 or r = 1. Therefore,
n = 2q or n = 2q + 1
for some integer q depending on whether r = 0 or r = 1, respectively. In the case that
n = 2q, the integer n is even. In the remaining case that n = 2q + 1, the integer n is odd.
Hence, n is either even or odd. 2
By Result 2.11, every integer has the property that it is either even or odd. This obser-
vation is useful when using a proof by cases as is illustrated by the proofs of the next three
results.
2.6. PROOF BY CASES AND THE QUOTIENT-REMAINDER THEOREM 39
Result 2.12 If n Z, then n
2
+ 5n + 3 is an odd integer.
Proof. We use a proof by cases, depending on whether n is even or odd.
Case 1. n is even. Then, n = 2k for some integer k. Thus, n
2
+5n+3 = (2k)
2
+5(2k)+3 =
4k
2
+ 10k + 3 = 2(2k
2
+ 5k + 1) + 1 = 2m + 1, where m = 2k
2
+ 5k + 1. Since k Z, we
must have m Z. Hence, n
2
+ 5n + 3 = 2m + 1 for some integer m, and so the integer
n
2
+ 5n + 3 is odd.
Case 2. n is odd. Then, n = 2k +1 for some integer k. Thus, n
2
+5n +3 = (2k +1)
2
+
5(2k + 1) + 3 = 4k
2
+ 14k + 9 = 2(2k
2
+ 7k + 4) + 1 = 2m + 1, where m = 2k
2
+ 7k + 4.
Since k Z, we must have m Z. Hence, n
2
+ 5n + 3 = 2m + 1 for some integer m, and
so the integer n
2
+ 5n + 3 is odd. 2
Result 2.13 Let m, n Z. If m and n are of the same parity, then m + n is even.
Proof. We use a proof by cases, depending on whether m and n are both even or both
odd.
Case 1. m and n are both even. Then, m = 2k and n = 2 for some integers k and .
Thus, m + n = 2k + 2 = 2(k + ). Since k + Z, the integer m + n is even.
Case 2. m and n are both odd. Then, m = 2k + 1 and n = 2 + 1 for some integers k
and . Thus, m + n = (2k + 1) + (2 + 1) = 2(k + + 1). Since k + + 1 Z, the integer
m + n is even. 2
2
is a multiple of 3, then n is a multiple of 3.
Proof. We shall combine two proof techniques and use both a proof by contrapositive and
a proof by cases. Suppose that n is not a multiple of 3. (We wish to show then that n
2
is
not a multiple of 3.) By the Quotient-Remainder Theorem with d = 3, there exist unique
integers q and r such that n = 3 q + r and 0 r < 3. Hence, r {0, 1, 2}. Therefore,
n = 3q or n = 3q + 1 or n = 3q + 2
for some integer q depending on whether r = 0, 1 or 2, respectively. Since n is not a multiple
of 3, either n = 3q + 1 or n = 3q + 2 for some integer q. We consider each case in turn.
Case 1. n = 3q+1 for some integer q. Then, n
2
= (3q+1)
2
= 9q
2
+6q+1 = 3(3q
2
+2q)+1,
and so n
2
is not a multiple of 3.
Case 2. n = 3q + 2 for some integer q. Then, n
2
= (3q + 2)
2
= 9q
2
+ 12q + 4 =
3(3q
2
+ 4q + 1) + 1, and so n
2
is not a multiple of 3. 2
Result 2.15 Let n Z. If n is an odd integer, then n
2
= 8m + 1 for some integer m.
Proof. We shall use both a direct proof and a proof by cases. Assume that n is an odd
integer. By the Quotient-Remainder Theorem with d = 4, there exist unique integers q and
r such that n = 4 q + r and 0 r < 4. Hence, r {0, 1, 2, 3}. Therefore,
n = 4q or n = 4q + 1 or n = 4q + 2 or n = 4q + 3
for some integer q depending on whether r = 0, 1, 2 or 3, respectively. Since n is odd, and
since 4q and 4q + 2 are both even, either n = 4q + 1 or n = 4q + 3 for some integer q. We
consider each case in turn.
2
= (4q + 1)
2
= 16q
2
+ 8q + 1 =
8(2q
2
+ q) + 1 = 8m + 1, where m = 2q
2
+ q. Since q Z, we must have m Z. Hence,
n
2
= 8m + 1 for some integer m.
2
= (4q + 3)
2
= 16q
2
+ 24q + 9 =
(16q
2
+24q +8) +1 = 8(2q
2
+3q +1) +1 = 8m+1, where m = 2q
2
+3q +1. Since q Z,
we must have m Z. Hence, n
2
= 8m + 1 for some integer m. 2
We remark that Result 2.15 can be restated as follows:
For every odd integer n, we have n
2
mod 8 = 1.
Exercises
2.13 For each of the following values of n and d, nd integers q and r such that n = d q +r
and 0 r < d.
(a) n = 38, d = 9
(b) n = 38, d = 13.
(c) n = 45, d = 11.
2.14 Compute 37 div 7 and 37 mod 7.
2.15 Prove that every two consecutive integers have opposite parity.
2.16 Prove that the product of two consecutive integers is an even integer.
2.17 Prove that the square of any integer has the form 3k or 3k + 1 for some integer k.
2.18 Prove that the square of any integer has the form 4k or 4k + 1 for some integer k.
2.19 Prove that every prime number greater than 3 has the form 6k +1 or 6k +5 for some
integer k.
2.7. PROOF BY CONTRADICTION 41
2.7 Proof by Contradiction
In this section, we discuss another very important proof technique, called proof by contra-
diction.
Proof by contradiction. Let P be a statement. If we assume
that P is a true statement (or, equivalently, that P is false)
and, from this assumption, we are able to deduce a contradic-
tion, then we can conclude that the statement P is true.
Let P and C be statements, where C is a statement that is a contradiction (see Sec-
tion 1.11). Hence, the truth value of C is false for any assignment of truth values to the
statement variables occurring in C. We wish to prove that P is a true statement. Suppose
we can prove that P C is true. Then the truth table for implication (see Table 1.5)
tells us that P must be false (since C is false). This implies that P is true, as desired.
This proof technique is called proof by contradiction.
Result 2.16 There is no greatest integer.
Proof. Assume, to the contrary, that there is a greatest integer, say N. Then, N n for
every integer n. Let m = N + 1. Now m is an integer since it is the sum of two integers.
Also, m > N. Thus, m is an integer that is greater than the greatest integer, which is a
contradiction. Hence our assumption that there is a greatest integer is false. Thus there is
no greatest integer. 2
We proceed further by recalling the denition of a rational number.
Denition. A real number r is rational number if r = a/b
for some integers a and b with b = 0. A real number that is not
a rational number is called an irrational number.
Result 2.17 There is no smallest positive rational number.
Proof. Assume, to the contrary, that there is a least positive rational number x. Then,
x y for every positive rational number y. Consider the number x/2. Since x is a positive
rational number, so too is x/2. Multiplying both sides of the inequality 1/2 < 1 by x,
which is positive, gives x/2 < x. Hence, x/2 is a positive rational number that is less than
x, which is a contradiction. Hence our assumption that there is a least positive rational
number is false. Thus there is no least positive rational number. 2
Result 2.18 The sum of a rational number and an irrational number is irrational.
Proof. Assume, to the contrary, that there exists a rational number r and an irrational
number s whose sum is a rational number. Thus, by denition of rational numbers, r = a/b
and r + s = c/d for some integers a, b, c and d with b = 0 and d = 0. Hence,
s =
c
d
r =
c
d

