RIVERS AND THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE The continuous process of surface water going into the atmosphere and

back onto the Earths surface is called the hydrological cycle. This continuous movement of water is called the hydrological cycle.

Eg. Describe the process of the hydrological cycle. During the day, energy from the Sun heats up the Earths surface and changes the state of some of the water from oceans, seas, lakes and land to vapour through the process of evaporation. Plants also give out water vapour through the process of transpiration. This water vapour may rise because of convection and condensed to from clouds. Precipitation may eventually ensue. When it rains, the rain may fall THE directly back into water bodies. However, when it rains over land, some of it is HYDROLOGICAL absorbed by the soil through infiltration. This absorbed water may seep deeper into CYCLE the soil. This is called percolation to from groundwater. Water that is not absorbed by the soil will flow on the surface from the highland to lowland. This water is called runoff or surface runoff. Some of this water may join and form a river system.

RIVER SYSTEM River

Upper course

A large overland fresh watercourse (a stream is its smaller counterpart) It begins at a place known as its source, which is usually located in the mountains or highlands. Flows downhill in a channel. Lies within a drainage basin Ends its journey at the river mouth, entering a lake, sea or ocean. Nearest to the source of a river. The river channel tends to be narrow and shallow. Only a small amount of water is transported. Gradient/slope of the river is usually steep. River is fast-flowing Is characterized by extensive vertical erosion (downcutting) banks of river are steep-sided with a narrow bed, forming a narrow V-shaped valley.

 Middle course

Features like waterfalls, plunge pools and rapids can be found in this stage. Gradient slope is usually not as steep as the upper course more deposition takes place too. Begins to meander (especially as it reaches the lower course) as lateral erosion takes place. Both lateral and vertical erosion in this stage produces a broader and gentler valley. River channel is wider. Smaller rivers and streams The point where a tributary meets a river is called a confluence. Gradient is very gentle less energy to erode and for speed of water flow. River channel is much wider than in the middle course. Volume of water that flows through also increases because more tributaries have joined the main river. Meanders at this stage are very pronounced; sometimes forming cut-offs and even ox-bows. Area in which water is collected and drained by a single river. A drainage divide or a watershed boundary separates one drainage basin from the next acting as a boundary which is marked by the crests of hill ridges and mountains.

Tributaries

Lower course

Drainage basin

ENERGY OF A RIVER Determined by : a) The velocity (speed) of the river b) The volume (amount of water) of the river The higher the speed and volume of the river, the higher the river energy. FACTORS AFFECTING THE SPEED OF A RIVER Gradient of channel

Water travels under the influence of gravity rivers flow downhill from a high altitude Speed depends on gradient/steepness of the channel The steeper the gradient, the faster the speed of the river.

Roughness of channel

Wetted perimeter

Encounters obstacles like rocks, underwater vegetation, uneven water beds etc. These things cause friction between the water and the channel, which will slow down the river flow and reduce the speed of the river. Fewer obstacles = higher speed Smoother channel increases speed because there is less friction The length and breadth of the channel that is in contact with the rivers water.

Affected by the shape of a river Larger wetted perimeter = more friction generated as river flows = slower speed of the river Hence, smaller wetted perimeter = less friction made = river to flow faster.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE VOLUME OF WATER IN A RIVER Size of drainage basin Presence of vegetation

Bigger drainage area = greater amount of water in a river When drainage area is large, there is a larger surface area for rain to fall on. Thus, smaller drainage areas result in a smaller volume of water in a river Vegetation intercepts rain and allows more water to infiltrate or seep into the ground. More vegetation = more rainwater to infiltrate the ground = less surface runoff = smaller volume of water in the river Less vegetation = less rainwater infiltration = high surface runoff = larger volume of water in the river High tendency for rain falling onto an area with permeable rocks to seep into the ground. Cause less surface runoff High permeability of rocks = increase in infiltration = less runoff = lower volume of water in the river Hence, low permeability = decrease in infiltration = more runoff = higher volume of water in the river Area with distinct wet and dry seasons cause the amount of water in the channel to fluctuate according to the amount of rainfall received each season. High rainfall = larger volume of water Low rainfall = smaller volume of water

Permeability of rocks

Climate

RIVER PROCESSES Erosion

The process of wearing down surface materials and moving them from one place to another. Causes the river channel to deepen and widen Lateral Erosion (horizontal widening)

Vertical Erosion (downward deepening)

Occurs when rocks and other

Occurs when rocks and other materials on the river bed are removed, causing the channel to become deeper.

materials along the sides of the channel are worn away, causing the channel to become wider.

Hydraulic action Erosive agent: Fast-flowing water Corrasion / Abrasion Erosive agent: Rock fragments

Fast-moving water is strong enough to loosen rocks and soil along the river bed and banks. Occurs when rock fragments are dragged along the river bed or against the river banks. Grinding action causes the river channel to widen and deepen as rocks and soil are scraped off the sides and bottom. Effective when a rivers energy is at its maximum. Eg. A flood The process of erosion, whereby the rocks in the sediment load are eroded by colliding with each other as they are carried along the river. Larger rocks are slowly broken down and rough edges are smoothed out. Carbonic acid dissolves minerals present in the rocks on the river bed and banks Occurs because calcium carbonate is soluble in water Example: Limestone

Attrition Erosive agent: Rock fragments

Solution Erosive agent: Carbonic acid in water

Transportation

The downstream movement of the rivers load from its place of origin Depend on the energy of the river and the size of the materials involved.

