CHAPTER 8 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Definition of qualitative research: "Qualitative research is a loosely defined category of research designs or models, all

of which elicit verbal, visual, tactile, olfactory, and gustatory data in the form of descriptive narratives like field notes, recordings, or other transcriptions from audio- and videotapes and other written records and pictures or films." --Judith Preissle Also called : interpretive research, naturalistic research, phenomenological research [although this can mean a specific kind of qualitative research as used by some], descriptive research. Classic distinction between qualitative and quantitative. [from Cook & Reichardt (1979)]
Qualitative Research y phenomenological y inductive y holistic y subjective/insider centered y process oriented y anthropological worldview y relative lack of control y goal: understand actor's view y dynamic reality assumed; "slice of life" y discovery oriented y explanatory Quantitative Research y positivistic y hypothetico/deductive y particularistic y objective/outsider centered y outcome oriented y natural science worldview y attempt to control variables y goal: find facts & causes y static reality assumed; relative constancy in life y verification oriented y confirmatory

Quantitative methods use numbers and statistics. Examples: experiments, correlational studies using surveys & standardized observational protocols, simulations, supportive materials for case study (e.g. test scores). General sequence: 1. Observe events/present questionnaire/ask questions with fixed answers 2. Tabulate 3. Summarize data 4. Analyze 5. Draw conclusions Qualitative methods use descriptions and categories (words). Examples: open-ended interviews, naturalistic observation (common in anthropology), document analysis, case studies/life histories,

descriptive and self-reflective supplements to experiments and correlational studies. General sequence: 1. Observe events/ask questions with open-ended answers, 2. Record/log what is said and/or done 3. Interpret (personal reactions, write emergent speculations or hypotheses, monitor methods) 4. Return to observe, or ask more questions of people 5. [recurring cycles of 2-4--iteration] 6. Formal theorizing [emerges out of speculations and hypotheses] 7. Draw conclusions Today the trend is toward blending and combining aspects of two approaches. Three Methods: [Patton] 1. Detailed but open-ended interviews (not highly structured or limited responses). 2. Direct observation (or essentially direct via video). 3. Written documents (work with words and visual data, not numbers).

The 3 kinds of data collection: Interviews, Observation, Documents Producing 3 kinds of data: Quotations, Descriptions, Excerpts of documents Resulting in 1 product: Narrative description (sometimes charts and diagrams too). Researcher is an instrument (not a mechanical device or test instrument as in quantitative). Ten Themes: (Patton) 1. Naturalistic - not manipulating situation, watch naturally occurring events, not controlling them. 2. Inductive - categories emerge from observing, creation and exploration centered, theories emerge from data. Often induce hypothesis, test it, then look for other possible explanations or additional hypothesis. 3. Holistic - look at total, what unifies phenomenon, it is a complex system, see overall perspective. Often research and academics study smaller and smaller parts and overlook big picture. Need to try to get larger picture, including the specific and unique context. But can look at specific variables too.

4. Thick description - lots of detail, lots of quotations. 5. Personal contact - share the experience, not trying to be objective outsider. Must know people to understand them, and gain insight by reflecting on those experiences. If try to be objective, probably won't understand their views (but might understand things about them). 6. Dynamic - constant shifting with the changing phenomenon and context: what method fits now and also use trial error (but don't get stuck in one approach that works best at one point in time). Realize things may unfold differently than expected, go with the flow. 7. Unique case selection - not as concerned about generalizeability (actually generalization is a cooperative venture of researcher and reader = researcher describes context fully and reader decides if new context is similar in crucial respects). 8. Context sensitivity - emphasize many aspects of social, historical, and physical context. 9. Empathic - trying to take a view of other person via introspection and reflection, yet nonjudgmental. Not subjective in terms of my biases, not objective in terms of no bias, but taking on their perspective to the degree possible. How does reality appear to those studied. Yet also reporting own feelings and experiences as part of the data. Try to defer judgments, but freely admit own feelings (admitting biases and feelings adds to validity - not trying to hide them as sometimes occurs in quantitative). 10. Flexible design - you don't always specify it completely before research; variables and hypotheses and sampling and methods are at least partly emergent - needs to unfold. Need to be able to tolerate ambiguity. Trial and error with categories too - need to reformulate many times. "Recursive." Go from parts to whole and back to parts - cycle back and forth: pull it apart, then reconstruct, pull data apart again, make better reconstruction, etc. Also may need to immerse in social situation, then draw apart to reflect, then immerse again, etc. Use multiple methods, or many as feasible, as long as get better picture of what is happening and how it is understood - even use quantitative methods. Main Types of Qualitative Research