a
b
=
bc ad
bd
.
Now, bc ad Z and bd Z since a, b, c, d Z. Since b = 0 and d = 0, bd = 0. Hence,
s Q, which is a contradiction. Hence our assumption that there exists a rational number
and an irrational number whose sum is a rational number is false. Thus, the sum of a
rational number and an irrational number is irrational. 2
To prove an implication P Q is true using a proof by contradiction, we assume that
(P Q) is true and then deduce a contradiction. In Example 1.18, we saw that (P Q)
is logically equivalent to P Q. Thus to prove that P Q is true by contradiction, we
assume that P is true and Q is false, and then deduce a contradiction.
Proof by contradiction. Let P and Q be statements. If we
assume that P is true and Q is false and, from this assumption,
we are able to deduce a contradiction, then we can conclude
that the statement P Q is true.
Recall that earlier we proved Result 2.9 using a proof by contrapositive. We could have
also used a proof by contradiction. Note that in Result 2.9, we take P to be the statement
n
2
is even and Q to be the statement n is odd.
2
is even, then n is even.
Alternative proof of Result 2.9. We use a proof by contradiction. Assume that n
2
is even and n is odd. Then, n = 2k + 1 for some integer k. Hence, n
2
= (2k + 1)
2
=
4k
2
+ 4k + 1 = 2(k
2
+ 2k) + 1 = 2m + 1, where m = k
2
+ 2k. Since k Z, we must have
m Z. Hence, n
2
= 2m+1 for some integer m, and so n
2
is an odd integer, a contradiction.
We deduce, therefore, that if n
2
is even, then n is even. 2
We prove next a classical result that