Traction

Larger sized materials like boulders, which are very heavy, are dragged or rolled along the riverbed. The higher the energy a river has, the larger the boulder it can move. Movement of materials downstream in a series of bouncing motions

Saltation

Applies for smaller materials like coarse sand particles. Finer particles like silt, clay etc. are carried along the river without touching the river bed. Greatest proportion of river load Gives river a murky appearance Transportation of dissolved materials (previously eroded) downstream.

Suspension

Solution

Deposition

Occurs when a river does not have enough energy to erode or transport material Occurs when speed of river is reduced Deposits the load it is carrying Low rainfall = low volume of water = low speed of river = deposition

Factors causing deposition to occur

Low precipitation River enters a lake or sea, resulting in decrease in its speed River flows along the shallower side of a river channel = increased friction = slower speed Receives sudden increase in load eg: when landslides occur Obstruction of aquatic plants or protruding bed rocks

Eg: Describe the river process of deposition. Deposition happens when the river lays down its load. A rivers capacity to carry its load depends very much on its energy level i.e. on its volume and velocity. However, when a river begins to lose its energy (from either decreased volume or velocity or both), it begins to drop its load that has been eroded and transported earlier. A river drops heavier and coarser materials first, thus deposition by the river is sorted according to the particles weight and size.

Different river processes taking place largely depends on the energy a river possesses. The Hjulstrom graph/curve.

LANDFORMS FORMED BY RIVER PROCESSES Waterfalls

Sudden, steep, vertical flows of fast-flowing water falling from great heights. Usually found in the upper course of a river where the gradient is steep. Formed through erosion of rocks of different resistance OR through faulting.

 Erosion

Eg: Describe how are waterfalls formed through erosion? When a river flows over a band of resistant rock to less resistant rock, the less resistant rock downstream will be eroded faster than the resistant rock. This difference in rate of erosion will eventually result in a sudden drop in elevation of the riverbed. This big difference in height of the riverbed will cause the water to plunge. At the foot of a waterfall is a depression we call a plunge pool. This depression is excavated, enlarged and deepened by the hydraulic action of the plunging water as it pounds on the rocks of the lower riverbed. Rock debris, swirled around by the turbulence of the plunge pool, erode it further by abrasion. Faultation

Involves the movement of rocks along large cracks in the Earths crust. This movement may result in the lifting of one block of land above the other. River flows down from the edge of an uplifted block, forming a waterfall and a plunge pool.

Gorges

A deep, narrow and steep-sided valley. Caused by vertical erosion when a river flows through an area with resistant rocks by its sides. (vertical erosion occurs faster than lateral erosion) Commonly found in upper courses of a river Eg: The Katherine Gorge in Australia

Valleys

Low area between hills or mountains. Created due to erosion Has different shapes dependent on how the river erodes the land over which it flows

Upper course

Vertical erosion occurs in upper course of a river steep gradient, giving sufficient energy to erode the rocks and cut deep into the channel. = v-shaped, narrow and steep-sided valleys are formed. Middle course Lateral erosion occurs more than vertical erosion gradient is not so steep = less energy and cuts less deeply. Sides of valley in middle course are wider than in the upper course lateral erosion. Lower course Lateral erosion rather than vertical erosion occurs gentler gradient Valleys are exceptionally wide : broad flat-floored valley Floodplains and leves Area of lowland adjacent to a river, which is built up by the deposition of alluvium. Depositional features found at the lower course of the river. Heavy rain causes rivers to overflow onto its banks, making the land flooded. Floodwater spread out over a larger area = loss in speed When the water recedes, the river deposits the material it is carrying on the land, leaving behind alluvium on the river banks and beds. Alluvium is loose, unconsolidated soil or sediments, eroded, deposited, and reshaped by water in some form in a non-marine setting. (extremely fertile for growing crops too) Coarse sediments are deposited closer to the rivers edge because they weigh more. Finer particles are deposited further away. Over time, alluvium builds up and wide and flat floodplains are formed. Heavier and coarser materials nearer to the river form raised banks called leves. Eg: Indus floodplains in South Asian continent Meanders

Curves and bends along a river, which are usually found in the middle or lower course of a river, or where the valley is broad with a gentle gradient. Formed by a combination of erosion, transportation and deposition along a river. Erosion occurs on the outer bank of a river Eroded sediments are transported to the inner bank where they are deposited. Water in the channel moves in a spiral fashion Speed of the river differs along its outer and inner banks Speed of river is high = less friction = more energy = more erosion Over time, the outer bank gets undercut and a steep-sided bank, known as a river cliff is formed. Sediments removed from the outer bank are carried by the flow of water and deposited along the inner bank. Deposition occurs because the friction between the inner bank and the water is greater than the outer bank reduces speed and causes deposition. Sediments deposited cause the water to become shallower at the inner bank and the river channel becomes asymmetrical Gentle slope is formed. (slip-off slope) Process is repeated as river moves downstream. Lake formed as a result of river deposition at both ends of the cut-off of a meander.