Case study

Attempts to shed light on a phenomena by studying in-depth a single case example of the phenomena. The case can be an individual person, an event, a group, or an institution.

Grounded theory

Theory is developed inductively from a corpus of data acquired by a participant-observer.

Phenomenology

Describes the structures of experience as they present themselves to consciousness, without recourse to theory, deduction, or assumptions from other disciplines Focuses on the sociology of meaning through close field observation of sociocultural phenomena. Typically, the ethnographer focuses on a community. Systematic collection and objective evaluation of data related to past occurrences in order to test hypotheses concerning causes, effects, or trends of these events that may help to explain present events and anticipate future events. (Gay, 1996)

Ethnography

Historical

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PART TWO: SAMPLING AND SELECTION

These terms are used differently by different authors. Basic idea is you study a subsection of a population. Quantitative research looks at sampling in a probabilistic manner - try to get a representative sample so results will generalize to whole population. Some qualitative people use sampling in this sense while the choice of defining the kind of people to be studied is selection. Other qualitative researchers look at the issue more globally - any choosing of group to study is sampling. Regardless, qualitative people add some unusual ways of choosing whom to study. This choosing is a recursive process- dynamic and ongoing. The choices of who to study next are product of what is being found, not the initial plan.

SAMPLING AND SELECTION 1. Maximum variation - relevant dimensions vary widely in group (clearly see extremes, not averaging together extremes so result represents the "average.") High activity/low activity college students. 2. Snowball approach/networking - each person studied is chosen by previous participant - thus will see linkages between people.

(May be the only way to find members of group - such as Christian families that celebrate Jewish holidays). 3. Extreme case - studying one or more people at some extreme. Don't study the average or the opposite. Example: Snake Handling Southern Baptists (probably hard to find!) Possible to have N=1 (with any equal study). 4. Typical case - decide what characterizes typical and then go looking for that person. 5. Unique case - very rare combinations of things - usually discovered fortuitously. (Snake Handling Episcopalian!) 6. Ideal case/bellweather - perfect situation: "If it won't work here, it won't work anywhere." Using humanistic therapy with president of humanist association. 7. Negative case - look for an exception to the emerging rule/hypothesis. Used in analytic induction approach - goal is to refine generalizations by setting out to find when and where it doesn't hold true. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PART THREE: RESEARCHER ROLES

Roles of Researcher and Site Entry Traditional role for a quantitative researcher is to be nonexistent - ideal is that participant act exactly as they would if you weren't present. Researcher is an instrument in qualitative research - Those reading report need to know about the instrument, so you need to describe relevant aspects of self, your biases and assumptions, expectations, relevant history. Also keep track of personal reactions, insights into self and past, in a separate journal personal notes. emic = an insider, become full participant in activity, helps minimize distinction/difference between researcher and participants. etic = an outside view, A fly on the wall. Lots of variations in between, can vary role within a study - start as outsider and move to membership. Or change to outsider role at end to verify hypothesis generated as a participant. Specific roles:

y y y y y y y

1. Friend 2. Book writer 3. Scholar/expert/teacher 4. Student/learner/naive ("teach me") 5. Advocate/representative to public 6. Collaborator - participants make decisions about research with the researcher. Many others possible

Again, this can vary from phase to phase (friend role and student role - good for interview). You negotiate roles - ongoing, not once for all time. You either conform to role expectations, or you don't - if don't conform, participants tend to make a different role.