2 is irrational.
Result 2.19 The real number

2 is irrational.
Proof. Assume, to the contrary, that

2 is rational. Then,
2 =
m
n
2.7. PROOF BY CONTRADICTION 43
where m, n Z and n = 0. By dividing m and n by any common factors, if necessary, we
may further assume that m and n have no common factors, i.e., m/n has been expressed
in (or reduced to) lowest terms. Then, 2 = m
2
/n
2
, and so
m
2
= 2n
2
.
Thus, m
2
is even. Hence by Result 2.9, m is even, and so m = 2k, where k Z. Substituting
this into our earlier equation m
2
= 2n
2
, we have (2k)
2
= 2n
2
, and so 4k
2
= 2n
2
. Therefore,
n
2
= 2k
2
.
Thus, n
2
is even, and so n is even by Result 2.9. Therefore each of m and n has 2 as a
factor, which contradicts our assumption that m/n has been reduced to lowest terms and
therefore that m and n have no common factors. We deduce, therefore, that our assumption
that

2 is rational is incorrect. Hence,

2 is irrational. 2
Exercises
2.20 Prove that there is no greatest negative real number.
2.21 Prove that the real number

3 is irrational.
2.22 Prove that the product of an irrational number and a nonzero rational number is
irrational.
2.23 Prove that 1 + 5
2 is irrational.
2.24 Prove that

2 +
3 is irrational.
2.25 The Three Cheating Students Problem: Three students were caught cheating
in a rst year mathematics quiz and sentenced to a relatively light sentence (given the
seriousness of the crime) of 20 years in prison with hard labour. But due to overcrowd-
ing, one of these three students must be pardoned. A distinguished Persian professor
of mathematics devises a scheme to determine which student is to be pardoned. He
tells the three students that he will blindfold them and then paint a red dot or a blue
dot on each forehead. After he paints the dots, he will remove the blindfolds, and a
student should raise his hand if he sees a red dot on one of the other two students. The
rst student to identify the colour of the dot on his own forehead will be pardoned and
may resume his mathematical studies. An incorrect answer would triple his sentence.
The professor blindfolds the students, as promised, and then paints a red dot on the
foreheads of all three students. He removes the blindfolds and, since each student sees
a red dot (in fact two red dots), each student raises his hand. After a considerable
time has passed, one student exclaims, I know what colour my dot is! Its red! The
student is then pardoned and allowed re-entry into rst year mathematics. How did
this student correctly identify the colour of the dot painted on his forehead?
2.8 Existence Proofs
Recall that (see Section 1.17) an existential statement is a statement of the form x
D such that P(x). It is true if P(x) is true for at least one x D; otherwise, it is false.
Hence to prove this statement, we need only display or nd an element x D that makes
P(x) true. Such a proof is called an existence proof.
Example 2.7 Prove the following statements.
(a) There are distinct positive integers such that

a + b =

a +
b 2.
(b) There exists an even integer that can be written as a sum of two prime numbers.
(c) There exist positive integers a, b and c such that a
2
= b
2
+ c
2
.
Solution
(a) Take a = 9 and b = 16. Then,

a + b =

25 = 5, while
a+
b2 =

9+
162 = 5.
(b) Take n = 4. Then, n = 2 + 2.
(c) Take a = 5, b = 3 and c = 4. Then, a
2
= 25 = b
2
+ c
2
.
Result 2.20 There exist irrational numbers a and b such that a
b
is rational.
Proof. Consider the real number