Outer bank

Inner bank

Oxbow lakes

Constant erosion causes the two meanders to move closer to each other, forming a loop. Loops become more distinct and are separated by a narrow neck of land which gets narrower with continual erosion and deposition and meanders will eventually meet. Sediments deposited will eventually dam up the water in the cut-off forming an oxbow lake River will flow in a straight path before it begins to meander again. Temporary features cut off from the main river = will eventually dry up due to evaporation and encourage growth of vegetation

Deltas and distributaries An accumulation of alluvium and sediments at the mouth of a river where it enters a sea or lake. When a river enters a lake or sea, its speed decreases sediments that it carries are deposited at the river mouth. Main river branches out into many subsidiary channels known as distributaries (when a river diverges into smaller streams or rivers, the latter are called

distributaries), as the sediments which are progressively deposited at the river mouth block the flow of the main river. Sediments accumulate over time and a delta is formed.

MANAGEMENT OF RIVER CHANNELS

RIVERS Positive impact on people

Negative impact on people

People depend on them for their daily needs Provide water for domestic needs : cooking, bathing, irrigation in agriculture Transportation of goods and people

Floods destroy the environment and peoples lives Polluted rivers take a toll on peoples health.

Important for people to be able to control and modify rivers eg: like with the use of modern technology obtain greater benefits from rivers and to minimize the likelihood of flooding which results in negative impacts on the environment Channelisation is the process of changing the natural course of a river in order to make it flow in a specific path so as to reduce the possibility of flooding. Realignment

Channelisation (positive impacts)

Straightening of the river channel Removes meanders and reduces the length of the river increase speed of the river Faster flow of the river allows more water to flow away from the area faster and wash away sediments accumulated on the river bed to minimize localized flooding Deepens the channel allow it to hold more water to reduce occurrence of floods Widening and deepening of the river channel. Increases channels ability to hold water decreasing chances of floods Increases amount of surface runoff from surroundings into the river without causing river to flood River bed and banks may be smoothened by replacing the soil of the river bed and banks with cement and granite less friction between water and river bed and banks = increased speed allowing water to flow away

Resectioning

from the area faster Eg: Singapore river at Boat Quay

Bank protection

Prevent floods from occurring and to reduce soil erosion along river banks Methods Building artificial levees or dykes. Walls of sand, stone or concrete are built along rivers that often overflow their banks. Structures increase the capacity of the river to hold water, reducing chances of flooding. Eg: Dykes in China along the lower course of the Yellow River but not successful because of continual buildup of sediments on the river bed making the channel shallower and causing water levels to rise above dyke walls. Higher dykes have to be built regularly or the sediments have to be removed. Concrete structures Gabions and revetments Built along the river channel to divert the flow of water from the river banks to centre of channel. Prevents erosion of river banks by running water reducing amount of sediments flowing into the river = increase in rivers capacity to hold water = less frequent flooding

Planting vegetation

Protect river banks against erosion roots of trees and plants hold soil together firmly Slows down the rate of surface runoff = prevention of large amounts of water entering the river at one go Reduces amount of eroded sediments transported into the water = channel not being shallower = reduction in chances of flood Eg: mangrove plants

How effective is channelization? (negative impacts) Flooding downstream

Accumulation of sediments

Increased speed of river may result in flooding downstream channelization upstream causing increase in volume of water flowing downstream. Channel in the area downstream may not be able to contain increased flow of water Channel may overflow = flooding Channelisation causes river to have higher speed and more energy to transport sediments. Sediments normally deposited onto the river bed get washed downstream or into the ocean = increased sediments in oceans =

less sunlight reaching sea bed = affecting of growth of marine life Construction of dykes, gabions etc cause accumulation of sediments behind these structures. Build up of sediments = shallower river = overflowing river when there is prolonged rain = flooding Ecosystems may be destroyed. Excessive planting of vegetation along river banks = prevention of sunlight reaching river bed = killing aquatic plants and affecting food chains Introducing materials like concrete on the banks of the river can also affect plants and animals natural habitat Lead to disappearance of wetlands river flows over a smaller land area = loss of natural habitat for plants and animals

Loss of marine life and wetlands

We must weigh both sides of the situation before we make our decision as there is always a positive and negative side to it. WHY DO WE STUDY RIVERS We study rivers to develop more appreciation for them and Mother Nature and also such that we can better manage nature to meet the needs of people. Rivers are the primary source of our daily needs like water and electricity etc, therefore we should at least study it, and with advanced technology, can maximize our use for it strategically. By studying rivers, we learn and understand the positive and negative impacts of rivers onto people, allowing us to weigh the situation before acting, like planning of the arrangement of settlements to suit our needs and also to abstain from natural disasters like floods etc. Lastly, studying rivers allows us to react swifter and respond calmly to situations like floods as we understand the river systems and therefore can perhaps anticipate or prevent future similar situations.