2
2
. This number is either rational or irrational. We
consider each case in turn.
Case 1.

2
2
is rational. Let a =

2 and b =

2. By Result 2.19, a and b are irrational.
By assumption, a
b
is rational.
Case 2.

2
2
is irrational. Let a =

2
2
and let b =

2. By assumption, a is irrational,
while by Result 2.19, b is irrational. Moreover,
a
b
=
_
2
_
2
=

2
(
2)
=

2
2
= 2,
which is rational.
In both cases, we proved the existence of irrational numbers a and b such that a
b
is
rational, and so we have the desired result. 2
We remark that it has been proven that

2
2
is rational. Of course, the proof of Re-
sult 2.20 presented above is a perfectly valid proof irrespective of the fact that

2
2
is
rational.
We close this section with perhaps one of the most famous mathematical assertions. In
Example 2.7(c), we showed that if n = 2, then there exist positive integers a, b and c such
that a
n
= b
n
+ c
n
. Pierre de Fermat (16011665), a famous mathematician, claimed the
following assertion:
Theorem 2.21 (Fermats Last Theorem) For each integer n 3, there are no positive
integers a, b and c such that a
n
= b
n
+ c
n
.
2.9. DISPROOF BY COUNTEREXAMPLE 45
The above result became known as Fermats Last Theorem. Fermats assertion was
discovered, unproved, in a margin of a book, along with the comment I have discovered
a truly remarkable proof of this theorem which this margin is too small to contain. It
was only some 350 years later (in 1993) that a proof to his assertion was nally found by
the British mathematician Andrew Wiles. His proof used very sophisticated mathematical
techniques that had eluded the greatest mathematical minds of the last few centuries.
Exercises
2.26 Prove that there exists an integer whose cube equals its square.
2.27 Prove that there exists real numbers x and y such that (x + y)
2
= x
2
+ y
2
.
2.28 Prove that there exists a real number x such that x
3
< x < x
2
.
2.9 Disproof by Counterexample
Some statements may very well be false. To disprove a statement, we use a disproof by
counterexample.
Let P(x) be a statement with domain D. A disproof by
counterexample of the statement
x D, P(x)
is to nd an element x D such that P(x) is false. Such an
element x is called a counterexample of the statement.
If the statement x D, P(x) is not true, then its negation (x D, P(x)) is true.
By Fact 1.2, (x D, P(x)) x D such that P(x). Hence we wish to show that
x D such that P(x) is true. That is, we wish to show that P(x) is true for some
element x D. Such a disproof is called a disproof by counterexample.
Example 2.8 Find counterexamples to the following statements.
(a) The product of any two irrational numbers is irrational.
(b) If a and b are rational numbers, then a
b
is rational.
(c) The sum of any two positive irrational numbers is irrational.
Solution
(a) Let a = b =

2. By Result 2.19, a and b are irrational, but ab = 2 which is rational.
(b) Let a = 2 and b = 1/2. Then, a, b Q, but a
b
= 2
1/2
=

2, which is irrational.
(c) Let a =

2 and let b = 2
2. Then both a and b are positive and both are irrational

(by Result 2.18 and Exercise 2.22). However, a +b =

2 +(2
2) = 2, which is rational.
Exercises
2.29 Find a counterexample to the statement that the dierence of any two irrational
numbers is irrational.
2.30 Find a counterexample to the statement that for every rational number r and every
irrational number s, we have that r/s is irrational.
2.10 Proof by Mathematical Induction
In this section we discuss a very powerful proof technique called mathematical induction.
Before doing so, we introduce a mathematical structure called a sequence. A sequence is
informally a set of elements written in a row. In a sequence
a
m
, a
m+1
, a
m+2
, . . . , a
k
, . . . , a
n
,
where m and n are integers with m n, each individual element a
k
(read a sub k) is
called a term. The term a
k
is called the kth term. The k in a
k
is called a subscript or
index. The term a
m
is called the initial term. The notation
a
m
, a
m+1
, a
m+2
, . . .
denotes an innite sequence. Consider the sequence a
m
, a
m+1
, a
m+2
, . . . , a
k
, . . . , a
n
. It is
convenient to write the sum of these terms using so-called summation notation dened
by
n
k=m
a
k
= a
m
+ a
m+1
+ a
m+2
+ + a
n
(read as the summation from k equals m to n of a
k
). We use the capital Greek letter
sigma,

, to denote the word sum (or summation). We call k the index of the summation,
m the lower limit of the summation, and n the upper limit of the summation. We remark
that the index of summation is called a dummy variable of summation since it can be
replaced by any other symbol as long as the replacement is made in every location where
the symbol occurs. For example,
n
k=m
a
k
=
n
i=m
a
i
=
n
j=m
a
j
= a
m
+ a
m+1
+ a
m+2
+ + a
n
.
2.10. PROOF BY MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION 47
Example 2.9 If a
1
= 3, a
2
= 5, a
3
= 1 and a
4
= 2, then compute the following sums:
(a)
4
k=1
a
k
; (b)
3
k=2
a
k
.
Solution
(a)
4
k=1
a
k
= a
1
+ a
2
+ a
3
+ a
4
= 3 + (5) + 1 + 2 = 1;
(b)
3
k=2
a
k
= a
2
+ a
3
= (5) + 1 = 4.
We now return to discuss the proof technique called mathematical induction.
Theorem 2.22 (The Principle of Mathematical Induction)
Let n
0
Z and let P(n) be a statement that is dened for integers n
such that
(1) P(n
0
) is true; and
(2) if P(k) is true, where k Z and k n
0
, then P(k + 1) is true.
Then the statement P(n) is true for all integers n n
0
.
Thus to show that the statement P(n) is true for every n n
0
, we need not show that
each of the statements P(n
0
), P(n
0
+ 1), P(n
0
+ 2), . . . is true individually. We need only
show that two statements are true, namely (1) P(n
0
) and (2) the implication: If P(k) is
true for an arbitrary integer k with k n
0
, then P(k+1) is true. This is a two-step process.
To prove that P(n
0
) is true (Step 1) is called the basis step or base case. To prove that
the implication if P(k) is true, then P(k + 1) is true (Step 2) is called the inductive
step. For this purpose, we often use a direct proof and assume that P(k) is true (for an
arbitrary integer k with k n
0
). This assumption is called the inductive hypothesis or
the induction hypothesis.
To summarize, a proof of a mathematical statement by the principle of mathematical
induction involves the following steps.
1. Basis step or Base Case: Prove that P(n
0
) is true.
2. Inductive hypothesis: Let k be an arbitrary (but xed) integer
such that k n
0
, and assume that P(k) is true.
3. Inductive step: Prove that P(k + 1) is true.
In this introductory course on proof technique, we omit the proof of Theorem 2.22 which
follows from the so-called Well-Ordering Principle. Rather we will focus our attention on
applications of this powerful theorem, called the principle of mathematical induction.
To visualize the idea of mathematical induction, imagine a ladder that reaches to the
heavens constructed in such a way that if we are sitting at any particular but xed rung
of the ladder, then we can always climb one rung higher. The principle of mathematical
induction then tells us that if we can climb onto the ladder, we can climb as high as we like
on the ladder! To see the connection between this image and the principle of mathematical
induction, let P(n) denote the statement We can climb to the nth rung of the ladder. It
is given that we can climb onto the ladder, i.e., P(1) is true (here n
0
= 1). This is the
base step. We are also given that for each k 1, if P(k) is true (i.e., we can climb to the
kth rung of the ladder), then P(k + 1) is true (i.e., we can climb to the (k + 1)st rung of
the ladder). Thus by the principle of mathematical induction, P(n) (i.e., we can climb to
the nth rung of the ladder) is true for every integer n 1.
We now illustrate the principle of mathematical induction with a few examples.
Result 2.23 For every positive integer n,
1 + 2 + + n =
n(n + 1)
2
.
Proof. We proceed by mathematical induction. For every integer n 1, let P(n) be the
statement
P(n) : 1 + 2 + + n =
n(n + 1)
2
.
When n = 1, the statement
P(1) : 1 =
1(1 + 1)
2
is certainly true since 1(1 + 1)/2 = 2/2 = 1. This establishes the base case when n = 1
(here n
0
= 1). For the inductive hypothesis, let k be an arbitrary (but xed) integer such
that k 1 and assume that P(k) is true; that is, assume that
1 + + k =
k(k + 1)
2
.
For the inductive step, we show that P(k + 1) is true. That is, we show that
1 + 2 + + (k + 1) =
(k + 1)(k + 2)
2
. (2.1)
Evaluating the left-hand side of this equation, we have
1 + 2 + + (k + 1) = (1 + 2 + + k) + (k + 1)
=
k(k + 1)
2
+ (k + 1) (by the inductive hypothesis)
=
k(k + 1)
2
+
2(k + 1)
2
=
(k + 1)(k + 2)
2
,
thus verifying Equation (2.1); that is, P(k + 1) is true. Hence, by the principle of mathe-
matical induction, P(n) is true for all integers n 1; that is,
1 + 2 + + n =
n(n + 1)
2
is true for every positive integer n. 2
We remark that in the inductive hypothesis of our proof of Result 2.23, we assume that
P(k) is true for an arbitrary, but xed, positive integer k. We certainly do not assume that
P(k) is true for all positive integers k, for this is precisely what we wish to prove! It is
important to understand that our aim is to establish the truth of the implication If P(k) is
true, then P(k +1) is true. which together with the truth of the statement P(1) allows us
to conclude that an innite number of statements (namely, P(1), P(2), P(3), . . .) are true.
Result 2.24 For every positive integer n,
1
2
+ 2
2
+ + n
2
=
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6
.
Proof. We proceed by mathematical induction. For every integer n 1, let P(n) be the
statement
P(n) : 1
2
+ 2
2
+ + n
2
=
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6
.
When n = 1, the statement
P(1) : 1 =
1(1 + 1)(2 1 + 1)
6
is true since 1(1 + 1)(2 1 + 1)/6 = (1 2 3)/6 = 6/6 = 1. This establishes the base case
when n = 1. For the inductive hypothesis, let k be an arbitrary (but xed) integer such
that k 1 and assume that P(k) is true; that is, assume that
1
2
+ 2
2
+ + k
2
=
k(k + 1)(2k + 1)
6
.
For the inductive step, we show that P(k + 1) is true. That is, we show that
1
2
+ 2
2
+ + (k + 1)
2
=
(k + 1)(k + 2)(2k + 3)
6
. (2.2)
1
2
+ 2
2
+ + (k + 1)
2
= (1
2
+ 2
2
+ + k
2
) + (k + 1)
2
=
k(k + 1)(2k + 1)
6
+ (k + 1)
2
(by the inductive hypothesis)
=
k(k + 1)(2k + 1)
6
+
6(k + 1)
2
6
=
(k + 1)[k(2k + 1) + 6(k + 1)]
6
=
(k + 1)(2k
2
+ 7k + 6)
6
=
(k + 1)(k + 2)(2k + 3)
6
thus verifying Equation (2.2); that is, P(k + 1) is true. Hence, by the principle of mathe-
matical induction, P(n) is true for all integers n 1; that is,
1
2
+ 2
2
+ + n
2
=
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6
is true for every positive integer n. 2
Recall that in a geometric sequence, each term is obtained from the preceding one by
multiplying by a constant factor. If the rst term is 1 and the constant factor is r, then
the sequence is 1, r, r
2
, r
3
, . . . , r
n
, . . .. The sum of the rst n terms of this sequence is given
by a simple formula which we shall verify using mathematical induction. We comment that
although in the proof of Results 2.23 and 2.24 we dened statements P(n) so that we could
apply Theorem 2.22 it is not actually necessary to do this, even though it is often useful.
We illustrate this remark in our next few examples.
Theorem 2.25 (Sum of a Geometric Sequence) For all integers n 0 and all real numbers
r with r = 1,
n
i=0
r
i
=
r
n+1
1
r 1
.
Proof. We proceed by mathematical induction. To show that the formula holds for n = 0,
we must show that
0
i=0
r
i
=
r
0+1
1
r 1
.
The left-hand side of this equation is
0
i=0
r
i
= r
0
= 1,
while the right-hand side is
r
0+1
1
r 1
=
r 1
r 1
= 1,
since r = 1. Hence the formula holds for n = 0. This establishes the base case when n = 1.
For the inductive hypothesis, let k be an arbitrary (but xed) integer such that k 0 and
assume that
k
i=0
r
i
=
r
k+1
1
r 1
.
For the inductive step, we show that
k+1
i=0
r
i
=
r
k+2
1
r 1
. (2.3)
k+1
i=0
r
i
=
_
k
i=0
r
i
_
+ r
k+1
(writing the (k + 1)st term separately)
=
r
k+1
1
r 1
+ r
k+1
(by the inductive hypothesis)
=
r
k+1
1
r 1
+
(r 1)r
k+1
r 1
=
r
k+1
1 + (r 1)r
k+1
r 1
=
r
k+2
1
r 1
,
thus verifying Equation (2.3). Hence, by the principle of mathematical induction, the
formula is true for all integer n 0. 2
Induction can also be used to solve problems involving divisibility, as the next two exam-
ples illustrates.
Result 2.26 For all integers n 1, 2
2n
1 is divisible by 3.
Proof. We proceed by mathematical induction. When n = 1, the result is true since in
this case 2
2n
1 = 2
2
1 = 3 and 3 is divisible by 3. Hence, the base case when n = 1 is
true. For the inductive hypothesis, let k be an arbitrary (but xed) integer such that k 1
and assume that the property holds for n = k, i.e., suppose that 2
2k
For the inductive step, we must show that the property holds for n = k + 1. That is, we
must show that 2
2(k+1)
1 is divisible by 3. Since 2
2k
1 is divisible by 3, there exists, by
denition of divisibility, an integer m such that 2
2k
1 = 3m, and so 2
2k
= 3m + 1. Now,
2
2(k+1)
1 = 2
2k
2
2
1
= 4 2
2k
1
= 4(3m + 1) 1
= 12m + 3
= 3(4m + 1).
Since m Z, we know that 4m + 1 Z. Hence, 2
2(k+1)
1 is an integer multiple of 3;
that is, 2
2(k+1)
1 is divisible by 3, as desired. Hence, by the principle of mathematical
induction, the property holds for all integers n 1. 2
Result 2.27 For all integers n 2, n
3
n is divisible by 6.
Proof. We proceed by mathematical induction. When n = 2, the result is true since in this
case n
3
n = 2
3
2 = 8 2 = 6 and 6 is divisible by 6. Hence, the base case when n = 2
is true. For the inductive hypothesis, let k be an arbitrary (but xed) integer such that
k 2 and assume that the property holds for n = k, i.e., suppose that k
3
k is divisible
by 6. For the inductive step, we must show that the property holds for n = k +1. That is,
we must show that (k + 1)
3
(k + 1) is divisible by 6. Since k
3
k is divisible by 6, there
exists, by denition of divisibility, an integer r such that k
3
k = 6r. Now, by the laws of
algebra and the inductive hypothesis, it follows that
(k + 1)
3
(k + 1) = (k
3
+ 3k
2
+ 3k + 1) (k + 1)
= (k
3
k) + 3(k
2
+ k)
= 6r + 3k(k + 1).
Now, k(k + 1) is a product of two consecutive integers, and is therefore even (see Exer-
cise 2.16). Hence, k(k + 1) = 2s for some integer s. Thus, 6r + 3k(k + 1) = 6r + 3(2s) =
6(r + s), and so, by substitution,
(k + 1)
3
(k + 1) = 6(r + s),
which is divisible by 6. Therefore, (k +1)
3
(k +1) is divisible by 6, as desired. Hence, by
the principle of mathematical induction, the property holds for all integers n 2. 2
Induction can also be used to verify certain inequalities, as the next two examples illus-
trates.
Result 2.28 For all integers n 3, 2
n
> 2n + 1.
Proof. We proceed by mathematical induction. When n = 3, the inequality holds since in
this case 2
n
= 2
3
= 8 and 2n + 1 = 2 3 + 1 = 7, and 8 > 7. Hence, the base case when
n = 3 is true. For the inductive hypothesis, let k be an arbitrary (but xed) integer such
that k 3 and assume that the inequality holds for n = k, i.e., suppose that 2
k
> 2k + 1.
For the inductive step, we must show that the inequality holds for n = k + 1. That is, we
must show that 2
k+1
> 2(k + 1) + 1. Now,
2
k+1
= 2 2
k
> 2 (2k + 1) (by the inductive hypothesis)
= 2(k + 1) + 2k
> 2(k + 1) + 1 (since k 3),
as desired. Hence, by the principle of mathematical induction, the inequality holds for all
integers n 3. 2
Result 2.29 For all integers n 2,
n <
1
1
+
1
2
+ +
1
n
.
Proof. We proceed by mathematical induction. To show the inequality holds for n = 2 we
must show that

2 <
1
1
+
1
2
. But this inequality is true if and only if 2 <
2 + 1. And
this is true if and only if 1 <
2. Since 1 <
2 is true, so too is

2 <
1
1
+
1
2
. Hence the
inequality holds for n = 2. This establishes the base case. For the inductive hypothesis, let
k be an arbitrary (but xed) integer such that k 2 and assume that the inequality holds
for n = k, i.e., suppose that
k <
1
1
+
1
2
+ +
1
k
.
For the inductive step, we must show that the inequality holds for n = k + 1. That is, we
must show that
k + 1 <
1
1
+
1
2
+ +
1
k
+
1
k + 1
.
Since k 2,

k <
k + 1, and so (multiplying both sides by

k),
k <
k + 1.
Hence (adding 1 to both sides),
k + 1 <
k + 1 + 1,
and so (dividing both sides by

k + 1) we have
k + 1 <
k +
1
k + 1
.
Hence, by the inductive hypothesis,
k + 1 <
_
1
1
+
1
2
+ +
1
k
_
+
1
k + 1
,
as desired. Hence, by the principle of mathematical induction, the inequality holds for all
integers n 2. 2
Exercises
2.31 Prove that for all integers n 1, 1
3
+ 2
3
+ + n
3
=
_
n(n + 1)
2
_
2
.
2.32 Prove that for all integers n 1, 1 2 + 2 3 + + n(n + 1) =
n(n + 1)(n + 2)
3
.
2.33 Prove that for all integers n 1,
1
1 2
+
1
2 3
+ +
1
n(n + 1)
=
n
n + 1
.
n
+ 3 is divisible by 4.
3n
2.36 Prove that for all integers n 0, n
3
7n + 3 is divisible by 3.
n
> n
2
.
2.38 Prove that for all integers n 2, n
3
> 2n + 1.
Bibliography
[1] Chartrand G., A. D. Polimeni and P. Zang, A Transition to Advanced Mathematics.
Addison-Wesley, New York (2002).
[2] Epp S. S., Discrete Mathematics with Applications (Third Edition). Thomson
Brooks/Cole (2004).
[3] Johnsonbaugh R., Discrete Mathematics (Fourth Edition). Prentice Hall, Inc., New
Jersey (1997).
[4] Malik D. S. and M. K. Sen, Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications
Thomson Course Technology (2004).
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2. Then both a and b are positive and both are irrational

k + 1, and so (multiplying both sides by

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